Social Stratification and Mobility
University of Warsaw
Winter Semester 2007-2008
Lecture I: Basic Concepts
I. Social Stratification and Inequality is a core subject within sociology. Why?
Within sociology, understanding the causes, consequences, and perpetuation of
“inequalities” is a major preoccupation. Why is the study of inequalities so popular? I
suggest four main reasons:
1) Inequality is empirically obvious to everyone in society (academics and publics alike).
Walking down the street, in your own home, watching television, reading newspapers –
all information points to the existence of inequality within society.
2) Inequality has real consequences for how you think and act. In many ways, you can
feel inequality (perhaps it lowers your emotional energy or EE. See Collins’s Interaction
Ritual Chains (2004)). Inequality is the inescapable social context.
3) Inequality is percieved in many situations as unjust and unfair. Perceptions of justice
and fairness are human universals, and these perceptions are deeply felt. Nothing bothers
people more than injustice and unfairness.
4) The need to ask “Why?” is also a universal and is strong in all societies.
5) Thus, people see and feel inequality and are compelled to ask why.
II. Basic Terms
Let us start with some basic terms. Terms such as “society,” “social context,” “social
stratification” and the like have particular definitions. It is important to define our terms
so that we can have a mutual understanding.
Society = a system of interrelationships at the boundaries of which is a substantive level
of interaction cleavage between it and its neighbors (Giddens et al 2003; Mann 1986).
Social context = the material and ideological conditions of society (Some refer to this as
culture).
What are the material and ideological conditions of society (we will discuss these further
in the next lecture, but it’s good at this point to introduce them)?
A. Material conditions refer to that which your five senses can perceive: physical
environment, technology, biology
e.g., Water sources, tractors, strength
B. Ideological conditions refer to intangible elements: thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, values,
etc.
e.g. Beliefs on the causes of inequality between groups – whether the economic structure
is fair to all or if it favors some groups over others.
Social structure is a core concept in sociology. What do we mean by social structure?
Social Structure = A general term for any collective social circumstance that is
unalterable and given for the individual. They are enduring patterns of behavior that set
limits on thought and action and cannot be changed by any individual will (Abercrombie
et al 1994: 391; Rytina 1997).
Some refer to a society’s social structure and others refer to the social structures of a
society, meaning that a society may have multiple social structures.
Scarce and Valued Resources:
Adapted from Grusky 2000: 4, Table 1
Resource
Selected Examples
Economic
Ownership and authority over real estate/land, business, biological
entities (people, animals, plants), labor power
Status
Prestige, reputation, respect, deference, fame and eminence
Political
Domestic/household authority, workplace authority, societal
authority, political voice (e.g. representation in political structure),
ability to influence government responsiveness and policy.
Types of “Capital”
Social
Social networks, social ties, association, union and club
memberships
Human
Skills, expertise, experience, formal education, knowledge
(occupational)
Cultural
Consumption, knowledge (non-occupational), manners
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Following Kerbo (2003), it’s important to deifferentiate between social differentiation,
social inequality, and social stratification.
Social differentiation = A social condition in which people possess distinct individual
qualities and social roles (Kerbo 2003). This is a nominal, or non-rank ordered social
situation.
Social inequality = A social condition in which people have unequal access to scarce and
valued resources in society (Kerbo 2003; Sanderson 1999). This is a rank ordering of
society.
Social stratification = The existence of structured inequalities among persons and
between social groups with respect to the access, acquisition and distribution of scarce
and valued resources; inequalities are usually based on power, privilege, and prestige (see
Giddens et al 2003; Lenski 1966; Sanderson 1999; Slomczynski and Shabad 2000). This
is a rank ordering of society.
 note the term “structured.” In order for social stratification to exist, the
inequalities must also be social structures.
 Kerbo (2003) refers to it as “institutionalized inequalities.”
 This means that social categories and social groups are unequal, and that
inequality has existed before individual members were born and will likely persist
well after they die. No one individual can alleviate the inequalities; alleviation of
inequality must take place at the societal level through political action or some
other societal level means.
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Ascription versus Achievement: Types of Stratification Systems
We can use two helpful concepts that characterize the types stratification systems.
Stratification systems vary in their emphasis on ascription and achievement.
Ascription = A social condition in which individuals are placed in positions in a
stratification system because of qualities beyond their control (Kerbo 2003).
Examples: Race, sex, social class origin, age cohort
Achievement = A social condition in which individuals are in positions in a stratification
system because of qualities within their control, due to some meritocratic ideal (see
Kerbo 2003).
Examples: occupation, education
Status = “…perceived, and in some degree accepted, social superiority, equality and
inferiority among individuals” (Chan and Goldthorpe 2007) arising out of repeated social
interactions. See also Shils’ (1968) notion of deference position.
Status Crystallization = The relationship between the social resources and assets within
a given society; if the relationship is “strong, the same individuals … will consistently
appear at the top of all … hierarchies, while other individuals … will consistently appear
at the bottom of the stratification system” (Grusky 2000: 6).
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Status Inconsistency = A weak relationship between the social resources and assets
within a given society; for example, when someone has low economic assets and high
social status (or social honor), status inconsistency is present.
Social Mobility = Individual or group movement within the stratification system.
 Horizontal Mobility = Movement across equal ranks
 Vertical Mobility = movement in unequal ranks
Rigidity = “…the continuity (over time) in the social standing” of the members of a
social stratification system (Grusky 2000: 6). Note that “the amount of rigidity (or
‘social closure’) in any given society will typically vary across the different types of
resources and assets” available for access, acquisition and distribution (Grusky 2000: 6).
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