ACTIONAID-INTERNATIONAL,TANZANIA
&
TANZANIA TEACHERS’ UNION (TTU)
Every Child Needs an Effective Teacher: What
Teachers, Parents and Children Say on the Issue?
Section 1: The Report
Study carried out as part of the Global Campaign for Education: Global
Action Week April 24 – 30, 2006
Suleman Sumra
June 2006
1.0.
Introduction
Tanzania Teachers’ Union in collaboration with ActionAid, International- Tanzania,
TEN/MET,FAWE-TZ and OXFAM (GB) embarked on a study to collect testimonies
from teachers, parents and pupils on the theme “Every Child Needs an Effective Teacher”.
Selected testimonies were used to inform the public (through media) and politicians on this
crucial issue of shortages of teachers in primary schools.
1.1.
Why Focus on Teachers?
Tanzanian government realising the importance of education in eliminating poverty, like
most other governments in the World, has committed to the achievement of Education for
All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Both the EFA and MDG
require governments to ensure that by 2015 “all children, particularly girls, complete free and
compulsory good quality primary education”. Access to quality basic education is a right of
every child which cannot be achieved without having adequate numbers of qualified and
motivated teachers.
Teachers are the most important inputs in the education process. It is no exaggeration to
say that the most likely way to improve the quality of education is to invest in teachers. In
any education system the availability and quality of the teaching force is an indication of the
quality of education in that system. It is therefore important that adequate attention be paid
to quality of teachers to ensure quality education. Several studies have been carried out to
establish the link between teacher quality and quality of education. Although the link
between the quality of teachers and quality of education is not strong in developed countries,
studies (Coleman: 1966, Husen etal: 1987; Solomon 1987) clearly indicate that teacher quality
does have a positive impact on the level of academic achievement of students attending
schools in developing countries. Bacchhus (1996) argues that poorer a country is, the greater
the impact which teacher quality is likely to have on students’ achievements. Given lack of
teaching and learning materials, teacher quality assumes far greater importance in quality
improvement than otherwise would be the case. Given the importance of teachers’
professional competence on the quality of education countries have to ensure that the quality
of basic education does not decline as a result of low moral and motivation of teachers.
Global Campaign for Education (GCE) brings together various international and national
Civil Society Organisations (CSO) in various countries in the world to remind the world
leaders of their commitment to MDGs and EFA goals. This is done through campaigns
focusing on one particular issue that needs urgent attention. In 2005, GCE mobilised
around five million children, parents, teachers and activists in over 100 countries around the
call “Send My Friend to School”. As a result the world leaders endorsed the right of
children to free and compulsory education of good quality.
Realising the importance of teachers in improving quality of education, GCE has made
“Every Child Needs a Teacher” as a campaign theme for 2006. The aim of the campaign to
be highlighted during the Global Action Week, organised in each country from April 24th –
30th , 2006, was “to call upon national governments and international community to enable
the recruitment and retention of a professional well motivated workforce so that every child
can be taught by a qualified teacher in a class no bigger than 40” (GCE: Campaign Brief).
1
1.2.
Purpose of this Study:
The purpose of this study was to build a portfolio of testimonies from parents, teachers and
pupils on the availability of teachers in primary schools. These testimonies were collected
and used during the Global Campaign for Education: Global Action Week which was held
from 24th to 30th April 2006. The aim was to advocate for availability of adequate and
effective teachers for basic education in the country.
1.3.
Methodology
Data for the study were collected from one district in each of the seven educational zones in
the country. Districts were selected to ensure that various socio-economic zones were
represented in the sample. Data were collected from the following selected districts:
Region
Mwanza
Shinyanga
Kilimanjaro
Rukwa
Ruvuma
Singida
Pwani
District
Sengerema
Meatu
Moshi Rural
Mpanda
Songea Municipality
Manyoni
Bagamoyo
1.4.
Data Collection
The following data collection strategy was used.
1. In each district, quantitative data (number of schools, number of teachers in each school
by gender and qualification) were collected from the DEO using Research Instrument 1(see
Appendix 2).

In each district four schools were selected. These schools were selected by
researchers to ensure that urban, peri-urban, and rural schools were represented in
the sample.
In each school, the following were selected for interviews:
 One male and one female teacher. These teachers were selected to ensure selection
of both Grade A and B/C were represented in the sample. Within the district,
researchers were required to ensure that both experienced and newly employed
teachers were selected.
 One girl and one boy. These were selected among the standard six and seven
pupils. In the districts researchers ensured that at least two pupils with special
needs, one boy and a girl, were interviewed.
 From the community one male and one female parent were selected.
Table 1 shows the number and types of respondents in each district.
2
Table 1: Number of Respondents by Districts
DISTRICT
Sengerema
Meatu
Moshi Rural
Mpanda
Songea Urban
Manyoni
Bagamoyo
Total
PUPILS
M
F
T
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
28
28
56
TEACHERS
M
F
T
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
28
28
56
PARENTS
M
F
T
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
4
4
8
28
28
56
TOTAL
M
F
T
12
12
24
12
12
24
12
12
24
12
12
24
12
12
24
12
12
24
12
12
24
84
84 168
In all 168 people were interviewed including 56 pupils, 56 teachers and 56 parents.
Data were collected using in-depth semi-directive interviews. Interview schedules are
appended. Data were collected during the week of 3rd to 8th April 2006. Content analysis of
the testimonies was done and these have been used in producing the qualitative part of this
report.
2.0. Findings: The Quantitative Picture
2.1.1. The national scenario: Desperate Need for More teachers
In the interviews, the major problem that teachers complained about was the shortages of
teachers in practically every district and school visited. Analysis of national situation paints a
dismal picture. Teacher Pupil Ratio in primary education, which is a good indicator of
government investment in education, measures the adequacy of teachers in a system. Table
2 shows the situation that has worsened in the last few years.
Table 2: Teacher Pupil Ratio in Primary Schools 1995 - 2005
YEAR
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Source: URT (2005)
ENROLMENT
N
%
increase
3,877,643
3,942,888
1.7
4,057,965
2.9
4,042,568
-0.3
4,189,816
3.6
4,382,410
4.6
4,845,185
10.6
5,972,077
23.2
6,562,772
9.9
7,083,063
7.9
7,541,208
6.5
TEACHERS
N
%
increase
105,280
108,874
3.4
109,936
1.0
106,436
-3.2
103,731
-2.5
107,111
3.3
105,921
-1.1
112,850
6.5
115,340
2.2
121,548
5.4
135,013
11.1
PTR
37
36
37
38
40
41
46
53
57
58
56
Table 2 shows that TPR has increased from 1: 37 in 1995 to 1: 56 in 2005. This is an
indication that recruitment of teachers has lagged behind the increases in enrolments in
3
primary schools. The problem became more acute with the implementation of Primary
Education Development Plan (PEDP). As a result of PEDP, to ensure that all children
attend primary schools, user fees were abolished leading to a sharp increase in enrolment. In
2002, the total enrolment in primary schools increased by 23.2 percent. Standard one,
enrolment in 2002 jumped to 1,632,141 from 1,139,334 in 2001, an increase of 43.3! This
sharp increase in enrolment was not matched by recruitment of teachers, as shown in the
table, leading to worsening of the PTR.
2.1.2. Unequal Deployment of Teachers
Unfortunately, the shortages of teachers are not felt equally in all regions and each school in
the country. Available teachers are not distributed evenly between regions. Table 3 shows
PTR by regions.
Table 3: Number of Teachers by Qualification and Teacher Pupil
Ratios by Regions, 2005
REGIONS
SCHOOL
S
Arusha
482
Dar-es-Salaam
370
Dodoma
671
Iringa
823
Kagera
943
Kigoma
596
Kilimanjaro
871
Lindi
399
Manyara
484
Mara
662
Mbeya
960
Morogoro
764
Mtwara
563
Mwanza
980
Pwani
477
Rukwa
490
Ruvuma
752
Shinyanga
1068
Singida
424
Tabora
623
Tanga
855
Total
14,257
Source: URT (2005), 42
ENRO.
297617
457697
320026
370954
447214
348999
348255
150650
244565
388489
512050
361058
224702
743302
191699
261028
257947
651145
256624
299147
407840
7,541,208
GRADE A
N
%
3899
6835
4967
4669
2700
4312
1430
2893
3546
5756
4072
2484
7275
2955
2955
2456
3745
5858
2287
2678
4439
82,441
65.0
73.8
49.5
64.3
61.7
55.4
52.8
49.0
72.0
54.2
63.0
57.4
54.2
67.6
69.7
59.7
57.6
66.7
55.3
57.1
59.5
61.1
TEACHERS
GRADE B/C
OTHERS
N
%
N
%
1793
1547
3132
2416
2816
2090
3677
1447
1041
2919
3215
2867
2079
3238
1194
1588
2597
2744
1777
1930
2889
48,996
29.9
16.7
48.7
31.3
37.2
42.9
45.0
49.6
25.9
44.6
35.2
40.4
45.3
30.1
28.2
38.6
40.0
31.2
43.0
41.1
38.7
36.3
331
1068
130
340
83
90
198
43
82
83
168
164
24
251
92
68
163
189
70
95
150
3,882
5.5
11.6
2.1
4.4
1.1
1.9
2.4
1.5
2.0
1.3
1.8
2.3
0.5
2.3
2.2
1.7
2.5
2.1
1.7
2.1
2.0
2.8
PTR
TOT.
5997
9267
6437
7720
7566
4876
8171
2920
4016
6548
9139
7089
4587
10754
4238
4112
6500
8788
4134
4691
7463
135,013
50
49
50
48
59
72
43
52
61
53
56
51
49
69
45
63
40
74
62
64
55
56
Table 3 shows significant differences in PTR between regions. All the regions, except
Ruvuma, fail to meet the required PTR of 40:1. PTR vary from a low of 40 in Ruvuma to a
high of 74 in Shinyanga. Deployment of grade A teachers also vary by regions; proportion
of Grade A teachers in Dar es Salaam was 73.8 percent compared to 49.0 percent in Lindi.
4
2.1.3. National Picture: Supply Side
In order to see how fast the government can achieve the PTR target of 40, there is need to
analyse the supply side of teachers. The supply of teachers for primary schools comes from
52 government and non-government teachers colleges in the country. Table 4 shows the
number of students enrolling for Grade A training. These are the teachers who on
graduation will go and teach in primary schools. Analysis of enrolment will give an
indication of how soon the nation will be able to reduce PTR to 40.
Table 4: Enrolment (First Year) for Grade A Training in Government and NonGovernment Colleges 2001 – 2005
M
3363
47.1
26
2002
F
3773
52.9
82
T
7136
100.0
108
M
7243
47.4
115.3
148
2003
F
8040
52.6
113.1
275
Government
%
% Increase
Non –
Government
%
24.1 75.9 100.0 35.0
65.0
% Increase
469.2 235.4
Total
3389 3855 7244 7391 8315
%
46.8 53.2 100.0 47.1
52.9
% Increase
118.1 115.7
Source: Computed using data in URT (2005)
T
15283
100.0
114.2
423
M
4909
48.9
-32.2
252
2004
F
5128
51.1
-36.2
499
T
10037
100.0
-34.3
751
M
3154
45.7
-35.8
256
2005
F
3745
54.3
-27.0
505
T
6899
100.0
-31.3
761
100.0
291.7
15706
100.0
116.8
33.6
70.2
5161
47.8
-30.2
66.4
81.5
5627
52.2
-32.3
100.0
77.5
10788
100.0
-31.3
33.6
1.6
3410
44.5
-33.9
66.4
1.2
4250
55.5
-24.5
100.0
1.3
7660
100.0
-29.0
Table 4 shows that the enrolment of Grade A students has fluctuated in recent years. After
a sharp increase in 2003, the enrolment declined in 2004 and 2005. In fact the enrolment of
grade A students in 2005 was lower than in 2002. The data also shows that:
 The number of students in private teachers’ colleges has increased since 2002 but
their proportion is still small. In 2005, only about 10% of the 7,660 students
enrolled in Grade A training were in private colleges.
 More females than male are enrolled but the difference is not large.
In order to see what the future demands of teachers will be, we require data on increases in
enrolment, yearly supply of teachers produced by teachers colleges, and attrition rate. There
are good data on enrolment in primary schools and on the number of teachers produced
every year by teachers colleges in the country. However, there is no reliable data on the
number of teachers leaving the profession for various reasons such as retirement, death and
resignation. The following needs are based on the conservative estimate of 3% attrition rate.
In order to bring the PTR to 40, the present number of teaching force has to be increased
from the current number of 135,013 to 188,530; need of additional 53,517 teachers!
Table one shows that the enrolment has increased considerably as a result of implementing
PEDP. Table 5 shows projected increases in enrolment and additional requirements as a
result of these increases. These are the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training
(MEVT) projections as shown in the Basic Education Statistics. These projected increases in
enrolment are used to predict the teacher requirements over the period 2004 – 2006.
5
Table 5: Projection of Total Enrolments in Primary Schools and Additional Teacher
Requirements 2004 - 2015
YEAR
ENROLMENT*
INCREASE
ADDITIONAL
TEACHERS
REQUIRED
2004
7,083,063
2005
7,541,208
474,570
11,453
2006
7,968,312
427,104
10,677
2007
8,216,596
248,284
6,207
2008
8,214,150
-2,446
-61
2009
7,971,027
-243,123
-6,078
2010
7,849,616
-121,411
,3035
2011
8,088,510
238,894
5,972
2012
8,326,962
238,452
5,961
2013
8,575,654
248,692
6,217
2014
8,832,712
257,058
6,426
2015
9,088,292
255,580
6,389
* Enrolments for 2004 and 2005 are actual and for the period 2006 to 2015 are projected
based on the assumption of annual population growth rate of 2.9%. The projected increases
are also based on decreasing transition and repletion rates after 2010.
Source: URT (2005) p.43
Considering the attrition rate of 3% means that every year additional 3% more teachers are
required to fill the gap created by loss of teachers to the system through death, retirement
and resignation. With the increasing deaths as a result of HIV/AIDS in the country also
impacting on the teaching profession, this figure of 3% attrition rate looks conservative.
Table 6 shows the effect on PTR of the projected increases in enrolment, projected attrition
and supply of teachers.
Table 6: Projected Enrolment, Attrition, Teachers and PTR
2005 to 2015
YEAR
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
ENROLMENT
ATTRITION
(3%)
7,541,208
7,968,312
8,216,596
8,214,150
7,971,027
7,849,616
8,088,510
8,326,962
8,575,654
8,832,712
9,088,292
-4050
-4169
-4308
-4469
-4654
-4866
-5107
-5378
-5684
-6029
NEW
TEACHERS
EMPLOYED
(10%)
8000
8,800
9680
10,648
11,712
12,883
14,171
15,588
17,147
18,862
TOTAL
TEACHERS
135,013
138,963
143,594
148,966
155,145
162,203
170,220
179,284
189,494
200,957
213,790
PTR
56
57
57
55
51
48
47
46
45
43
43
Table 6 shows the effect of projected increased enrolment, supply of teachers and attrition
on the PTR for the period 2005 – 2015. These projections are based on:
6


An annual attrition rate of 3%
An annual increase of 10% in employment of teachers, from the base of around
8,000 grade A teachers to graduate from teachers colleges in 2006.
Table 6 shows that if the trend of employing new teachers continues at the proposed rate,
the PTR will gradually decrease and will be 43 by the year 43.
2.1.4. Low levels of training
The quality of teaching depends, at least partly, to the pre-service and in-service training
teachers receive. PEDP review carried out in 2004 (URT: 2004) identified several areas of
concern in pre and in-service training. These concerns were:
 That the new curriculum for training which was implemented in 2005 was inclined to
the production of a novice teacher, one who complies with a single model of
teaching, is rule bound, and largely dependent. PEDP on the other hand needs
visualise production of teachers who are reflexive and are able to explain, justify,
analyse and discuss what they do and why.
 The curriculum which was designed for two year training has been compressed into
one year training. The reduction in the training period is likely to affect the quality
of teachers produced.
 Most of the students who join teacher training come with weak academic
background, many having a D grade in the subject that they specialise to teach.
 The curriculum does not deal with issues that are crucial for teaching in primary
schools such as teaching large classes; multi-grade teaching; developing school plan;
etc.
In-service training is required to upgrade the skills and knowledge of teachers. Periodical
curriculum changes also require that teachers be provided with in-service to familiarise them
with these changes. PEDP developed a strategy to provide cost effective in-service teacher
training programmes geared towards sensitising and developing pedagogical skills among
teachers. However, according to teachers this has not been effective:
I joined teaching in 1978. I was then teaching subjects which I have been trained to teach. Since then the
government has been adding new subject which we old teachers have no knowledge of it but are required to
teach. We need to be trained every time changes are made to the syllabus. In “Stadi za Kazi” we are required
to teach our pupils how to repair a watch when I do not know the name of a single part of the watch. What
would I teach? Because of this you will find that “Stadi za kazi” is not often taught. (Teacher, Songea
Urban).
2.2.
Situation in the Sampled Districts
2.2.1. Variations in PTR between Sampled Districts and Schools.
Deployment of teachers depends on the number of pupils in a school. There are two factors
that need to be considered in deploying teachers. These are PTR and a class size of 45. In
theory one teacher is posted for every 40 pupils enrolled and at least one teacher is posted
for every class that a school has. Theoretically, to meet this goal a single stream full school
(Standard 1 to 7), the school should have a minimum of 315 pupils (45 for each class). Such
a school will be allocated 8 teachers (315/40). Schools with less than 315 pupils will reduce
the PTR if the school is from standard one to seven; for example a school with 210 pupils
will get at least 7 teachers, one for each class. The PTR in this school will be 30.
7
Table 7 shows the number and size of schools in the sampled districts.
Table 7: School size in the Sampled Districts
NO OF
SCH.
AVER.
SIZE
130,332
162
805
70.8
Manyoni
46,484
91
510
65.6
Meatu
65,434
110
595
78.5
Bagamoyo
53,149
113
470
46.7
Mpanda
94,582
168
563
60.1
Moshi Rural
96,218
236*
413
38.1
Songea
32,237
52
Urban
* Data from three schools missing
Source: Field Data
620
43.8
DISTRICT
Sengerema
ENROL.
PTR
<300
4
(2.5%)
20
(22.0%)
15
(13.6%)
36
(31.9%)
30
(17.9%)
44
(18.9%)
10
(19.2%)
SCHOOL SIZE
301-500 501-700 701-1000
27
34
53
(16.7%) (21.0%) (32.7%)
27
25
14
(29.7%) (27.5%) (15.4%)
31
31
24
(28.2%) (28.2%) (21.8%)
39
17
13
(34.5%) (15.0%) (11.5%)
41
47
39
(24.4%) (28.0%) (23.2%)
136
48
3
(58.4%) (20.6%)
(1.3%)
11
12
12
(21.2%) (23.1%) (23.1%)
1000+
44
(27.2%)
5
(5.5%)
9
(8.2%)
8
(7.1%)
11
(6.5%)
2
(0.9%)
7
(13.5%)
Variations in PTR at national level are reflected at the district level as well. As stated earlier,
there seems to be relationship between the size of the school and PTR. Smaller schools tend
to have lower PTR. Table 7 shows that the sizes of the school vary considerably ranging
from 413 in Moshi rural to a high of 805 in Sengerema. Moshi rural which has the lowest
school size also has the lowest PTR. At the other end, districts such as Sengerema and
Meatu with high average class size also have high PTR. This relationship holds for most
districts except for Songea Urban, where, as in other urban areas, school size tend to be high
and number of teachers also tend to be high.
Data also shows that where the average school size is high, most schools tend to be big and
vice versa. In Sengerema, for example, 60% of the schools have a student population of
over 700 hundred, while Moshi rural has almost 80% of the school with less than 500 pupils.
2.2.2. PTR at School Level
Table 8 shows a summary of PTR by schools in sampled districts. This summary paints a
dismal picture of teacher situation in schools in some parts of the country. The average
District and Regional PTR masks serious deployment problems that exist at school levels. A
situation where some districts, some schools have better PTR than others should be a matter
of concern to educators.
One third of schools in Meatu and more than a quarter of schools in Sengerema have a PTR
of over hundred. In Meatu only 5 schools out of 110, a mere 4.5%, had a PTR of 40 or less.
On the other hand, more than (one than) one-third of the schools had a PTR of 40 or less.
More than 80% of schools in Moshi rural have a PTR of 49 or less, compared to only 13.6%
in Meatu.
8
Table 8: Summary of PTR by Schools in Sampled Districts
DISTRICT
NO OF
SCHOOLS
ENROL.
162
130,332
1,842
70.8
91
46,484
709
65.6
Meatu
110
65,434
834
78.5
Bagamoyo
113
53,149
1,145
46.7
Mpanda
168
94,582
1,575
60.1
236*
96,218
2,525
38.1
Sengerema
Manyoni
Moshi Rural
TEACH.
PTR
Aver.
Songea
52
32,237
736
43.8
Urban
* Data on the number of teachers missing from 3 schools.
Source: Field data
100+
70-99
50-69
40-49
40>
45
(27.8%)
21
(23.1%)
37
(33.6%)
2
(1.8%)
28
(16.6%)
1
(0.4%)
0
48
(29.6%)
23
(25.3%)
32
(29.1%)
11
(9.6%)
49
(29.0%)
7
(3.0%)
0
41
(25.3%)
25
(27.5%)
26
(23.6%)
36
(31.6%)
39
(23.1%)
36
(15.4%)
19
(36.5%)
8
(4.9%)
10
(11.0%)
10
(9.1%)
29
(25.4%)
18
(10.7%)
153
(65.4%)
15
(28.9%)
20
(12.3%)
12
(13.2%)
5
(4.5%)
35
(30.7%)
34
(20.1%)
37
(15.8%)
18
(34.6%)
2.2.3. Variations in Deployment of Teachers by Qualifications
Table 9: Number of Teachers by Qualification and Teacher Pupil
Ratios in the Selected Districts, 2005
DISTRICT
NO. OF
SCHOOLS
ENRO.
GRADE A
N
%
TEACHERS
GRADE B/C
OTHERS
N
%
N
%
162
130,332
1,214
65.9
626
34.0
3
Sengerema
91
46,484
394
55.6
308
43.5
6
Manyoni
110
65,434
604
72.3
219
26.2
12
Meatu
113
53,519
784
68.4
353
30.8
9
Bagamoyo
168
94,582
1,071
68.2
497
31.6
3
Mpanda
236
96,218 1,366*
NC 1,101*
NC
29
Moshi (R)
52
32,237
510
69.5
193
26.3
31
Songea (U)
61.1 48,996
36.3
3,882
National
14,257 7,541,208 82,441
*There was missing data on the qualification of teachers from three schools.
Source: Field Data
0.2
0.8
1.4
0.8
0.2
NC
4.2
2.8
PTR
TOT.
1,843
708
835
1,146
1,571
2,525
734
135,013
71
66
78
47
60
38
44
56
Table 9 shows teachers in the sampled districts by their qualifications. There are slight
differences in the proportion of Grade A teachers between the districts. The best qualified
teachers, those with a diploma are posted mostly in urban areas such as Songea Urban.
2.2.4. Where are the Female Teachers?
For children it is important that they are taught both by male and female teachers. It is
especially important to have female teachers in rural areas to be role models for girls. Table
10 shows the proportion of female teachers in the sampled districts.
9
Table 10: Proportion of Female Teachers in Sampled Schools
DISTRICT
#
SCHOOLS
Sengerema
Manyoni
Meatu
Bagamoyo
Mpanda
Moshi (R)
Songea (U)
National
Source: Field Data
162
91
110
113
168
236
52
14,257
SCHOOLS WITH NO
FEMALE TEACHERS
N
16
27
44
18
46
2
4
-
%
9.9
29.7
40.0
15.9
27.4
0.8
7.7
-
MALE
N
1,106
464
602
550
1,050
786
211
70,306
FEMALE
%
60.0
65.5
72.1
48.0
66.8
31.1
28.7
52.1
N
737
244
233
596
521
1,739
523
64,707
TOTAL
%
40.0
34.5
27.9
52.0
33.2
68.9
71.3
47.9
1,843
708
835
1,146
1,571
2,525
734
135,013
Nationally, as the table shows, 52.1% of all the teachers are male and 47.9% are female.
However, the female teachers are not deployed equally between districts and schools. Table
10 shows that the proportion of female teachers vary from a low of 27.9% in Meatu to a
high of 71.3%. Districts with more female than male teachers were Bagamoyo, Moshi rural
and Songea urban districts.
There are many schools which do not have any female teachers. Among the sampled
districts, 40.0% of the 110 schools did not have a single female teacher. It is in a district
such as Meatu where cattle culture dominates that school need female teachers to be role
models for girls. In Moshi, of the 236 schools only 2 did not have female teachers. Many of
the schools where there were no female teachers were those with high PTR indicating that
these schools were remote schools. Many female teachers are reluctant to work in rural
areas because of lack of appropriate housing.
Government needs to develop incentive package to ensure that teachers, and especially
female, agree to work in these remote rural schools.
10
2.3.
What do parents, teachers and Pupils say about teachers and teacher
situation?
As this study was carried out to gather testimonies of parents, pupils and teachers
themselves on the situation of teachers, these testimonies will be presented in this section.
These are just a sample of what parents, teachers and pupils have said.
2.3.1. Inadequate number of Teachers
The major concern raised by teachers was to do with inadequate number of teachers.
In this school there are 997 primary, 56 nursery and 6 MEMKWA pupils giving a total of 1,059 pupils
in all. For these 1,059 pupils we have only 17 teachers giving a PTR of 62. This situation affects both
teachers and pupils. Teachers’ workload increases considerably and pupils do not get education they deserve.
As the workload is heavy teachers often just go to class to show that they are in class but do not teach as
required. Pupils who do not understand do not get assistance from teachers. (Male teacher, Sengerema)
Teachers stated that large classes which they were forced to teach was a result of shortages
of teachers. Teachers stated that having large classes affected their teaching.
I teach two classes. I teach maths in standard 5which has 80 pupils and social studies in standard 7which
has 76 pupils. These are large classes to use participatory methods such as group work. Teaching such large
classes is difficult and in the end it is the pupils who suffer. (Teacher, Manyoni).
These concerns were also raised by parents. A parent in Manyoni stated:
We know there are not enough teachers in this class as teachers are always complaining about it. There are
seven teachers for seven classes. These are not enough. Even the few teachers who are there do not always
attend schools for various reasons. One female teacher is on maternity leave; another has a sick wife in
Manyoni and often goes there to visit her. Others fall sick. As a result our children suffer. (Parent, Manyoni)
Parents knew who the good teachers and poor teachers were in their schools. They received
this information from their children. However, parents felt that they had very little control
over their employment. A parent who was also a member of the school committee stated:
There are poor teachers in our school. There are some who are drunkards. There are those who are always
late in the morning and some who do not turn up for class at all. We discuss these teachers in school
committee meetings but there is nothing we can do about them (female parent, Manyoni)
Who is responsible for pupils’ success and failures?
Invariably both teachers and pupils apportion success to teachers’ efforts and failure to
pupils or their parents. A pupil in Manyoni stated:
I am hopeful that I will pass the standard seven examinations. In the past no pupils passed the standard
seven examinations but last year three pupils passed the exam. I am very hopeful that I will pass the exam.
If we pass it is because the head teacher and teachers have worked hard.(female pupil, Manyoni).
When pupils do not do well, teachers often attribute this to parents’ apathy and lack of
interest in their children’s education. A female teacher in Sengerema said:
We lack cooperation from parents. Let me give an example. There are children who cannot read and write at
all. Some children also fail standard four examinations. No parent has ever come to enquire why their child
is not able to read and write or has failed the examination. (Female Teacher, Sengerema)
2.3.2. Motivation of Teachers in Tanzania
Studies (Haki Elimu/TTU 2004 and Bennel and Mukyanuzi 2005) have shown that job
satisfaction among teachers is low at all levels. This low job satisfaction is bound to affect
the quality of education provided in the country. Bennel and Mukyanuzi argue that given
likely developments in the future, motivation levels could fall quite rapidly over the next five
to ten years. Both head teachers and teachers at the surveyed schools were specifically asked
what they thought would happen if the current problems facing primary teachers (housing,
delay in payment of salaries, etc) were not properly addressed in the near future. Most stated
that teacher motivation will decline and this will seriously affect teaching and learning on the
part of the pupils.
Both urban and rural locations have their own special challenges for teachers. A key finding
of the study is that urban teachers tend, if anything, to have lower levels of job satisfaction
than rural teachers. This is despite the fact that their workloads are quite a bit lower than
they are for rural teachers. To some extent, this locational difference in job satisfaction levels
is due to the different age and qualification profiles of teachers in rural and urban schools,
but increasingly this difference can be attributed to the much higher living costs and other
demands that urban teachers have to deal with on a daily basis (Bennel and Mukyanuzi
2005).
Another key issue is that the age profile of primary school teachers will change quite
significantly over the next ten years as the older generation of Universal Primary Education
(UPE) teachers retire and very large numbers of new teachers continue to be recruited. The
school survey highlights the much lower levels of job satisfaction and motivation among
younger teachers. Unless this problem is properly addressed, teacher motivation could reach
crisis proportions very soon (Bennel and Mukyanuzi 2005). Teachers are generally
unsatisfied with many aspects of their conditions. These factors affect teachers motivation
as stated by the following teachers:
The problem that I face, low and delays in getting salary, ineffective health insurance, lack of school housing
all affect my motivation to teach. (Female Teacher, Bagamoyo).
I love teaching but the way teachers are treated makes me wonder if I chose the right profession. Salaries are
delayed; do not get promoted even if you work hard; all the problems we face make me wonder why I chose to
become a teacher (Teacher, Moshi Rural).
We have problem in getting our allowances. No leave allowance is paid even after you have filled a form.
When we invigilate an exam we are required to be paid invigilation allowance. Few days ago I invigilated a
mock exam for which I was promised an allowance. I filled a claim form but till now I have not received a
single cent. It affects my motivation to teach well. (Teacher, Songea Urban).
12
2.3.3. Paying a living wage
The major concern all teachers raised was the inadequate salary they get; they argued that the
salaries that they get are totally inadequate. They argued that as a result they are forced to
engage in other activities that may affect their work as teachers.
The salary that I am getting is not adequate for me to meet my basic requirements. I therefore have to do
other things in order to make a living. I grow vegetables which my wife sells on the market. I am also forced to
borrow money and am always in debt.(Male teacher, Manyoni).
My salary is totally inadequate to meet my basic needs. I find it difficult to support my family. Basic salary
looks good but after innumerable deduction my take home pay is so low that I find it difficult to meet school
related expenses of my children. (Male Teacher, Sengerema).
The salary which I get is inadequate to meet my needs. I am unable to help my brothers and sisters in paying
their school fees. My family (extended) know my situation and therefore do not include me when they are
making decisions on marriage or other celebrations. It pains me a lot to see that I am unable to contribute
towards family activities. (Male Teacher, Bagamoyo)
For many teachers the issue is not only the low salary they get but also the delay in getting
their salaries. The following are some of the views that teachers expressed:
Salaries are often delayed which makes it difficult for me to concentrate on teaching. I constantly think where
I can borrow to make ends meet.(Female Teacher, Sengerema).
Salaries are always late. We do not get our salaries even on the 4th or 5th of the next month. We do not get
leave allowances. I have been teaching for 29 years now but have received leave allowances only 2 times.
(Female Teacher, Bagamoyo).
However, some teachers, mostly teaching in or near urban areas argued that the situation has
improved considerably. The delays were not as bad as in the past. However, newly recruited
teachers were still facing delays in getting their salaries as reported by a teacher in Bagamoyo:
In the past there was delay in getting our salary but now the situation has improved slightly. Problems for new
teachers still remain as it takes months before they get their first salary. They are reduced to begging from
other teachers and taking loans from shopkeepers. (Teacher, Bagamoyo)
The issue of salary needs to be looked at in more detached manner. What should be
considered as an adequate salary for teachers? Salaries of teachers cannot be isolated from a
country’s level of development. The most common measure of this is the ratio of teachers’
salaries to per capita gross domestic product (GDP). In general, teachers’ salaries are lower
than per capita GDP in developed countries and higher in low income countries (Siniscalco:
2002, 2). This means that comparatively teachers in developing countries are receiving
higher salaries than their counter parts in developed countries, as proportion of GDP.
UNESCO data for the early 1990s suggest that the ratio of teachers’ salaries to GDP per
capita remains the usual comparator. UNESCO data for the early 1990s suggest that the
ratio has not changed much from that in the 1980s. For West and Central Africa, the ratio is
7.28; for Southern and Eastern Africa it is 5.9; for Asia 1.84 and for Latin American
Countries it is 1.79. This means that comparatively teachers in Africa cost higher than in
Asian and Latin American countries (Melhotra and Buckland: 1998, i). How do salaries in
13
Tanzania compare to salaries in other countries? The average salary of a teacher in Tanzania
is around 100,000 shillings. With an annual per capita GDP of 350 US$, the average salary
of a teacher in Tanzania is about 3.0 times higher than the average GDP. Table 11
compares the average salary in Tanzania with salaries in other African countries. Average
salary of teachers in the country is lower than in many other countries in the region.
Table 11: Ratio of Average Salary to GDP per Capita
(South and Eastern Africa)
COUNTRY
AVERAGE SALARY/GDP
PER CAPITA
Zanzibar
3.6
Tanzania (mainland)
3.0
Ethiopia
15.4
Rwanda
9.7
Burundi
8.3
Zimbabwe
7.6
Lesotho
4.6
Madagascar
3.5
Kenya
3.4
Malawi
3.3
Botswana
3.0
Mauritius
1.4
Average
5.9
Source: Melhotra and Buckland: 1998, Appendix C, 30.
Teachers’ salaries are also a function of policy choices. In some countries, mid-career and
teachers who come towards the end of their career earn considerably higher salaries than the
newly recruited teachers. In Tanzania, teacher’s salaries are compressed; there is very little
difference between the salaries of new teachers and teachers who have worked for a number
of years. Many of the experienced teachers (those who have been teaching for more than
20 years) complained that their salaries were only marginally higher than those who were just
joining the profession.
2.3.4. Housing
Another major concern raised by teachers was about housing. Despite the fact that number
of teachers houses have recently been constructed, the number of teachers living in school
houses is negligible. Staying away from school in rented houses not only is expensive for
teachers but also may affect their attendance at school as stated:
As there is no school housing I am renting a place in town. I therefore have to hire a bicycle to come to work
and return home in the evening. This puts a dent in my salary. This is not only expensive for me but it is
also not safe. (Male teacher, Manyoni).
I stay in a rented house. Government does not assist in paying the rent. The rent has to come from the same
meagre salary that I get. (Male Teacher, Sengerema).
I stay in a rented house which is far away from the school. It becomes difficult to be on time and not miss
classes, especially in the rainy season. Within last week I have missed four periods as I wait for rain to
decrease before I can make it to school.(Female Teacher, Sengerema)
14
2.3.5.
Health Insurance
There were mixed feelings about the health insurance scheme that the government has put
in place for its workers. The scheme requires its workers to pay three percentage of his or
her salary for which the family of the worker receives free medical care.
Since I joined the health insurance scheme I have never been to the hospital though the deductions continue.
Once I went to the hospital for treatment I was told “you with health insurance sit on the side and let us treat
the other people first. Since then I have decided to use private facilities. (a male teacher in Manyoni district)
Benefits of health insurance are not many. Every month 10,000 shillings are deducted for the health
insurance. There are some health problems, such as eye problems, which are not treated under the health
insurance.
Health insurance is a bother because when we go for treatment we are told to buy medicine out of our own
pocket. What is the point of the health insurance if we do not get the service promised. The government should
either include private health facilities under the insurance or cancel the insurance totally. (Female Teacher,
Bagamoyo).
Government has done a good thing by introducing the health insurance. Recently my wife and child were sick
and I was able to treat them using the health insurance. However, problems remain with the insurance
especially where medicine is concerned. You will be given cheap medicine such as aspirin and panadol but will
be told to go and buy medicine if they are expensive. (Teacher, Songea urban).
I have benefited from the health insurance to a certain extent. However, there are problems with the scheme.
First, in the village where I am working we get treated at the village dispensary which does not recognise the
health scheme. At the hospital where we get treated, often there is no medicine and we are asked to go and buy
these from pharmacies.
2.3.6. Inadequate Classrooms and Desks
It is surprising to note that despite large numbers of classrooms constructed under PEDP
the problem of shortage of classrooms still remains. A teacher in Manyoni reported:
I teach two classes. There are 45 pupils in one and 60 in the other. As there are not enough classrooms,
these pupils sit in one class when I teach. The large numbers of pupils mean that I cannot attend them
adequately. Children sitting in front listen to me while those at the back play. (a teacher in Manyoni)
There is shortage of desks in our school. Many children who sit on the floor have difficulty in concentrating
on their studies. It affects their handwriting as they have to bend their backs to enable them to write. (female
Teacher, Sengerema)
Shortage of classrooms leads to large classes. Large classes affect the way teachers teach:
I have 65 pupils in my class and this affects the way I teach. I cannot use active learning approach with such
a large group and I cannot give individual attention to weaker pupils. (Teacher, Songea Urban)
15
2.3.7. Shortages of Teaching and Learning materials
Mixed feelings were vented on the issue of teaching and learning materials. Some teachers
argued that there was shortage of textbook while others argued that textbooks were adequate
as evident from the following quotations:
We have a big problem of textbooks. We are short of textbooks in many subjects. For example, I teach
Kiswahili in standard 5. There are 70 pupils in class with only 8 textbooks.(Female teacher, Sengerema)
We have enough textbooks in this school. This has happened because of MMEM. We are grateful to school
committee who involve us in deciding what books are needed by us. (Teacher, Songea Urban).
I teach English to a class with 95 pupils for which I have only 11 textbooks. How can I teach these pupils
to read with so few books. Lack of textbooks is a major problem affecting the way we teach. (Teacher,
Songea).
2.3.8. Extra Classes;
Despite claiming that the teaching load was heavy, many teachers stated that they taught
pupils outside the class hours. There are two types of these extra classes popularly know as
“tuition” classes. In some cases teachers charge pupils who come for these classes. These
classes are mostly held outside the school premises as government has banned teachers
giving tuition classes. These paid classes are very popular in urban areas and children as
early as in the first class attend these tuition classes. In rural areas teacher give extra
coaching classes to standard four and standard seven pupils to ensure that children from the
school do well in these examinations. These coaching classes are held early in the morning
before the normal classes start and in the evenings. Teachers are not paid for this extra
work; it is done on voluntary basis.
Teachers teach extra classes in the evenings without any payment. These classes are open for all the pupils.
Those pupils who do not come to these evening classes have to pay a fine of 500 shillings but we who come do
not have to pay anything. Teaching extra classes to those who can pay is not good because it favours the
children of the rich. (female pupil, Manyoni)
I have two pupils who attend the evening classes by teachers. They do not charge us for this. However, we
have decided to compensate these teachers by paying at least 100 shillings per week per child.. These extra
classes are good as children as they give lots of exercises for pupils to work on.(Parent, Manyoni)
Teachers should allow orphans to attend tuition classes for free. Teachers are charging 1,500 shillings for two
subjects which orphans cannot afford. (Pupil, Sengerema)
After class tuition is good as it helps pupils to pass the standard seven examinations. However, if the tuition
is given only to those who can afford to pay it creates two classes of children – those who cannot pay and thus
will do poorly in exam and those who attend tuition can do well. I do not think this is good. (Female parent,
Sengerema).
I teach extra classes but not for money. We do so to help our pupils to do well in their examinations.
However, there are some pupils who do not attend these classes as they stay away from the school and it is
difficult for them to return to school in the evening. These classes do help as those who attend these extra
classes take top places in exams.(Female Teacher, Sengerema).
16
Teachers teach extra classes every day from 6.30 to 7.30 in the morning and from 2.00 to 6.00 in the
evening. We are not charged for these classes. Teachers teach these classes to ensure that we do well in the
tests held every Saturday where all schools in Dunda ward. (Female Pupil, Bagamoyo).
Pupils in standard four and seven are given extra classes for which parents are not charged. These classes are
held early in the morning before the normal classes begin and in the evening after classes. I do not think these
classes are necessary if teachers do their job properly by teaching pupils well during normal class time.(Parent,
Bagamoyo).
There are two types of extra classes which pupils in this school attend. Our maths teacher teaches in the
evening to ensure pupils do well in examinations. This teacher does not charge for these extra classes. There
are other teachers who teach at their homes and charge for that. I attend “tuition” classes in the evening.
Someone who has finished form four recently teaches us and we pay money for that. (Pupil, Bagamoyo).
I teach extra classes to pupils whose parents have requested me to do so. I teach them at my home and in my
own time for which parents pay me. Government should allow “tuition” in schools as this will raise the
income of the teachers. As teachers are not allowed to give tuition they have started engaging in other activities
such as farming, keeping chicken or doing petty business. The issue is not tuition; the issue is that salary is
not enough. If government pays adequate salary to teachers then they will be right not to allow teachers to
teach “tuition” classes. If they cannot, then they should allow teachers to teach tuition classes for teachers to
make a decent income. (Teacher, Bagamoyo).
I think the government is right in banning “tuition” classes. In this village most parents are poor and will
not be able to pay tuition fees. Is it right that only the children of the rich benefit from these tuition classes?
(Teacher, Bagamoyo).
2.3.9. Teacher Absenteeism:
Despite the high levels of commitment shown by teachers, there are times when they are
absent. The most common reason often given by teachers for their absenteeism is going to
collect their salaries.
Last month I was absent for four days. The most common reason for absenteeism is going to collect our
salaries. We go in turn to collect our salaries. In our absence, those teachers who remain behind teach the
classes of absent teachers. However, this is often difficult as one teacher cannot teach two different classes and
two different subjects at the same time.
When we go to Manyoni to collect our salaries, we often find that the salaries have not reached the bank. We
have to stay in town till the salaries come. In our absence children suffer. (Male teacher, Manyoni)
Although most teachers stated that other teachers attended classes of absent teachers, pupils
stated that when a teacher was absent the classes were not attended to. Pupils sat in the class
and worked on their own.
There are teachers who do not turn up for their classes, although they are at the school. In a day, for
example, we are taught four periods out of eight. When a teacher does not come to class we do not complain to
anyone. The monitor may go to remind the teacher of his/her class, but if he/she does not come then there is
17
nothing we can do about it. If a teacher is absent from school then we request another teacher to help us, but
often they have their own classes to take. (female pupil, Manyoni).
As I have other responsibilities like attending various meetings at the district level, attending school committee
and parents’ meetings at the school, there are days when I miss classes. Normally a teacher who is free at the
time is asked to take the class. However, with shortages of teachers and heavy workload it is difficult to find
a teacher who is free. (Head Teacher, Sengerema)
There are times when teachers are absent. When a teacher does not come we sit in class and study on our own.
The monitor may report this to the head teacher or other teacher but this does not normally help. This affects
our learning. In this school we have tests every Saturday. If a teacher does not teach us, even one period, then
we may fail. (Female Pupil, Bagamoyo)
Yes, there are teachers who do not turn up for their class even if they are at the school. Teacher teaching us
“stadi za kazi” is absent most of the time. If we go and remind him of his class he turns us away saying he is
busy with other things. We wrote a letter to the head teacher but were afraid to give it to him. When a teacher
does not turn up for class we work on our own. Teacher absenteeism affects us as we are unable to complete
the syllabi and may result in our failure in standard seven examinations. (pupil, Bagamoyo)
Teacher not coming to class is common in this school. For example, the whole day today we had only one
teacher who came to class. We do not know why teachers do not come to class and there is no where we can
complain about it. If we complain we get punished. When a teacher does not come we work on our own.
(Pupil, Songea Urban)
2.3.10. Punishment
Teachers use various ways of punishing pupils. In some schools teachers have stopped
caning pupils;
Teachers were caning us in the past, but now they have stopped. We are not sure why they do not punish us
anymore. Caning has both psychological and physical consequences. If a teacher canes me and my palm gets
swollen, I would not be able to write. Frequent caning instils fear in children which means children learn out
of fear and do not enjoy it. (male pupil, Manyoni)
We get punished if we are late. Girls are asked to do push ups or go and work on the school farm. There are
some teachers who punish us more than others. The head teacher does not punish us at all (female pupil,
Manyoni).
It is surprising to note that corporal punishment is widely prevalent in many schools and it
enjoys wide support among parents, teachers and pupils as evident from the following:
Teachers do punish in this school. My children are punished if they are late or have not done their
homework. Children are either caned or asked to work on the farm. I believe punishment is necessary
because we too were punished when we were in school. . However, if my child is hurt I will make a follow up
and see if that was just an accident. Teachers often hurt children because of anger or frustration. We parents
too punish our children when they are naughty at home.(parent, Manyoni).
18
Children get punished if they are late, make noise in class or are naughty. They are either caned or asked to
work on the farm. I agree that children should be punished. Teachers have a right to punish children as they
are parents while the children are in school. If we parents can punish our children, so can they. However,
hurting a child is another matter. They have no right to hurt a child. If they did that, I would go and
complain to the head teacher (female parent, Manyoni).
We do get punished in this school. The common punishment is getting caned; sweep the compound, cut grass
and work on the school farm. We get punished for coming late, making noise and not completing our
homework. I think if you make a mistake you deserve to be punished. (Female pupil, Sengerema)
There are good and bad punishments. Jumping like frogs and digging a pit are not good punishments for
children. Caning is necessary as without it children will become undisciplined. (Parent, Bagamoyo)
I agree that children need to be punished. My daughter was recently caned by her teacher because she failed to
take a bucket of water as required. I support teachers when they punish pupils. I will complain to the head
teacher if I found out that my child was not punished when she went wrong. (Parent, Moshi Rural)
Perhaps more surprising was a situation where the community had allowed teachers to cane
their children. As stated by a parent they did this despite being aware of the government
regulation on punishment:
Pupils in this school are punished. If they fail to do things which teachers ask them to do they are caned. We,
parents in this school, have allowed all the teachers in school to cane the pupils if they err. The government
directive that allows only the head teacher to cane a pupil is not good, as pupils go astray if they are not
punished. If my child comes home and tells me that he has been punished I tell him that serves him right. A
teacher will not punish a child for nothing. However, pupils should not be caned carelessly. A female teacher
who has recently joined the school canes pupils all over the body and that is not right. (Parent, Bagamoyo)
2.3.11. Support for Teachers
It is remarkable that teachers do not know who to contact when problems arise as shown by
the following quotations:
Every month house rent is deducted from salary while I do not stay in a government house. This has been
going on for several months now. I do not know the process of getting my deductions refunded. (A female
teacher from Manyoni)
Making follow up on delays in salaries or getting the allowances takes lots of time and effort. When you go
“bomani” you do not get help immediately. You cannot plan to go to “bomani” and expect to come back to
take your class. Delays in solving your problems take time and do affect your motivation to teach. (Female
Teacher, Sengerema).
We lack cooperation from District Officials. Common words we hear are “come tomorrow’, “Your salary
has not come” and the tone is normally harsh. They are not polite when dealing with us teachers. (Female
Teacher, Sengerema).
2.3.12. Gender
Although many teachers did not discriminate between boys and girls, some did as one pupil
argued:
19
Some teachers do favour certain pupils. For example, if we girls go for assistance to them they tell us that we
are meant to be married and there is no need for them to help us, but they assist boys when they seek
assistance. (Female pupil, Manyoni)
A teacher in Manyoni argued that there was need to treat girls who had reached puberty with
sensitivity and sympathy:
Girls lose interest once they reach puberty. I have seen girls perform well in their early classes but as soon as
they reach the puberty their performance dips. Teachers can help by being supportive and understanding. This
help can best be given by female teachers.(Male Teacher, Manyoni)
There were very few teachers who argued that boys are more able to do well in studies than
girls, remarking:
I think boys have more ability than girls in studies, and this is true for all subjects. I am not quite sure why
this is so, but could be because of workload at home. They do not have time to study at home. (A male
teacher, Bagamoyo).
2.3.13. Parent Teacher Cooperation
Both parents and teachers realised that for pupils to do well there was need for cooperation
between teachers and parents. A guardian of a child with disability stated that teachers called
the parents to discuss their children’s progress:
Teachers do call parents to discuss their children’s progress. I am satisfied with the way these discussions are
held. However, last time we met I disagreed on the teacher’s stand. He was arguing that a child with
disability should not be punished, may be he pitied the child. He may have thought that disability itself is a
punishment and the child does not deserve further punishment. I argued that all children should be handled in
the same way. If other children get punished so should children with disabilities. May be the kind of
punishment given can be different. (Guardian of a child with physical disability - Sengerema).
Teachers also realised that the poverty of parents affected the extent to which parents can
support the education of their children. A teacher in Bagamoyo stated:
I need money for children with special need whom I teach. They are very vulnerable to getting cancer of the
skin for which they need sun block cream. I need money to get this cream. As many parents are poor they are
unable to meet the cost of this cream. The district officials are not sensitive to their problem. I feel frustrated
that I am unable to do this for my pupils. (Male Teacher, Bagamoyo)
One of the concerns that parents raised was on their ability to “hire and fire” teachers. They
argued that they felt impotent to deal with teachers who they considered to be poor teachers.
The following quotations reflect these frustrations:
We know who the good and bad teachers in the school are but we have no power over them. When a good
teacher gets transferred to another school we are not asked if we want to retain the teacher or let him go. We
cannot go to the DEO and say “so and so is a bad teacher please transfer him/her to another school”. We
have no power to do this. (Parent, Bagamoyo).
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A poor teacher is the one who does not listen to pupils’ problems and does not help them. If there is a
problem with a teacher we call him/her before a school committee. We may also complain to the DEO. So
far only one teacher got transferred from this school because he caned the pupil till he became unconscious.
(Parent, Bagamoyo).
Children with Special needs:
As a signatory which commits Tanzania towards achieving Education For All (EFA) and
Millennium Development Goals (MDG), government is committed to ensure all children
attend school; irrespective of where they are, what their parents do, their social and physical
condition. In Tanzania special needs education implies children with various disabilities.
This implies children with hearing, visual, intellectual, impairment. It also involves paraplegic
and albino children.
BOX 1: EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
In Tanzania education of children with disabilities is not emphasised. I have seen parents
who have given birth to children with disabilities feel guilty and hide their children. Only
few courageous parents send their children to school. I felt that children with disabilities
need education as much as, perhaps more, than normal children. I therefore decided to
specialise to teach children with disabilities. I specialise teaching children with hearing
impairment.
I feel that I have been fairly successful. One of my pupils came first in the class,
outperforming even the normal children in a competition organised by CARE International.
I am pleased that my children are performing well despite the difficult condition in which I
am teaching.
I teach in a difficult environment. I have no classroom to teach and therefore I teach my
children under a tree, rain or shine. When it rains I have to stop the class. I have a
blackboard and children sit on the ground. I stand in front of the class the whole day as
children have to learn by looking at me and the signs that I make. I do not have a sign
language book, I therefore use “traditional” signs. This will make it difficult for my children
to communicate with other deaf and dumb children as there is no uniformity in the signs
used.
There was a seminar for children with hearing impairment at Geita but teachers selected by
the DEO were the ones who had nothing to do with deaf children. I found it really
disturbing; I feel my work is not appreciated. I feel that children with impairment and I their
teacher are not valued because we have not even been allocated a classroom. We, who teach
children with impairment, have been given just one classroom which acts as a store, dinning
room, classroom and an office. This one classroom caters for children with impairment from
all classes – from nursery 1 to primary 3. Problem of sitting outside is that they cannot pay
attention given the noises and activities outside. In last week only, I missed 10 classes
because of rain, meetings and preparing children for CARE International competition.
There are no hearing aids at all. It is likely that if we had it, some children would hear. There
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is no assessing room. We need an assessing room to decide the level of hearing impairment.
Knowing the degree of impairment will determine what teaching approach is needed. As
our school does not have boarding facilities, our catchments area is limited to those who
reside near the school. There are many children with impairment out there in the villages
who cannot access education. (Teacher, Sengerema).
Efforts by government to educate children with special needs have been inadequate. In
2003, only 14,114 children with impairment were enrolled in primary schools. Main reason
for large numbers of children not enrolling in schools is due to lack of facilities to educate
these children. The number of teachers who are trained to teach children with impairment is
small leading to high PTR.
In this unit the required PTR is one teacher for five children. Currently I teach 25 pupils, and I have one
assistant. On top of my teaching work I am also required to perform other tasks such as teacher on duty. I
am therefore not very effective and my children suffer as a result. (Female Teacher, Bagamoyo).
Description of experience of a teacher illustrated in Box 1 illustrates the situation of teaching
of children with disabilities. The problem of educating children with various impairments is
not limited to school only. Attitudes of parents and community are also relevant as shown
in the following quotations:
Most parents have negative attitudes towards children with disabilities. They believe they there is no need to
send children with disabilities to schools as they will not learn. I have seen children tied with ropes believing
that if the child was set free, he would run away. There are other parents who want their children to get
education but there are very few facilities and teachers who can teach these children. (Teacher, Sengerema)
There are many children with disabilities who do not attend school. There are many reasons for this.
Government has not really made an effort to educate these children. There are not many teachers who have
been trained to teach teachers with impairment. Even where there are teachers to teach, there is lack of
equipment and facilities. Overall, commitment of the government is not high. Coupled with negative attitudes
among many parents towards the education of children with disabilities, the number of children with
disabilities in schools is low. Far more children are out of school than in. (Teacher, Sengerema)
Resources allocated to the education of children with impairment are totally inadequate.
There are very few schools built for the education of children with special needs. Out of
more than 14 thousand schools in the country, only 176 primary schools have units for
educating children with special needs attached to them. As these units do not often have
boarding facilities, only children who leave around the school benefit.
The number of teachers who can identify and teach these children is limited. Currently the
one year Grade A training course includes some reference to special needs education, but
given the nature of the course, at best this can sensitise trainees to potential issues that may
arise in classroom. (URT: 2004). Patandi is the only training institution that provides
specialised training. However, the college lacks resources to carry out this task adequately.
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Identifying children with impairment is a problem. Most teachers in primary schools have not been trained to
identify pupils with impairment. Low degrees of visual, hearing and mental impairment cannot be identified
easily. These children are treated as weak students and not helped. (Teacher, Sengerema).
The number of teachers teaching children with impairment is inadequate. For 33 children with hearing
impairment, we have only two teachers. As these children come from different classes – pre-primary to
primary 7 – we have to teach all the subjects in these classes. For teachers teaching children with mental
impairment the problem is more acute. There is only one teacher teaching these children. The normal ratio is
one teacher for 5 children. (Teacher, Sengerema)
Teachers teaching children with special needs argued that the children need to be treated as
other children to ensure that children with impairment do not see themselves different from
other children and develop self-pity.
It is important that children with impairment be treated as other children. It is therefore important that these
children take part in all activities that other children do. They should be “protected”. We involve children
with impairment in sports activities so that they feel that they are like other children. Last month our
children participated in national “special Olympics” and they won 2 medals, gold and silver. (Teacher,
Sengerema).
I believe that children with disabilities are as capable of learning as others. The most important things is that
both the children with impairment and normal children realise that. This can be achieved through inclusive
education. Inclusive education builds the confidence of children with impairment and rids of stigma attached
to the disability. Inclusive education reduces discrimination as children study and play together. But this takes
time and requires sensitive teachers who guide the process. (Teacher, Sengerema).
According to teachers teaching children with various impairments, the major problem they
faced was the attitude of government and government officials.
We receive very little cooperation from other teachers and pupils. For example, if a child with epilepsy falls
down, instead of helping the child they say “call the ‘disability’ teacher to come and help this child”.
Cooperation from District officials is also low. There is very little understanding among these officials on the
needs of these children with disabilities. We are supposed to get 200,000 as other charges (OC), but to get
this money takes lots of our time and energy due to the bureaucracy involved. (Teacher, Sengerema)
As the number of schools with units to deal with children with special needs is few and far between, there is
need for the government to build boarding schools to ensure that children who live far from these schools are
able to attend. (Teacher, Sengerema)
Government is neglecting its responsibility towards children with disabilities. We have one child who was
selected for secondary school. He had no money to meet the costs of secondary education as he is an orphan. I
took him to a white nurse working at a mission hospital. She made an effort and the boy was fitted with
artificial leg so he can walk and do away with crutches. This sister and I decided to meet the cost of educating
this child by paying his school related costs. The government should have taken care of this child. There are
many like this boy who are not getting the help they need to educate themselves. (Guardian of a child with
physical disability, Sengerema).
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A guardian of a child with disability pointed out the need for educating out of school people
with impairment. He argued that there was need for a more integrated policy of educating
people with impairment.
Educating people with disabilities is much wider than educating few children in school. Adults too need
education. There are many deaf, blind and with mental impairment adults in the community who need to be
educated. What is government doing about them? I suggest that teachers who have been trained to teach
children with special needs should also be used to teach adults. Providing allowances and other incentives can
motivate these teachers to teach adults as well. (Guardian of a child with physical disability, Sengerema).
Although in this ward many children with disabilities attend school, children in other wards do not as the
distance to the school is long. These children also fail to get a place where they can stay near the school; as a
result many children with disabilities do not attend school. Even if it was possible for all children to come to
this school, it would not be possible to educate them. The school does not have enough teachers, equipment
and classrooms to handle even the few pupils we have in the school. In this district there are 5 divisions,
25wards and 124 villages all depending on this one school. There should be at least one school in each ward
where children with disabilities can be taught. (Guardian of a child with physical disability, Sengerema).
3.0.
Conclusions
This study, based on testimonies of teachers, has shown that the problems facing teachers in
the country are many and complex. These problems range from low salaries to low status.
Teachers feel that their concerns are not addressed. If these concerns remain and if teachers
feel demoralised then the quality of education is bound to suffer. There is need for various
stakeholders, TTU together with the CSO/NGO it works with, especially ActionAid
International-TZ, Oxfam-GB,FAWE-TZ and TEN/MET; government and Teachers
themselves to come together to resolve the problems facing teachers.
24
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