Social Stratification
Basic Concepts
Let us start with some basic terms. Terms such as “society,” “social context,” “social stratification” and the like have
particular definitions. It is important to define our terms so that we can have a mutual understanding.
Society = a system of interrelationships at the boundaries of which is a substantive level of interaction cleavage between it
and its neighbors (Giddens et al 2003; Mann 1986).
Social context = the material and ideological conditions of society (Some refer to this as culture. Culture, though, is best
understood as the productions of the material and ideological conditions of society, such as castles, hip-hop, pierogi,
American Idol, and so on).
What are the material and ideological conditions of society?
A. Material conditions refer to that which your five senses can perceive: physical environment, technology, biology, e.g.,
Water sources, tractors, strength
B. Ideological conditions refer to intangible elements: thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, values, etc., e.g. Beliefs on the causes
of inequality between groups – whether the economic structure is fair to all or if it favors some groups over others.
Social structure is a core concept in sociology. What do we mean by social structure?
Social Structure = A general term for any collective social circumstance that is unalterable and given for the individual.
They are enduring patterns of behavior that set limits on thought and action and cannot be changed by any individual will
(Abercrombie et al 1994: 391; Rytina 1997).
Some refer to a society’s social structure and others refer to the social structures of a society, implying that a society has
multiple social structures.
Scarce and Valued Resources:
Adapted from Grusky 2000: 4, Table 1
Resource
Selected Examples
Economic
Ownership and authority over real estate/land, business, biological entities
(people, animals, plants), labor power
Status
Prestige, reputation, respect, deference, fame and eminence
Political
Domestic/household authority, workplace authority, societal authority,
political voice (e.g. influence over government decisions, representation
in political structure), ability to influence government responsiveness and
policy.
Types of “Capital”
Social
Social networks, social ties, association, union and club memberships
Human
Skills, expertise, experience, formal education, knowledge (occupational)
Cultural
Consumption, knowledge (non-occupational), manners
It is important to differentiate between social differentiation, social inequality, and social stratification.
Social differentiation = A social condition in which people possess distinct individual qualities and social roles (Kerbo
2003). This is a nominal, or non-rank ordered social situation.
Social inequality = A social condition in which people have unequal access to scarce and valued resources in society
(Kerbo 2003; Sanderson 1999). This is a rank ordering of society.
Social stratification = The existence of structured inequalities among persons and between social groups with respect to
the access, acquisition and distribution of scarce and valued resources; inequalities are usually based on power, privilege,
and prestige (see Giddens et al 2003; Lenski 1966; Sanderson 1999; Slomczynski and Shabad 2000). This is a rank
ordering of society.
 Note the term “structured.” In order for social stratification to exist, the inequalities must also be social
structures. This is also referred to as “institutionalized inequality.”
 This means that social categories and social groups are unequal, and that inequality has existed before individual
members were born and will likely persist well after they die. No one individual can change inequalities; social
change takes place at the societal level (some argue change in inequality is a result of the aggregation of
individual and organizational actions).
Ascription versus Achievement: Types of Stratification Systems
We can use two helpful concepts that characterize the types stratification systems. Stratification systems vary in their
emphasis on ascription and achievement.
Ascription = A social condition in which individuals are placed in positions in a stratification system because of qualities
beyond their control (Kerbo 2003).
Examples: Race, sex, social class origin, age cohort
Achievement = A social condition in which individuals are in positions in a stratification system because of qualities
within their control, due to some meritocratic ideal (see Kerbo 2003).
Examples: occupation, education
Status = “…perceived, and in some degree accepted, social superiority, equality and inferiority among individuals” (Chan
and Goldthorpe 2007) arising out of repeated social interactions. This is manifested in deference rituals of various types.
See also Shils’ (1968) notion of deference position.
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Status Crystallization = The relationship between the social resources and assets within a given society; if the
relationship is “strong, the same individuals … will consistently appear at the top of all … hierarchies, while other
individuals … will consistently appear at the bottom of the stratification system” (Grusky 2000: 6).
Status Inconsistency = A weak relationship between the social resources and assets within a given society; for example,
when someone has low economic assets and high social status (or social honor), status inconsistency is present.
Social Mobility = Individual or group movement within the stratification system.
 Horizontal Mobility = Movement across equal ranks
 Vertical Mobility = movement in unequal ranks
Rigidity = “…the continuity (over time) in the social standing” of the members of a social stratification system (Grusky
2000: 6). Note that “the amount of rigidity (or ‘social closure’) in any given society will typically vary across the
different types of resources and assets” available for access, acquisition and distribution (Grusky 2000: 6).
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