UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, RECREATION
AND SPORTS
GENDER FACTOR IN MOTOR SKILLS PERFORMANCE OF UNIVERSITY
PRACTICE PRIMARY SCHOOL IN WINNEBA, CENTRAL REGION OF
GHANA.
BY
BLISS DZIEDZORM ADDO
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,
PHYSICAL EDUCATION, RECREATION AND SPORTS OF THE FACULTY
OF SCIENCE EDUCATION, GRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF
EDUCATION, WINNEBA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF EDUCATION
DEGREE IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
DECEMBER, 2011
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I Bliss Dziedzorm Addo declare that this dissertation, with the exception of quotations
and references contained in published works which have all been identified and
acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted. Either
in part or whole, for another degree elsewhere.
Signature............................
Date.................................
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
I Professor Seun Omotayo declare that the preparation and presentation of this
dissertation was supervised in accordance with the guidelines for the supervision of
dissertation laid down by the University of Education, Winneba.
Signature ......................................
Date..........................................
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my deepest gratitude to God Almighty. I would like to thank Professor
Omotayo Seun, Madam Margret Addo, Ahmed Juabin and Prosper Nartey for
suggestions throughout the whole project period. I would also like to thank my lovely
and dearest parents, Madam Ruby Adio and Mr Futukpor Anthony for their prayers,
advice and financial supports. I would finally thank all doctors and colleagues’ of the
Department of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Sports of University of
Education for their encouragement and support.
iii
DEDICATION
To my dear parents Mr. Futukpor Anthony and Miss Ruby Adio, siblings Selorm,
Kekeli and Selasi for their love, understanding and support.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT
PAGE
Declaration
ii
Acknowledgement
iii
Dedication
iv
Table of contents
v
List of tables
vi
Abstract
vii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1
Background to the Study
1
Statement of the Problem
3
Purpose of the Study
3
Research Questions
3
Research Hypothesis
5
Significance of the Study
5
Delimitations
6
Limitations
7
Operational Definition of Terms
7
CHAPTER TWO
RELATED LITERATURE
8
Gender factors
8
The concept of motor skills
9
The meaning of motor skill –related physical fitness
14
Motor skill –related physical fitness components, namely:
19
v
Accuracy
20
Agility
22
Balance
24
Running Speed
28
Reaction Time
40
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
53
Population
53
Sample and sampling techniques
54
Instrument
54
Data collection procedure
58
Data analysis
60
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Hypothesis 1
61
Hypothesis 2
62
Hypothesis 3
63
Hypothesis 4
63
Hypothesis 5
64
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Overview of research problem and methodology
65
Summary of findings
66
Conclusion
66
vi
Recommendations
67
References
68
Appendices
A
Letter to the head of University Practice Primary school
72
B
Data Collection Form
73
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
page
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Accuracy
(throw hit test)
61
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Balance
(standing stroke)
62
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls in running Speed
(50m dash)
62
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Agility test scores
(shuttle run)
63
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Reaction time
(Ruler drop test)
64
viii
ABSTRACT
The university of Illinois test instruments designed by American Alliance of Health,
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD, 1986) was utilized to
compare the motor skill –related fitness levels of boys and girls
Practice Primary School, Winneba.
of University
Sixty (60) pupils from University Practices
Primary School consisting thirty (30) boys and thirty (30) girls were tested. They
ranged from 8 to 13 years of age. 20 pupils from each class, consisting boys and girls
were used. Within the participants, there were 10 boys and 10 girls who participated
in agility, balance, accuracy, speed and reaction time tests. The data collected were
analyzed using the SPSS windows 16.0. Mean, standard deviations and standard error
deviations were calculated.
The independent samples t – test was used to find out if any differences existed
between the boys and girls concerning their motor skills – related fitness levels. The
alpha level was 0.05. The results indicated that there were no significant differences
between the boys and girls in the use of speed, reaction time, balance, agility and
accuracy.
ix
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Gender difference in motor performance across childhood and adolescence is an issue
that borders the mind of a lot of people. Traditionally it is perceived that at the
childhood stage the differences in motor skill performance cannot be seen easily but
as they advance into adolescence this physiological differences begin to manifest in
their motor skill performance.
The beginning of formal education in Ghana can be traced to the coming of the
Europeans. The introduction of Castle Schools and Mission Schools through to the
Local Authority Schools gave Ghana the foundation of the needed education.
Education at the time of the Castle Schools was mainly the 3Rs (Reading, Writing and
Arithmetic). Physical Education as a school subject at that time received no attention.
It was during the time of Sir Gordon Guggisberg (Azameti, 2008), the then Governor
of the Gold Coast, that the sixteen principles of education were introduced. The
principles included a requirement that every school should have a field of play for
physical education, recreation and sports. It was also stated in the principles that every
child of school going age should be admitted and be allowed to play sports
(McWilliams and Kwamena-Poh, 1978). The Accelerated Development Plan for
Education was introduced in 1951 to make the teaching of physical education a policy
in the country (McWilliama and Kwamena-Poh, 1978) in which Winneba was not in
variance with the policy but rather supporting it in a way of postulated physical
activities as most integral part to develop the body and well-being of the individual,
whether physically strong or handicapped.
1
Winneba is in the Central Region of Ghana and is 42 miles west of the capital, Accra.
Ghana itself is administratively divided into 10 regions and 110 districts. Winneba is
the municipal headquarters to the surrounding townships. It is a coastal town bordered
to the east by the Ayensu River and the west by the Manko Mountain range. The
population was recorded as 40,017 in a census in 2000. Its inhabitants are known as
Simpafo or Effutufo. It is the capital of the Awutu/Effutu/Senya municipal in Central
Region.
There are so many educational institutions in the town ranging from basic to
university. Different programmes are offered in the university and subjects in the
senior and basic schools. Specifically in the basic schools pupil has nine subjects that
they offer of which one of them is physical education. The subject physical education
which contributes to enhancing the health of people and nation, provide opportunity
for students to identify their talents and to pursue career options, serve as direct means
of reducing unemployment in society, equip learners with fundamental knowledge
and skills gave room for thousands of interested peoples to be admitted into colleges
of education to pursue a teacher education programme so that they will come out to
teach physical education since they offer how to teach physical education to the basic
but unfortunately most teachers are unable to tech physical education after completion
because their curriculum is laden with different subjects which they are suppose to
teach like mathematics , science, english, citizenship education etc. Furthermore, you
will see one teaching a class all the subjects listed above that the students is to learn.
These make it difficult for them to teach physical education. Another challenge is that
the subject is more of theory aspect than the practical in the colleges of education and
the primary school children needs more of the practical motor skills to perform
correct various physical activities like running, walking, jumping etc and also
2
maintain physical fitness. Though law or policy in Ghana gave room for all school
going age children the right to do physical education, most primary schools pupils do
not do it. This made the primary pupils to find it difficult to perform the prerequisite
motor skills such as balance, agility, speed, reaction time and accuracy. More so,
belief and research finding stated that greater physical strength, boys performance on
physical ability tasks is faster, better and more accurate than girls performance (Lips,
2001).
Motor skills composed of locomotion, manipulation and stabilization; for example,
the gross motor development of an infant involves gaining control over the skills of
crawling, walking and standing (Berk, 2003). The perceptual motor skills improve
with practice, generally improving rapidly during the early childhood period. Pre-term
children demonstrated significantly lower legibility and slower speed scores
compared with control children for most of the handwriting tasks (Feder, Majnemer,
Bourbonnais, Platt, Blayney & Synnes. 2005).
A greater progress in perceptual problem-solving skills in delayed infants and young
children than in motor, self-help and visual motor areas (Hewitt et al. 1983 as cited in
[Singh, Dhanda & Shanwal, 2010]) .An intervention was effective tool for
improvement in development of perceptual motor skills (Resnick et al. 1988 as cited
in[Singh, Dhanda & Shanwal, 2010] ).) Significant improvement in both loco motor
and object control skills through the activity-based intervention (Apache, 2005).
Physical education teachers play a critical role in the motor learning of children,
specifically, they provide the extrinsic information that is essential to student learning
(Bilodeau & Bilodeau, 1961; Brophy, 1979; Fishman & Tobey, 1978; Magill, 1993,
1994; Newell & Valvano, 1998; Stroot, 1990; Tan, 1996, as cited in [Cohen, 2007]).
3
Statement of the Problem
People all over the world, especially in the developing countries, have the notion that
girls cannot perform physical activities as well as boys and this was also backed by a
researcher Sinclair (1973) as cited in Yin (2004). Performance during inter-schools
competitions, however, indicate that given the opportunity, girls could equally
perform sports related activities or even out perform the boys in motor skill related
physical fitness activities. The hypothetical nature of this assumption has prompted
the investigation of this problem to find out whether there will be any significant
difference between the boys and girls regarding motor skill related physical fitness
levels of these basic 3, 4 and 5 pupils.
And more so, research has been conducted on motor ability of preschool aged
children, others in school age children in general but there have not been any study on
assessing gender differences of student motor skill performance specifically for basic
3, 4 and 5 in Winneba.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to find out the motor skill – related physical fitness
levels of basic 3, 4 and 5 boys and girls, and to find out if significant differences exist
between them.
Research Questions
The following research questions shall guide the study:
1.
Will there be a significant difference between boys and girls in basic 3, 4, and
5 accuracy motor skill performance?
4
2.
Will there be a significant difference between boys and girls in basic 3, 4 and
5 balance motor skill performance?
3. Will there be a significant difference between boys and girls in basic 3, 4 and
5 speed motor skill performance?
4. Will there be a significant difference between boys and girls in basic 3, 4 and
5 agility motor skill performance?
5. Will there be a significant difference between boys and girls in basic 3, 4 and
5 reaction time motor skill performance?
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated and will be tested.
1. There would be no significant difference in between boys and girls in basic 3,
4 and 5 accuracy motor skill performance.
2. There would be no significant difference in boys and girls in basic schools 3, 4
and 5 balance motor skill performance.
3. There would be no significant difference in boys and girls in basic schools 3, 4
and 5 speed motor skill performance.
4. There would be no significant difference in boys and girls in basic schools 3, 4
and 5 agility motor skill performance.
5. There would be no significant difference in boys and girls in basic schools 3, 4
and 5 reaction time motor skill performance.
Significance of the Study
From the information gathered, the importance motor skill delivery in physical
education will be made known to all those involved. This research work will also
5
indicate to see weather gender play a role in motor skill performance and this will
enlightened Ghana Education Service (GES) officers, Head of schools, Parents,
Stakeholder to know that teaching of motor skill to the little ones or beginners are
very necessary so need specialist in that area.
It will also help Physical Education Teachers to understand and use the appropriate
method of teaching motor skill performance activities which can facilitate the
teaching and learning process of pupils at the basic schools.
It is hoped that this study will provide Physical Education teachers with an effective
means of improving their students’ performance, increasing their interaction, and
promoting positive attitudes toward them.
It would add new knowledge to studies carried out so far in Ghana on motor skill
related physical fitness levels of the youth.
Delimitations
The delimitation of the study was as follows:
1. Primary basic 3, 4 and 5 pupils in university practice school between the ages
of 8 and13 years of age were used.
2. Only university practice primary school in Winneba was selected for the
study.
3. Independent sample t-test was used to analyse data ditto
4. The motor skill-related physical fitness components were the following;
i.
Agility
ii.
Balance
iii.
Running speed
iv.
Accuracy
6
v.
Reaction time
Limitations
The absence of reliable literature on motor –skill related physical fitness testing in
Ghana led to the reliance on the university of Illinois test instrument designed by
American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
(AAHPERD). There might have been some slight differences in performance of the
test items by Ghanaian pupils due to lifestyle, environmental conditions, as well as the
culture of skill related physical fitness performance. Another limitation was that due
to the small sample size (N=60, 20 samples from each class level consisting 10 boys
and10 girls) the result of this study could not produces a good generalisation.
Operational Definition of Terms
BOYS AND GIRLS: they are pupils of basic 3, 4 and 5 of university practice primary
school who was used for the study.
BALANCE: is defined as the ability of a pupil to stand on one leg, specifically balls
of the foot for one minute with the hand(s) on the hip.
ACCURACY: ability of a pupil to throw the tennis ball from 10m distance for it to
enter the Milo tin within one minute.
REACTION TIME: how quickly a pupil catches a ruler from an assessor with the
index finger and a thumb of a dominant hand immediately the assessor lives it.
SPEED: is the ability of a pupil to run fast as possible across the 50m finish line.
7
CHAPTER TWO
RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents related literature review of motor skill- related physical fitness
levels of boys and girls. The literature was reviewed according to the research
questions of the study and carried out under the following sub- headings:1. Gender factors
2. The concept of motor skills
3. The meaning of motor skill –related physical fitness
4. Motor skill –related physical fitness components, namely:
(i)
Accuracy
(ii)
Agility
(iii)
Balance
(iv)
Running Speed
(v)
Reaction Time
Gender factors
Gender differences in motor skill performance across childhood and adolescence is
commonly discussed topic within the literature ( Eckert, 1987; Payne & Isaacs, 1987;
Thomas & French, 1988; Williams, 1983 as cited in [O’connor, 2000]). The majority
of available research on school age children, suggests that motor skill performance
improves with age for both boys and girls, with average performance of boys usually
exceeding the average performance of girls at each age level ( Espenschade & Eckert,
1980; Morris, Williams, Atwater,& Wilmore, 1982 as cited in [O’connor, 2000]).
Until the age of four years, boys and girls move alike and achieve similar results
8
(Sinclair, 1973 as cited in [Yin, 2004] ). Gender differences may be seen between
boys and girls in terms of height and weight but these are minimal with boys slightly
taller and heavier (Gabbard, 1992; Gallahue & Ozmum, 1998 as cited in [O’connor,
2000]). From this age, boys improve markedly over their female counterparts,
particularly in those tasks requiring strength and in throwing. Boys exhibit better body
assembly and motor proficiency and tend to increase this difference as children grow
older. However, girls of like ages are able to gallop, slide and skip with greater
proficiency to boys indicating social influence may play a significant role (Sinclair,
1973[Yin, 2004]).
Gender differences within the motor development literature have been partitioned into
identifying biological and environmental factors. Environmental explanations have
included discussions of social and cultural expectations as well as opportunities for
training or skill development (Thomas, Michael, & Galagher, 1994 as cited in
[O’connor, 2000]). Biological discussions have covered area such as anthropometric
variables and neuromuscular coordination.
Concept of motor skills
Motor skill learning is an active process, interrelated with cognition. Skill concepts
are aspects of cognitive concept learning in physical education that focus on learning
the way the body should move while performing motor skills (Gallahue & Cleland,
2003).
The development of such a knowledge base facilitates children’s motor engagement,
decreasing errors in performance both in- and out of the school setting. Children have
the potential to learn fundamental movement skills and the respective skill concepts
9
by the age of seven if they receive instruction and encouragement, by the physical
education teacher (i.e. Graham, Holt/Hale & Parker, 2003).
The broad goals of physical education, the characteristics of children and the
increasing awareness of why and how children learn through the movement activities
have significantly influenced teaching in physical education (Kirchner & Fishburne,
1998).
How children develop motor skills
The term motor skills, is used to refer to both fundamental movement skills and also
basic sports skills (Graham, 1987 as cited in [Portela, 2007]). Motor skills are
deliberate and controlled movements requiring both muscle development and
maturation of the central nervous system. The skeletal system too, needs to be strong
enough to maintain the movement and weight involved in any new activity, once
these conditions are met, children are able to learn new physical skills by practicing
them until each skill is mastered (Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health, n.d. :
1). The development of motor skills is important for our daily living, and is a process
that involves both inherent abilities and considerable practise during childhood and
adolescence. Self selected, unplanned play is important for acquiring motor skill
abilities, as well as structured movement instruction. Without this formalized
learning, movement performance and improvement is really left to chance. In an
article by Smith and O’Keefe [1999] as cited in (Portela, 2007) they purport that, this
factor is often not recognized and even some professional educators assume that such
essential skills will emerge automatically. However, with many skills young children
need to learn and practise these skills until they can proficiently participate in a
variety of games and sports. Findings show that when teaching interventions are
10
applied for the learning of fundamental motor skills, children aged four to six years
are able to achieve full proficiency (Smith & O'keefe, 1999 as cited in [Portela,
2007]). Literature shows that movement skills may be defined as identifiable
movement patterns, which are used to accomplish certain tasks. These skills can be
categorized into a four level developmental hierarchy. Level one is made up of the
rudimentary skills of sitting, crawling, creeping, standing and walking. Level two
consists of what is usually called fundamental motor skills, which emerge from birth
to the end of about six or seven years of age. Level three represents loco-motor skills,
such as running, jumping, hopping, galloping, skipping, and object control skills, such
as throwing, catching, striking, kicking, and dribbling.
These fundamental motor skills provide the foundation for the learning of other more
specialized movement skills. Level four is at the top of the hierarchy of specialized
movement skills; these are referred to as ontogenic (development of an individual)
skills, and specific to the needs and interests of a particular person (Burton, 1992 as
cited in [Portela, 2007]).
Rudimentary motor skills
During early childhood, discovering and exploring movement, provides children with
many exciting and thoughtful learning experiences. Young children are delighted with
their emerging capabilities and find opportunities to learn, play and practise. It is
during this age bracket that children develop a foundation for body management
abilities, needed in games, recreational activities and for sport specific skills.
Research also shows that early and appropriate movement experiences help to create
and extend neural networks in the developing brain.
11
Constructive and well planned lessons are required to enhance these areas and others
like cognitive, social and emotional aspects (Carson, 2001)
A child's motor development depends on its total physical development. In order to
crawl, walk, climb and grasp, the infant must first have reached a certain level of
skeletal, neural and muscular development (Louw, 1995 as cited [in Portela, 2007]).
At birth, infants have a repertoire of movements that can be used in their new
environment. The collections of movement responses, exhibited by the infant and
young child, are used to build later movement patterns. When a child starts to be
mobile, they go through a series of movement patterns performed with al/ limbs. They
will typically progress from homologous to homo-lateral movements and then to
cross-lateral patterns during creeping and crawling (Louw, 1995 as cited [ in Portela,
2007]).
The importance of physical education in developing motor skills
Physical education and youth sport provide opportunities for children to acquire skills
and to test their abilities. Physical education is designed to develop each child's
capacity to function at an optimal level, and by this, children must develop sound
body movement skills and good basic skills which produce efficient conscious
movements (Bunker, 1981 as cited [in Portela, 2007]).
Physical education plays a significant role in the pre-school years. Seefeldt [1984] as
cited in Portela (2007) discussed fundamental motor skills versus. Fitness in preschool years and it is evident that the rudimentary skills which make up the
components for our games and sports can be learned by children in an enriched
environment before they are six years of age. These early childhood years are the
most opportune time for perfecting the motor skills basic to all subsequent locomotion
12
sports skills and aerobic activities. Findings from research done by Saakslahti et al.
[1999] as cited in Portela (2007), Thomas [1999] as in Portela (2007) and Rudisill,
Lawrence, Goodway, and Wall (2002), suggest that a physical activity and a preschool skill development program has a dramatic influence on participants' locomotor skill and coordination performance and that a lack of such a program, could
negatively influence motor development. Even, minimal instruction time of a
development specific program has shown significant changes to motor performance.
Thus, children who do not have experience of or sufficient exposure to such programs
may not develop their loco-motor skills before starting school. Research by Goodway
and Branta (2003) shows an agreement with these findings.
Graham [1987] as cited in Portela (2007) purports that there appears to be a false
assumption, in believing that students learn motor skills by playing games. This may
be true when children play hours and hours of one particular game, but there aren't
hours and hours scheduled for physical education which can be devoted to playing
one particular game. With this restriction in mind motor skill acquisition should be
considered an essential goal in a physical education program.
A study by Housner, Carson, Hawkins and Wiegand (2006) compared the effects of a
year-long-daily versus a one-day-a-week physical education program on the
proficiency and acquisition of fitness and gross motor skills in K-2 elementary school
children. Analysis of gain scores showed a remarkable advantage to the daily physical
education lesson in improvements of motor skills and fitness. Although, one could
question the influence of such a time loss -to physical education c1asses- on the
academic timetable and academic progress. Research by Shephard [1997] as cited in
13
Portela (2007), states that when a substantial portion of curricular time (14-26%) is
allocated to physical education, learning seems to proceed more rapidly per unit time.
Children who received additional physical education classes showed acceleration in
their psychomotor development, which ultimately resulted in improved academic
skills.
These learners showed no reductions in their grades and standard test scores, many
had improved on these parameters. Thus, physical education can be introduced
without compromising academic performance. Black. [1995] as cited in Portela
(2007) reports that good physical education programs can boost academic
achievement and also feels that children may be learning more in physical education
lessons than ever imagined. He concludes that schools which require children to sit all
day long deny children an important connection between movement and learning.
The meaning of motor skill – related fitness
Fitness is a broad term that means different things to different people. Fitness denotes
dynamic qualities that allow one to satisfy needs regarding mental and emotional
stability, social consciousness, adaptability, spirituality and physical health (Prentice,
1999). American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
[AAHPERD] (1986) defines physical fitness as a physical state of well being that
allows people to perform daily activities with vigor, reduce their rise of health
problems and establish a fitness base for participation in variety of activities (Auxter,
Pyfer & Huettig, 1997).
Physical fitness is also defined as having the energy and strength to perform daily
activities vigorously and alertly without getting “run down” and having energy left
over to enjoy leisure – time activities and meet emergency demands (Sherrill, 1993).
14
According to Sherrill (1993), when you are physically fit, your heart, lungs and
muscles are strong and your body is form and flexible. Your weight and percentage
body fat are within a desirable range. Also according to the definition given by
Microsoft Encarta Encyclopaedia, (2004), physical fitness is the ability of the human
body to meet demands imposes by the environment and daily life. Fitness is a state of
the body that helps develop a more positive and dynamic attitude to life and is likely
to affect most phases of human existence. Efficiently working lungs and heart, general
alertness, muscular strength, energy and stamina is the overt sign of physical fitness.
Prentice (1999) also defines fitness to mean that the various systems of the body are
healthy and function efficiently so as to enable the fit person to engage in activities of
daily living as well as in recreational pursuits and leisure activities, without
unreasonable fatigue.
Nowadays the idea of the four “S” words – stamina, strengths, suppleness and skill
representing fitness has been replaced by the concept of fitness, which includes health
–related and motor skill related components. AAHPERD (1986) has classified the
components of physical fitness into two categories, health related components and
motor skill related components (Prentice, 1999).Skill-related or performance-related
physical fitness consist of those components of physical fitness that have relationship
with endurance performance in sports and motor skills. The components are
commonly defined as agility, balance, coordination, power, speed and reaction time.
According to Siedentop (2001),physical fitness is pursued by people in many different
areas including schools, health spas, sports clubs, weight training centres, Young Men
Christian Association or
Young Women Christian Association facilities, recreation
centers ,and even homes.
15
Components of motor skill-related physical fitness are called skill-related, because
people who possess them find it easy to achieve high levels of performance in motor –
skills, such as those required in sports and specific type of jobs (Corbin, Lindsay &
Welk, 2000). There is little doubt, that there are other abilities that could be classified
as skill-related or performance-related fitness components. The skill-related
components are agility, balance, coordination, speed and reaction time. Many of this
components work closely together. However specificity does exist and such skills
cannot be categorized in general. A combination of this skills or ability usually
determines a skilled performance in a particular sport. It is noted also that a high level
of health-related components, may make skill acquisition easier. One cannot improve
skill of one is fatigued and lacking strength or flexibility. Also each part of motor
skill-related fitness is multi dimensional (Corbin et al, 2000).
The ABCs of skill-related fitness are commonly referred to as the ability to change
direction quickly and to move as efficiently as possible with minimal energy
expenditure. These three components can be improved or developed by the use of
developmental training programs, specific exercises or drills and sports participation.
Some experts contend that strength is the most important factor of agility, since a
stronger body moves with more ease and efficiency. Flexibility is the most important
to balance and coordination by increasing one’s range of motion. Agility-type drills
should involve a number of direction changes, place the performer in a variety of
body position and be of short duration so fatigue does not become a factor (Auxter et
al, 1997).
Speed is the ability to move the body or a region of the body as rapidly as possible
from one point to another. Speed is the rate of movement, or the amount of time it
16
takes for a body or object to travel between two points.
Speed usually refers to
running speed, as in the sprints in the track or football. However, speed can be
performed as leg speed in soccer, kicking, and arm speed in throwing baseball, and
body speed (acceleration) necessary in gymnastics. Speed is related to strength and
power. In fact, all skill-related components contribute to speed. Speed requires the
expenditure of a large amount of energy in a short time period. Age is a factor in
attaining speed. One’s peak is usually reached at about 20 years of age and can be
maintained for up to 10years or so depending upon the type of training one practice.
Without practice, speed diminishes quickly by the late 20s.
Reaction time refers to the time lapse between the presentation of the stimulus
(sound-sight-touch) and the first muscular movement of the performer. Reaction time
enables the performer to move faster, which can affect other skill components such as
speed and power. Reaction time can be improved through the use of many
development programs, such as strength and speed improvement. There are also many
drills involving sight, sound and touch that will improve reaction time on a general
basis. Since there is a relatively high degree of specificity in reaction time response,
most experts fell that the best method for improving upon a specific activity or sport
is to practice the starting stimulus for that activity (Auxter, et al, 1997)
There is no substitute for sports skill training, practicing a skill for specific sports
participation also develops skill-related physical fitness. Activities like handball,
basketball, gymnastics, wrestling, volleyball, tennis and soccer are a few of many
activities that could be used for motor sill development.
Possessing a moderate amount of each component of health –related fitness is
essential to disease prevention and health promotion, but it is not essential to have
exceptionally high levels of fitness to achieve health benefits (Corbin et al, 2000).
17
High levels of health –related physical fitness relate more to performance than health
benefits. For example, moderate amounts of strength are necessary to prevent back
and posture problems, whereas high levels of strength contribute most to improved
performance in activities such as football and jobs involving heavy lifting. The
components of health related and motor skill related physical fitness overlap. For
example, cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength, flexibility and body
composition are essential for healthy living. They are also important in skilful motor
performance. However, the degree of development each requires varies according to
the type of physical activity. A more extensive development of these components may
be required to achieve an appropriate level of motor skill related physical fitness,
which is often associated with sport. For example, athletes may need to develop speed
and power to a grater degree than most individuals who are interested solely in
improving and maintaining health related fitness (Prentice, 1999). Thus, participating
in activities to improve physical fitness enhances a person’s attitude about life,
enhances his/her ability to perform activities of daily living, enhances sports and
leisure skills and improves the maintains health . it is also worth noting that, what we
doo with our bodies affects what we can do with our mind, thus physical fitness
influences qualities like mental alertness and emotional stability. It is assumed that
people who possess skill related fitness will be more likely to engage in regular
activity, and for this reason will have enhanced health –related fitness and a lower risk
of hypo kinetic diseases and condition.
Skill-related fitness components assessed with performance measures. Such
components as reaction time and speed are considered by some to be more related to
heredity than health lifestyles, especially in children. Physical activity provides
performance benefits above and beyond the benefits to health. These performance
18
benefits can promote quality of life for the normal human adult and enhance the
abilities of athletes and people in jobs requiring high level of performance (Corbin, et
al, 2000).
Possessing high levels of the six primary components of motor skill-related physical
fitness (agility, balance, reaction time, accuracy and speed), make experts consider
various perceptual abilities such as depth and distance perception (ability to judge
depth and distances accurately), and visual tracking (ability to visually follow a
moving object), to be skill –related parts of physical fitness (Corbin et al, 2000) as an
individual might possess ability in one area and not area and not in another and for
this reason, general motor ability probably does not really exist. Individuals do not
have one general capacity for performing. Rather, the ability to play games or sports
is determined by combined abilities in each of the spate skill-related components. It is
however, possible and even likely that some performers will be above average
(Corbin et al, 2000).
Motor skill –related physical fitness components
The motor skill-related components include: agility, balance, accuracy, reaction time
and speed. According to Colfer (2004), while physical fitness and a healthy lifestyle
are desirable, many people also participate in a variety of competitive sports or
mission related competition. Success in games and contests require more than just
being fit. It demands motor skill related physical fitness components to enable one to
move and perform more efficiently, whether it is in work-related activities, daily
movement functions, or in sports performance. Further, health –related physical
fitness may also benefit from skill –related physical fitness, since persons who
possess skill related fitness are more likely to be active throughout life.
19
Motor skill-related physical fitness is compatible with health –related physical fitness.
Many activities promote both types. Individuals, who possess both, will find
participation in either type of activities more enjoyable and beneficial to their health
and physical well-being. A person who is physically active cannot help but improve
some aspects of skill-related physical fitness.
Accuracy
Throwing Accuracy is one of the simplest skills in the game and only performs one
task. It controls how well a soldier is able to actually hit the target tile with a thrown
object. Again throwing Accuracy works in conjunction with Strength, where one
controls the accuracy of the throw, the other controls the range of the throw
depending on the weight of the object. Gender differences have been shown across
many domains, and motor skills are no exception. One of the most robust findings is a
significant sex difference in throwing accuracy, which reflects the advantage of men
in targeting abilities. However, little is known about the basis of this difference
(Moreno-Briseño, Díaz, Campos-Romo & Fernandez-Ruiz, 2010).
Among the most robust examples of differences between men and women is the better
throwing accuracy shown by men (Hall & Kimura, 1995; Watson & Kimura, 1989 as
cited [in Moreno-Briseño, Díaz, Campos-Romo & Fernandez-Ruiz, 2010]). Together
with a better spatial ability, it has been suggested that this gender difference arise
since early human ages, when men went out hunting, while women stayed with the
children while gathering food or making manual labor (Human , 2004).
Whatever its origins, gender differences for throwing accuracy can be found even in
children, suggesting that the gender effect is independent of age (Thomas & French,
1985 as cited [in Moreno-Briseño, Díaz, Campos-Romo & Fernandez-Ruiz, 2010]). In
20
studies involving adults, the throwing accuracy male advantage has been shown to be
independent of different paper-and-pencil spatial tasks (Watson & Kimura,1991), or
mental rotation, a task in which male outperform women (Sanders, Soares &
D'Aquila,1982; Tapley & Bryden, 1977 as cited [in Moreno-Briseño, Díaz, CamposRomo & Fernandez-Ruiz, 2010]) . Although practice was initially considered as a
possible gender difference factor in throwing accuracy (Thomas & French, 1985 as
cited [in Moreno-Briseño, Díaz, Campos-Romo & Fernandez-Ruiz, 2010]), later
analyses suggested that the difference stood even after the effects of sports history
were considered (Watson & Kimura, 1991).
So, it is possible that men and women have different vasomotor approaches on how
they make throws, and that such difference results in different gender accuracies. To
explore this possibility we decided to test men and women in a prism adaptation task
that involves throwing balls at a target (Moreno-Briseño, Díaz, Campos-Romo &
Fernandez-Ruiz, 2010).
Sometimes moving faster can make you more accurate. Although the general rule is
that we trade speed for accuracy (or vice versa) when we make aiming movements,
there are a couple of exceptions. Dick Schmidt and his colleagues have shown that
when we move very rapidly to begin with, speeding up can make us more consistent
in timing a movement (Schmidt et al., 1979 as cited [in Fairbrothe, 2011]) and in
where we end the movement compared to our target (Schmidt & Sherwood, 1982 in
[Fairbrothe, 2011]). This research suggests that faster might be better if the action
requires us to move rapidly in the first place. For example, you need to swing an axe
quite forcefully if you want to chop wood, so working to improve the speed of your
swings might increase the accuracy of your blade placement on the tree or log. This
does not mean, however, that you should go out and swing as hard as you can. Such a
21
strategy would likely result in sloppy and very dangerous performance. Instead, it
means that you might improve your accuracy if you work to gradually increase the
speed of well-controlled swings.
Agility
This is defined as the ability to rapidly and accurately change the direction of
movement of the entire body mass in space (Corbin, et al, 2000). Agility also means a
quick and efficient upward and downward motion in ballet, modern dancing and some
folk dancing. According to Prentice (1999), agility is to a large extent dependent on
neuromuscular co-ordination and reaction time. In such sports like basketball,
badminton, handball and tennis, the ability to sop and start, and to change direction, is
nearly a prerequisite to success. Also, people who are agile are less accident prone,
because of their ability to make quick adjustments in body movements. The motor
ability of agility is difficult to develop. However, it can be improved through
participation in activities which develop. However, it can be improved through
participation in activities which develop strength, coordination, and speed. If strength
is increased, agility will increase in movements involving the force of inertia, which
keeps the body in motion in the same direction.
Developing speed and agility in sport is specific to the game or sport an athlete plays.
In team or court-based sports, it differs from the technique of a 100m sprinter, in that
the track athlete can run flat-out, with maximum stride length and stride rate in a
straight line. For example, the speed and agility requirements in a court-based sport
are very different to those of a field –based team sport. In badminton, because of the
very small a court, an athlete will take a maximum of one or two steps in a particular
direction to cover the court, involving a high frequency of diagonal, lateral , forward
22
and backward movements . a netball, hockey, or rugby player, on the other hand,
would rarely travel more than thirty metres, so the most important qualities are very
different. Acceleration and the ability to change direction rapidly is the key in team
sports.
To improve speed and agility, strength and conditioning coaches would include
specific workouts targeting that physical quality into the weekly programme of an
elite team sport athlete, in addition to the endurance or strength training they were
practicing, to produce an enhancement in performance at elite level, the player or
sports specific needs are carefully considered, before drills which develop the skills
are designed, mostly concentrating on acceleration and change of direction (Dick,
1992).
In rugby or hockey, a player would accelerate into position, either to find space or to
make a challenge, but those movements are often angled runs, changes of direction
whilst running or running in a curve. So, any exercised or drills designed to improve
that ability, would necessarily be sports-specific (Dick, 1992).
According to strength and conditioning coach, Raph Brandon, “improving speed and
agility is more of a skill than physiological ability, such as strength. Most training
sessions involve very specific, high-quality session, with plenty of rest, rather than
lots of repetitions (Dick, 1992).
It is difficult to define one set of agility exercise, although there are certain general
exercises that are useful for developing footwork skills, agility ladders, side stepping,
basic cross over forward and backwards ,and shuttle runs which can be useful for a
number of sports”(Liebrman,1999).
We can improve our agility by improving the component parts of agility and
practicing the movement in training. One of the ways to improve agility is by the
23
agility ladder .In various fields of sports competition, the body is by agility are by the
agility ladder. In various fields of sports competition, the body is constantly asked to
perform movements from unfamiliar joint angles. The main objective for agility
ladder programme is to promote a wide range of different foot and movement
patterns. These skilled movements, become second nature, and the body is able to
quickly respond various angles that are required in sporting events. We can improve
our agility by practicing the movements in training, and an agility ladder is an
essential tool in a complete programme. Using a standard ladder of 10yards long with
18 inch squares, 2 to 4 movement patterns are introduced. Once you master these
patterns, introduce new patterns. Keep in mind that this is a general recommendation,
as the introduction of movements depends on athlete’s ability to master the
movements.
Balance
The ability to establish and maintain one’s balance has long been recognised as an
important element of skillful movement behaviour (Sherrington, 1904 as cited [in
Clark & Watkins, 1984]). Indeed, balance has been identified as one of the many
abilities underlying the motor skill performance of both young populations (Cumbee,
Meyer, & Peterson, 1957; Rarick & Dobbins, 1975; Peterson, Reuschlein & Seefeldt,
as cited [in Clark & Watkins, 1984]) and adult groups. Yet despite its recognised
importance to motor skill performance and development, balance has received
relatively little attention in psychometric research. The most comprehensive study on
balance remains the early work of Bass (1939 as cited [in Clark & Watkins, 1984]), in
which she identified through factor analysis eight balance factors. These factors were
general eye motor factor, general kinaesthetic response factor, general ampullar
24
sensitivity, vertical semi-circular canals function, tension giving reinforcement and
three unnamed factors.
Furthermore, the complex quality called balance involves reflexes, vision, the inner
ear, the cerebellum, and the skeletal-muscular system which forms a specific kind of
coordination. Balance is defining to be the ability to maintain some degree of
equilibrium while moving or standing still (Prentice, 1994). According to Auxter, et
al, (1997) balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a held position (static) or in
moving position (dynamic). The ability to maintain the equilibrium of a body
manifests itself in two types, static balance, and dynamic balance. Static balance
involves the maintenance of equilibrium in a fixed position such as while standing on
one foot on a narrow stick for a period of time. Dynamic balance on the other hand is
when the equilibrium must be maintained while moving. Walking on a balance beam
is an example of dynamic balance.
According to Sherrill, (1993) balance is a more global term, referring to the control
processes that maintain body parts in the specific alignment necessary to achieve
different kinds of mobility and stability. Most sensory system(vestibular, kinaesthetic,
tactile, and visual), interact with environmental variables to bring about balance.
According to Auxter at al, (1997) until balance became an automatic, involuntary act,
the central nervous system must focus on maintaining balance to the detriment of all
other motor and cognitive function. Balance development is dependent on vestibular,
visual reflex, and kinaesthetic development. When these systems are fully
functioning, high level of balance development is possible. Success in certain
activities depends directly upon the balance. Gymnastics events, such as floor
exercise routines, and balance beam performance require good balance. Stability is
especially important in contact sports such as wrestling, American football, Rugby,
25
and soccer, but can also be found in lifetime activity like skiing, bowling, golf and
tennis. The basic factors which influence balance are the height of the center of
gravity, the size of the basic support and the line of gravity.
But the principles which aid balance include:

the lower base, the greater the balance and stability

The larger the base of support, the greater the balance and stability

The more nearly the centered the line of gravity is to the center of the base of
support, the greater the stability.
Activities that can be used to promote static balance include:
1. Freeze tag- The child play tag, the child who is caught is “frozen” until a
classmate “unfreeze” the child by tagging him or her. “It tries to freeze
everyone”.
2. Statue- The child spins around and then tries to make himself into a “statue”
without falling.
3. Tripod-The chid balance by placing forehead and both hands on the floor,
kneels and balance on elbows to form tripod balance.
Activities that can be used to promote dynamic balance include:
1. Hopscotch
2. Various types of locomotor movement following patterns on the floor
3. Races using different types of locomotor movement.
4. Walk forward heel to toe between double line, on single line, then on balance
beam, make this more demanding by having child balance a bean bag on
26
balance different body parts (e.g. head, shoulder, wrist, etc) while walking on
the balance beam.
Cues to poor balance developments include:
1. Inability to maintain held balance position, e.g. standing on one foot, stand
heel to toe with eyes open.
2.
Inability to walk heel to toe on a line or on a balance beam.
3. Tipping or falling easily.
4. Wide gait while walking or running (Auxter et al 1997)
According to Sherrill (1993), input from both semicircular canals and the sacs are
needed in all kinds of balance. This is because the head moves in many ways during
both static and dynamic balance. The principle of specificity tells us that there are
many kind of static and dynamic balance, balance and a test of balance in one position
will not yield data that are generalized to other positions
The maintenance of balance, involves both sensory input and motor output. Many
motor impulses are generated to control balance. Some go directly to muscles that
activate reflexes and or reactions, some go to the cerebellum, and some go to
midbrain nuclei of cranial nerves that innervate the eye muscles.
Balance in young children is heavily influenced by vision, whereas adults rely more
on tactile and kinaesthetic input (Sherrill, 1993). This explains why children and
persons with developmental delays are encouraged to focus their eyes on a designated
point during balance activities. It also explains why blindfolds are often used in
testing and remediation of balance.
The vestibular system is well developed at birth, as is evidenced by the calming effect
27
of cradling or rocking the infant in the arms, crib, or rocking chair. Swings, seesaws,
merry-go-rounds, and other playground apparatus owe their popularity to children’s
natural craving for vestibular stimulation. The use of balance boards, various kinds of
balance beams, swinging bridges and trampolines in early childhood physical
education is based largely on the theory that postulates that the vestibular system is a
coordinating mechanism for all sensory function that leads to balance (Sherrill, 1993).
Speed
Speed is defined as the production of repeated maximal muscular contractions over a
short distance within minimal period of time (Beashel & Taylor, 1996). According to
prentice (1994) speed is the ability to perform a particular movement very rapidly. It
is a function of distance and time. It is an important component for successful
performance in many competitive athletic situations. Speed can also be defined as the
ability to perform a movement in a short period of time (Corbin et al, 2000). Speed
can be improved by practice. For example, speed in running can be increased if one
should learn to run in the proper manner. Thus, the big toe of one leg should be as
close to the shin of the other leg as possible. The foot should recover this position as
quickly as possible, recover in that position (so that it makes the leg a shorter lever),
and in the downswing stay dorisiflexed. Every time an athlete hits the ground the first
part of contact involves losing momentum. This can be minimized by maintaining
dorsiflexion and having a fast moving backward (active) foot. Obviously, movement
time is decreased if one stands too straight or too far forward when running for speed
(Beashel & Taylor, 1996). According to Dick (1992), speed in training theory defines
the capacity of moving a limb or part of the body’s level system or whole body with
the greatest possible velocity. Maximum value of such movements would be without
28
loading. Thus, the discus throwers arm will have greatest velocity in the throwing
phase if no discus is held, and velocity would be reduced as the implement’s weight is
increased relative to the athlete’s absolute strength (Dick, 1992).
Speed is measured in meters per second, as for example, in quantifying the value for
speed of moving one part of the body’s lever system relative to another, the forward
speed of moving one part of the body’s lever system relative to another, the forward
speed of the body in sprinting or at a point of take-off in jumping, and the velocity of
implements and balls at release or being struck. The time taken to achieve a certain
task may also be considered a measure of the athlete’s speed. The number of
repetitions of a task within a short period of time might be considered an index of
speed (Dick, 1992).
According to Dick (1992), speed is a determine factor in explosive sports, for
example, sprints, jumps and most field sports, while in the endurance events its role as
a determining factor appears to reduce with increase distance. As with the
characteristic or strength, relative contribution of speed to each sport varies according
to the demands of the sport, the bio-type of the athlete and the athlete and the specific
techniques practiced by the athlete. Consequently, the distribution of speed training
units and the nature and number of practice are extremely varied.
Speed may be a determining factor directly, for example, reacting to the starter’s
pistol, or indirectly, in the development of kinetic energy in jumping. The difference
between direct and indirect is that, with the former, maximum velocity is sought,
whereas with the latter some optimum velocity is required to permit maximum
expression of relevant strength. It is, therefore, important to bear in mind that speed
29
increases may not necessarily lead to improved performance. The pattern of speed and
acceleration of relative movements must by synchronize so that each part of the lever
system can make an optimal force contribution. for example, there would be no point
in making the discus arm so fast that it did not begin its contribution before the legs
and trunk, nor would it benefit the long jumper to have so much horizontal speed at
the board that there was insufficient time for the take-off leg to express the strength
required for vertical lift (Dick, 1992).
Speed is also the quickness of movement of a limb, whether this is the leg of a runner
or the arm of the shot putter. Speed is an integral part f every sport, and can be
expressed as any one of, or combination of, the following six areas in sports
performance where training enhances speed:
1. Reaction to a signal as, for example, in sprinter’s reaction to the gun , or the
tennis player’s reaction in volleying.
2. Capacity to accelerate, this is of particular importance to those athletes who
must beat opponents across the ground or who must quickly react at a
particular point on the court/pitch to execute a technique.
3. Capacity to rapidly adjust balance following the execution of one technique in
order to prepare to execute another. This applies to every game situation.
4. Achievement of maximum speed, the athlete here is executing a given
technique as fast as he is capable of, without breaking down of that
technique’s effectiveness. Often speed is mistakenly thought of an entity in
itself, it is not. It is a sophistication of technique, where all demands of the
technique are performed at the highest speed consistent with the general
synchronized framework
30
5. Capacity to maintain maximum speed once it is reached. This, also is a
coordination issue, not an endurance issue, and is seen, for example, in sports
where athletes such as Ben Johnson and Carl Lewis can maintain their
maximum speed of 12.05m/sec for only 2m. This is not followed, as one might
expect, by a gradual loss of speed for the balance of the race. Rather there is a
breakdown of coordination for 10m before returning to the point which
gradually deceleration will commence.
6. Capacity to limit the effect of endurance factor on speed, the rate at which the
fuel reaches the working muscles, and waist product are removed, eventually
represents a limiting factor to producing the high intensity muscle contraction
and quality coordination necessary to maintaining maximum or near
maximum speed (Dick, 1992)
Speed is influenced by the athletic mobility, special strength, special endurance and
technique. According to Dick (1992) the development of speed is dependent on
several factors:
i.
Innervations, high frequency of alteration between stimulation and inhibition
of neurons, and an accurate selection and regulation of motor units, makes it
possible to achieve a high frequency of movement and/or speed of movement,
married to an optimal expression of development and strength. This is the
fundamental ability to move limps at maximum velocity.
ii.
Elastic, the capacity to capitalize on muscle tone via the elastic components of
muscle has relevance to those sports demanding high starting acceleration (as
in sprints and most field sports) or ‘rapid strike’ (as in sprinting and jumping).
The precise mechanisms involved are not clear but there appears to be a
31
complex coordination of motor units, reflexes, elastic component and ability to
contract muscle at high speed. The characteristic is, however, identifiable and
has been referred to in sports jargon as ‘bounce’. Elasticity is released to
relative strength and elastic strength.
iii.
Biochemistry, speed will appear to rely specifically on the energy supplies in
muscle, i.e. a lactic anaerobic path way (energy pathway), and on the speed of
its mobilization. Short duration maximum intensity work appears to be the
training stimulus for development of this area.
iv.
Muscle relax ability, the ability of the muscle to relax and allows to stretch in
speed exercises is fundamental to perfect technique to high frequency of
movement. If these qualities are insufficiently developed, the required range of
movement cannot in a course of movement, particularly in the course of
movement, practically in the course of reversal of movement where the
synergists have to overcome too great a resistance. Training with obliges the
athlete to relax all muscles not directly involved with a given series of joint
actions, even in fatigue, is of the utmost importance.
v.
Will power, the athlete must concentrate on maximum voluntary effort to
achieve maximum speed. However unlike the weight lifter who has a target
for his concentration, the athlete has nothing more to go on than physical
sensation and the evidence to a stop watch. Human error may occur with the
latter, so the coach must ensure that all possible information on speed and time
is given to the athlete. Moreover, to provide a suitable target, speed work may
be performed in groups, using handicap and races.
vi.
Action acceptor, more situations, in combat sports and field games, etc,
Demand rapid selection of relevant cues, and the technical ability to do so
32
accurately will influence speed of movement or recreation (Dick 1992).
Energy for absolute speed is supplied by the anaerobic alactic pathway. The
anaerobic (without oxygen) alactic (without lactate) energy system is best
challenged as an athlete approaches top speed between 30 and 60 metres while
running at 95% to 100% of maximum. This speed component of anaerobic
metabolism lasts for approximately six seconds and should be trained when no
muscle fatigue is present (usually after 24 to 36 hours of rest)(Dick, 1992).
The technique of sprinting must be rehearsed at slow speed and then transferred to run
maximum speed. The stimulation, excitation and correct firing order of the motor
units, composed of motor nerve(neuron) and the group of muscles that it supplies,
make it possible for high frequency movements to occur. The whole process is not
totally clear but the complex coordination and timing of the motor units and muscles
most certainly must be rehearsed at high speeds to implant the correct patterns
(Prentice, 1994).
Speed training is performed by using high velocity for brief intervals, this will
ultimately bring into play the correct neuromuscular pathways and energy sources
used. It is important to remember that the improvement of running speed is a complex
process which is controlled by the brain and nervous system. In order for a runner to
move more quickly, the leg muscles of course have to contract more quickly, but the
brain and nervous system also have to learn and control these faster movements
efficiently. If you maintain some form of speed training throughout the year, your
muscles and nervous system do not lose the feel of moving fast and the brain will not
have to relearn the proper control patterns at a later date. In the training week, for
example, speed work should be conducted after the warm up and any training should
33
be a low intensity.
Speed development for track events has been extensively documented and will
provide useful general knowledge of the practice of speed development for other
sports. The intensity of training loads for speed development commences around 75%
maximum. Here, the athlete is learning at a relatively high intensity, those
adjustments necessary to maintain the pace of rhythm of a technique, whilst ‘timing’
is put under pressure. Gradually, the athlete moves towards 100% training load.
However, progressing demands that the athlete attempts to surpass existing speed
limits.
Rehearsals of technique at intensities which break new grounds are clearly not
possible in great volume for reasons ranging from mental concentration through to
energy production. It is for this reason, that measures are taken to facilitate the
learning process by training athletes at attitude, pulling the athlete on an elastic rope,
reducing the weight of implements and so on (Beashel & Taylor, 1996)
Just as with strength training practices, the athlete must have mastery of technique
before seeking to progress execution of technique at speed. The sequence of
development is to:

Develop a level of general conditioning which permits learning a sound
basic technique

learn a sound basic technique

Develop a level of specific conditioning which permits progressive
sophistication
Technical components should be learned and stabilized at slower speeds.
Nevertheless, from the outset the athlete should be encouraged to consolidate
technique by accelerating the level of intensity. This is necessary because a transfer of
34
technique learned at a slow speed to the demands of maximum speed is usually very
complex. To this end, practices are used in sprinting where the athlete runs a distance
of about 75m, concentrates on the perfection of running action for 40m, and then
raises the speed of running for 35m. Or again, a technical component, such as those
rehearsed in sprinting drills is worked for 25m and then an athlete gradually
accelerates to near maximum intensity over the next 50m. A hurdler strides over 3
hurdles with 5-7strides in between, then sprints over 3 hurdles with the normal 3stride
patterns. A tennis player brings the speed of service down to that which allows him to
play the ball accurately in the service court and to ‘feel’ the synchronization of each
element in the technique as a basis of development, then to progress pace, but within
the constraints of sound technique.
Finally, the athlete masters that level of speed which permits him to select a given
pace within his range that is sufficient to overcome the challenge of his opposition.
No fatigue should be evident in speed training because it is essential for the nervous
system to be in a state of optimal excitement. Consequently, speed training will
follow immediately upon relevant warm-up (Dick, 1992).
A relationship exists between intensity and extent of loading. If the athlete is working
at maximum intensity, the extent of loading cannot be great. On the other hand, it is
necessary for the athlete to rehearse a technique frequently at high intensity if new
levels of speed are to be stabilized. The following are some of the useful guidelines to
making decisions on extent:
i.
Techniques can be repeated in high volume and high intensity only if
presented in small ‘learning packages’, which ensure the highest speed of
execution, and recovery periods, which permit athletes, timed to consolidate
35
neuromuscular memory patterns. So a large number of sets with small
numbers of repetitions of very high intensity would be most suitable.
ii.
In sprint training, the minimum distance to develop acceleration is that which
allows the athlete to achieve near maximum speed. For most athletes, this is
around 30m -40m. However, in other sports there are constraints imposed by
the confines of the playing area. In some sports, then, the athlete must learn to
achieve maximum acceleration over a very short distance (5-10m) and ‘arrive’
at the conclusion of such a burst of speed, prepared to select and execute a
high precision technique. Soccer, tennis and basketball are examples of such
sports.
iii.
Where maximum speed is being practiced, a limiting factor to effective
rehearsal can be the exhausting process of accelerating to maximum speed.
For example, in long jump, and in games where passing must be practiced at
the highest speed, the athletes must lift their pace from being stationary to the
pace required, this is very tiring. To overcome the problem, some athletes
practice from longer rolling starts or with the assistance of downhill starts.
This means that although the athlete would look for distances of 10 30m to
practice maximum speed itself, it may be necessary to have 40-60m roll-in
reach that speed.
iv.
Optimal values can only be determined by individual testing on how long
maximum speed can be held. The initial problem is of course, to achieve
maximum speed. Coordination and concentration are the keys to extending
this distance, but it is unlikely that if will reach 30m or further without the
assistance offered by altitude.
36
v.
In sprinting, most athletes require 5-6 seconds to achieve maximum speed.
This suggests that distance of 50-60m is required to develop the linking of
initial acceleration and pick-up of maximum speed.
Recovery period between runs at maximum speed must be long enough to restore
working capacity, but short enough to maintain excitement from the nervous system
and optimal body temperature. Giver a reasonable warm climate, the interval between
each run should be 4-6minutes, which creates problems for athletes who train in other
climates. In the interest of gaining optimum advantage from each run, it might be
advisable to allow this interval into warm-up before each run (Dick, 1992).
Sprinting speed can also be developed in other ways:
1. Toeing-the athlete is towed behind a motorcycle at a speed of 0.1 to 0.3
seconds faster that the athlete’s best for a rolling 30metres. This pace is held
for 20metres to 30metres following a gradual build up to maximum speed over
60 metres to 70metres.
2. Elastic Pull- two tabular elastic ropes are attached to the athlete. Two coaches
positioned forward and to each side of the athlete, extend the elastic full
stretch and the athlete is virtually catapulted over the first 10metres from a
standing or crouched start.
3. Downhill sprinting is a safer alternative to developing sprinting speed. A hill
with a maximum of a 15° decline is most suitable. Use 40metres to 60metres
to build up to full speed and then maintain the speed for a further 30metres.
A session could comprise of 2 to3 sets of 3 to 6 repetitions. The difficulty with
this method is to find a suitable hill with a safe surface.
4. Over –speed work could be carried out on the track when there are prevailing
strong winds-run with the wind behind you.
37
5. Some simple reaction speed drills can be used to develop speed.
6. The athletes start in a variety of different positions- lying face down, lying on
their backs, in a push up or sit up positions, kneeling or seated. The coach
standing some 30metres from the group then gives a signal for everyone to
jump up and run towards him/her at slightly faster than race pace. Repeat
using various starting positions and with the coach standing in different places
so that the athletes have to change directions quickly once they begin to run.
Speed reaction drills can also be conducted whilst controlling an item (e.g.
football, basketball, hockey ball) with an implement (e.g. feet, hands, hockey
stick).
The general principles for improved speed are as follows:

Choose a reasonable goal for your event, and then work on running at
velocities, which are actually faster than your goal over short work intervals.

Train at goal pace in order to enhance your neuromuscular coordination,
confidence and stamina at your desired speed.

At first, utilize long recoveries, but as you get fitter and faster shorten the
recovery periods between work intervals to make your training more specific
and realistic to racing. Also move on to longer work intervals, as you are able.

Work on your aerobic capacity and lactate threshold, conduct some easy pace
runs to burn calories and permit recovery from the speed sessions.

Work on your mobility to develop a range of movement (range of motion at
your hips will affect speed) and assist in prevention of injury.
The following is a seven-step model for developing playing speed:

Basic training to develop all qualities of movement to a level that will provide
a solid base on which to build each successive step. This includes program to
38
build each successive step. This includes programs to increase body control,
strength, muscle endurance, and sustained effort(muscular and cardiovascular,
aerobic and anaerobic)

Functional strength and explosive movements against medium to heavy
resistance. Maximum power is trained by working in an intensity range of 55
to 85% of your maximum intensity (IRM).

Ballistics to develop high- speed sending and receiving movements’
plyometrics to develop explosive hopping, jumping, bounding, hitting, and
kicking.

Sprinting form and speed endurance to develop sprinting technique and
improving the length of time you are able to maintain your speed.

Sport loading to develop specific speed. The intensity is 85 to 100% of
maximum speed

Over speed training. This involves systematic application of sporting speed
that exceeds maximum speed by 5 to 10% through the use of various over
speed training techniques.
The ability of an athlete to perform at speed is critical in sprint events as in running,
cycling, rowing and swimming, as examples. In terms of time-scale, this includes
events that last less than 35 seconds and involve the alactacid energy system ( Beashel
& Taylor, 1996). In most sports we generally notice the production of force at speed.
Athletic field events such as the high jump, javelin, and shot put are good examples of
the production of explosive force. Pace is a vital element in the longer sprint events.
Terms such as maximal accelerations and endurance speed , have been used to
describe the different types of speed that a sprinter may employ. Speed is essential for
the good short stop in baseball, the football back, the fencer and the sprinter. Running
39
a distance for time is the most widely accepted measure for speed. However, the
distance must be sufficiently short so that cardio respiratory endurance does not
become a limiting factor.
All athletes want more speed, whether 100m sprinters or marathon runners. After all,
is it more frustrating to lose a track event in the last two meters, or a marathon in the
last two hundred meters? However, it is often assumed that those blessed with great
speed or strength, are born with a higher percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers, and
that no amount of speed works (or neuronal stimulation) will turn a cart-horse into a
race horse. But in fact, fast-twitch fibers are fairly evenly distributed between the
muscles of sedentary people with most possessing 45-55% of both fast-and-slowtwitch varieties. It means that training can develop an athlete in speed. The 30meters
dash and the 50meters sprint with flying start are mainly used to measure running
speed (Dick, 1992).
Reaction time
This is simply defined as the time elapsed between stimulation and the beginning of
reaction to that stimulation (Corbin et al, 2000). It can also be defined as the amount
of time between the presentation of an unanticipated stimulus and the start of a
response (Beashel & Taylor, 1996). It is important to emphasize that reaction time
does not include movement time. Reaction time can be said to be innate and is
primarily affected by one’s state of mental alertness. It adds up to the output
especially in terms of running speed.
According to Kosinki (2005) reaction to sound is faster than reaction to light, with
mean auditory reaction times being 140-160msec and visual stimulus takes 2040msec. He mentioned also that reaction time to touch is intermediate; at 155msec.
40
Differences in reaction time between these types of stimuli persist whether the subject
is asked to make a simple response or a complex response.
Kosinki (2005) also found out that visual stimuli that are longer in duration elicit
faster reaction times and got the same result for auditory stimuli. He continued that
the difference between reaction time to light and sound could be eliminated if
sufficiently high stimulus intensity was used.
There are 3 major factors, which typically occur when reaction time is measured for
example, the subject is often (not always) given a “warning signal” which alerts him
or her that a “stimulus signal” will occur, to which the subject must respond (initiation
of response). The warning signal and the stimulus signal could be in any sensory
modality, for example, vision, hearing or touch, and the required response can be any
designated movement involving part or all of the body, the purpose of the for period,
which usually ranges from one to five seconds, is to guard against the subject
anticipating when the stimulus signal will rise.
Although there are examples of reaction time to single stimuli, such as the starter’s
gun in a sprint race, sports also provide us with situations where we must react
quickly and choose among a variety of stimuli, for example, the hockey goal-keeper
trying to anticipate where the shot will come from (Dick, 1992).
According to Beashel and Taylor (1996), choice reaction time gives us a measure of
the ability to discriminate among several stimuli and decide on the response. A
primary factor influencing decision –making is the number of possible stimuli , each
requiring specific responses that are presented. It has been found, that the reaction
time gradually increases as the number of possible alternatives increases. This finding
forms the basis of Hick’s law which maintains that there is a linear relationship
41
between reaction time (decision –making time) and the amount of information to be
processed (Beashel & Taylor, 1996). While the law itself may seem clinical, it can be
translated into very practical suggestions. Many sports skills require rapid decision –
making situations, for example, defending against a punch in boxing, intercepting a
pass in netball or blocking a shot in basketball. By deliberately increasing the number
of stimulus – response alternatives you present to your opponent, you automatically
delay his or her processing time. A sensible strategy would be to develop various
shots, strokes, moves from a given situation, rather than always producing the one
alternative which your opponent can process quickly (Beashel & Taylor, 1996). It is
accepted that increasing compatibility decreases choice reaction time. Practical
examples in incompatible situations might be in sailing when the sailor has to move
the tiller to the right for the boat to go left, or the aerobics instructor who faces the
class while demonstrating movements left and right. The learner has to actually move
in the opposite direction (unless the teacher has already reversed the moves) (Beashel
& Taylor, 1996).
A final element , which influences choice reaction time, is the nature and amount of
practice. It is accepted, that although practice does not greatly affect simple reaction
time, it can have a pronounced effect in reducing choice reaction time, especially
when there are large numbers of alternatives or when compatibility is low.
Essentially, highly skilled performers have spent hours practicing the myriad
alternatives available to them so that they appear to almost process information
automatically (Beashel & Taylor, 1996). The actual stimulus situation is no different,
but the links between stimuli and responses appear more natural or compatible, thus
reducing choice reaction time. It is also during the decision-making process that a
42
phenomenon known as the Psychological Refractory Period sometimes occurs.
According to Beashel and Taylor (1996) there is only a “single-channel” through
which all information must pass and this sometimes means that delay in processing
will occur if there is more than one stimulus to be processed. For example, if a first
stimulus is given to which the subject must respond, then a second stimulus is also
given. Typically, the second stimulus will have to wait until the first stimulus has
been processed. This delay in reacting to the second stimulus is known as the
Psychological Refractory Period and is a common Phenomenon is sport, for example,
when a player sells a dummy or fake. A basketball player may fake (first stimulus ) to
jump –shoot but he remains firmly on the ground. Meanwhile, his opponent jumps
(first response) to try to block the faked shot. Once the opponent has begun his
movement, the player can then dribble the ball past the airborne defender (second
stimulus) by which time the defender realizes that he must quickly respond to the
actual play (second response).
The other type of processing is known as response section or more specifically, motor
programme selection. This implies the selection of an already formulated response
from memory (Beashel & Taylor, 1996). For example, a soccer player may decide
that he needs to pass the ball to a teammate who is in a better position than he is.
However, the question is how he selects the most appropriate action that will enable
the pass get to his teammate. His ability to do that is known as the response selection.
Classical explanations of these phenomena assumed the use of a motor programme.
This predetermined set of neural commands, are structured before a movement
begins, and controls the execution of each particular movement. It is now thought that
rather than calling up a specific motor programme from central store, the performer
43
calls upon an abstract programming rule. This is applied to a give situation by
considering the initial starting conditions of the individual, the repertoire of similar
responses, and the expected sensory consequences of the action. If variation caused by
the type of reaction time experiment, type of stimulus, and stimulus intensity are
ignored, there are still many factors affecting reaction time. One of the most
investigated factors affecting time is “arousal” or state of attention including muscular
tension. Reaction time is fastest with an intermediate level of arousal and deteriorates
when the subject is either too relaxed or too tense. According to Kosinki (2005), it is
found out that subjects, who had to react to an auditory stimulus by extending their
legs, had faster reaction times if they performed a 3 second isometric contraction of
the leg muscles prior to the stimulus. One might expect that the muscle contraction
itself would be faster (because the muscle was warmed up), but what was surprising
was that the precontraction part of the reaction time was shorter too. It was as if the
isometric contraction allowed the brain to work faster.
Age is another factor that affects the reaction time. According to Welford (1980),
reaction time shortens from infancy into the late 20s, then increases slowly until the
50s and 60s and then lengthens faster as the person gets into his 70s and beyond. He
also reported that his age effect was more marked for complex reaction time tasks.
Reaction time also becomes more variable with age. They also speculates on the
reason for slow reaction time with age. It may be the tendency of older people to be
more careful and monitor their responses more thoroughly. When troubled by a
distraction, order people also tend to devote their exclusive attention to one stimulus,
and ignore another stimulus, more completely than younger people. It was also found
that old people who tend to fall in nursing homes had a significantly slower reaction
44
time than those that did not tend to fall. Teenagers between 15-19 years have a
reaction time of 187msec for light stimuli and 158 for sound stimuli (Welford, 1980).
Another factor that affects reaction time is gender. At the risk of being politically
incorrect, in almost every age group, males have faster reaction times than females,
and female disadvantage is not reduced by practice. Kosinki (2005) reported that
mean time to press a key in response to a light was 220msec for males and 260msec
for females; of sound the difference was 190msec for males and 200msec foe females.
He found out that almost all of the male-females were accounted for by the lag
between the presentation of the stimulus and the beginning of muscle contraction
times were same for males and females.
In a surprising finding by Kosinki (2005), he found the gradual dehydration (loss of
2.6% of body weight over a 7-day period) caused females to have lengthened choice
reaction times. But he added that while men were faster than women at aiming at a
target, the women were more accurate. It was also found out; it is the same in men
and women (Kosinki, 2005).
Another factor that affects reaction time is left and right hand. The hemisphere of the
cerebrum is specialized for different tasks. The left hemisphere is regarded as the
verbal and logical brain and the right hemisphere is thought to govern creativity and
spatial relations, among other things. Also the right hemisphere controls the left and
the left controls the right hand. This has made researchers like Boulinquez,
Bartelemy, Dane and Erzurumlugo think that the left hand should be faster at reaction
time involving spatial relationship such as pointing at a target (Kosinki, 2005).
They also found out, that among handball players, the left handed people are faster
than the right handed people when the test involved the left hand, but there was no
45
difference between reaction times of the right and left-handers when using the right
hand, although right-handed male handball players have faster reaction times than
right handed women.
They concluded that left-handed people have an inherent reaction time advantage. In
an experiment using a computer mouse, they found, however, that right-handed
people were faster with their right hand was expected, but left-handed people were
equally fast with both hands. The preferred hand is generally faster. However, the
reaction time advantage of the preferred; over the non-preferred hands was so small
that they recommended alternative hands when using a computer mouse (Kosinki,
2005)
Direct and peripheral vision is another factor that affects reaction time. According to
Welford (1980), visual stimuli perceived by different portions of the eye produce
different reaction times. The fastest reaction time comes when a stimulus is seen by
the cone that is when the person is looking right at the stimulus. If the rods pick up the
stimulus, that is, around the edge of the eyes, the reaction is slower. It is also true, that
visual stimulus in central vision shortened the reaction time to a stimulus in peripheral
vision, and vice versa.
According to Sanders (1998) practice and errors is another factor that affect reaction
time. He showed, that when subjects are new to a reaction time task, their reaction
times are less consistent when they have had an adequate amount of practice. Also, if
a subject makes an error in pressing the spacebar before the stimulus is presented for
instance, subsequent reaction times are slower, as if the subject is being more
cautious. Kosinki (2005) found that reaction time to a visual stimulus decreased with
three weeks of practice and also that the effect of practice lasted for at least three
46
weeks. He also indicated that training older people to resist falls by stepping out to
stabilize themselves did improve their reaction time.
Fatigue is also seen as another factor that affects reaction time task is complicated
than when it is simple. Mental fatigue, especially sleepiness has the greatest effect.
Welford (1980) found no effect of purely muscular fatigue on reaction time. He also
found that 24 hours of sleep deprivation lengthened the reaction times of 20-25 year
old subjects, but had no effect on the reaction times of 52-63 year old subjects. He
studied workers who were allowed to take a nap on the job, and found that although
the workers thought the nap had improved their alertness, there was no effect on
choice reaction.
Fasting is another factor that affects reaction time. According to Kosinki (2005),
fasting for three days without food does not decrease reaction, although it does impair
capacity to do work.
Distraction is also a factor that has an effect on reaction time. The study showed that
distraction in creased reaction time. It is clear that college students given a stimulated
drinking task had longer reaction times when giving simultaneous auditory tasks. The
conclusion is drawn about safety effects of driving while using a cellular phone.
Welford (1980) found that subjects strapped to a platform that periodically changed
orientation had slowed reaction time before and during platform movement. Under
distraction as a factor, reaction time to auditory stimuli is more affected than response
to visual stimuli.
Warning of an impending stimulus can also affect reaction. Welford (1980) reports,
that, reaction times are faster when the subject has been warned that a stimulus will
arrive soon. In the reaction time programme, the delay is never more than 3sec, but
47
Welford (1980) reports that even 5minutes of warning helps. He also found out that as
long as the warning was longer than about 0.2sec, the shorter the warning was, the
faster reaction time was. This effect probably occurs because attention and muscular
tension cannot be maintained at a high level for more than a few seconds (Welford,
1980) .
According to Kosinki (2005), subjects who had drunk an impairing dose of alcohol
reacted faster when they were warned that this was enough alcohol to slow their
reaction time. Unwarned subjects, who were drunk, suffered more decreased reaction
times. However, the warned subjects were also less inhibited and careful in their
responses. Even subjects who drank some non-alcoholic beverage and then were
warned falsely about impairment by alcohol, reacted faster than unwarned subjects
who drank the same beverage.
Welford (1980) and Sanders (1998) observed that when there are several types of
stimuli, reaction time would be faster where there is a ‘run’ of several identical
stimuli than when the different types of stimuli appears in mixed order . This is also
called the “sequential effect”. This is also a factor that affects reaction time. They also
found, that the shifting of attention between two different types of task caused an
increase in reaction time to both tasks.
Kosinki (2005) also found that reaction time is faster when the stimulus occurred
during expiration than during inspiration. Finger tremble are another factor that
affects reaction time. According to Welford (1980), fingers tremble up and down at
the rate of 8-10secs and reaction times are faster if the reaction occurs when the finger
is already on the “downswing” part of the tremor.
48
Another factor that has effect on reaction time is personality type. Kosinki (2005)
postulated that extroverted personality types had faster reaction times and Welford
(1980) also said that anxious personality types had faster reaction times. According to
Kosinki (1980), neurotic college students had more variable reaction times than their
more stable peers.
Exercise can also affect reaction time. Welford (1980) found, that physically fit
individuals had faster reaction times. He also showed that subjects had subjects had
the fastest reaction times when they were exercising sufficiently to produce a heart
rate of 115 beats per minute. Kosinki (2005) found that vigorous exercise did improve
choice reaction time, but only for 8minutes after the exercise. Exercise had no effect
on the percent of correct choices the subject made. On the other hand , there was no
effect of exercise on reaction time in a test of soccer skill and that choice reaction
time and error rate in soccer players were not affected by exercise on stationary
bicycle. He also found out, that there is not post-exercise effect in runners, but did
find that exercise improved reaction time during exercise. This was attributed to
increased arousal during exercise.
Punishment can also affect reaction time. Shocking a subject when he reacts slowly
does shorten reaction time. Simply making the subject feel anxious about his
performance has the same effect, at least, on simple reaction time tasks (Kosinki,
2005).
One other factor that is worth mentioning that affects reaction time is the use of
stimulant drugs. Caffeine has often been studied in connection with reaction time.
Kosinki (2005) found, that moderate doses of caffeine decreased the time it takes
subjects to find a target stimulus and to prepare a response for a complex reaction
49
time task. He also found that the amount of caffeine in one cup of coffee can reduce
reaction time and increase ability to resist distraction and can do so within minutes
after consumption. He also said, that soldiers in simulated urban combat maintained
their marksmanship sill and their reaction times through a prolonged period without
sleep better than when given caffeine. According to Sanders (1998), caffeine can
reduce the slowing effect of alcohol on reaction time, but cannot prevent other effects
such as body sway. On the other hand, he continued, that using software and a “Spotthe Dot” test, found that drinking one cup of either caffeinated or caffeine-free cola
had no detectable effect on reaction time. the administering of an amphetamine – like
drug to a group of elderly men did not make their reaction times faster, although it did
make their physical responses more vigorous (Kosinki, 2005). Another very important
factor that affects reaction time is intelligence. The tenuous link between intelligence
and reaction time is reviewed by Kosinki (2005).
Serious mental retardation produces slower and more variable reaction times. Among
people of normal intelligence, there is a slight tendency for more intelligent people to
have faster reaction times, but there is much variation between people of similar
intelligence (Kosinki, 2005). The speed advantage of more intelligent people is
greatest on tests requiring complex responses.
One other factor that affects reaction time is brain injury. According to Welford
(1980), as might be expected, brain injury slows reaction time, but different types of
responses are slowed to different degrees. He also said that high school athletes with
concussions and headaches a week after injury had worse performance on reaction
time and memory test than athletes with concussion, but no headache a week after
50
injury. Minor upper respiratory track infections slow reaction, make mood more
negative, and cause disturbance of sleep (Kosinki, 2005).
Starting and stopping a stopwatch is a good measure to test how quickly one reacts to
stimuli, but others like the ruler drop test and Nelson-Choice response Movement test
are all good measures for testing reaction time
Summary
The purpose of the study was to determine the motor skill related physical fitness
status of boys and girls pupils of university practice primary and Zion ‘A’ primary
school , all in the Winneba Municipality, in the Central Region of Ghana.
The assessment measured some of the components of motor skill-related physical
fitness. These components were Agility, Balance, Speed, Reaction time and
Accuracy. Several test options were available for each component but only one was
selected for each area.
Reaction time is simply defined as the time elapsed between stimulation and the
beginning of reaction to that stimulation. It can also be defined as the amount of time
between the presentation of an unanticipated stimulus and the start of a response. It is
important to emphasize that reaction time does not include one’s state of mental
alertness. It adds up to the innate and is primarily affected by one’s state of mental
alertness. It adds up to the output, especially in terms of running speed. Although
there are examples of reaction time to single stimuli, such as the starter’s gun in a
sprint race. Sports also provide us with situations where we must react quickly and
choose among variety of stimuli, for example, the hockey goalkeeper trying to
anticipate where the shot will come from. Starting and stopping a stopwatch is a good
51
measure to test how quickly one reacts to stimuli, but others like the stick drop test
and Nelson choice- response movement tests are all good for testing reaction time.
Speed on the other hand is defined as the production to repeated maximal muscular
contractions over a short distance within a minimal period of time. Speed can be
improved by practice. For example, speed in running can be increased if one should
learn to run in the proper manner. The foot should recover this position as quickly as
possible, recover in that position (so that it makes the leg a shorter lever) and in the
downswing stay dorsiflexed before impact losing their pre-stretch (losing power).
This increases contact time and allows them to contact the ground early. Every time
an athlete hits the ground the first part of contact involves losing momentum. This can
be minimized by maintaining dorsiflexion and having a fast moving backward
(active) foot. Obviously, movement time is decreased, if one stands too straight or too
far forward when running for speed.
Speed is essential for the good shot stop in baseball, the football back, the fencer, and
the sprinter. Running a distance for time is the most widely accepted measure for
speed. However, the distance must be sufficiently short so that cardio respiratory
endurance does not become a limiting factor. The 50metre dash sprint is mainly used
to measure running speed.
52
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The aim of this study was to determine the motor skill-related physical fitness of boys
and girls in university practice primary school, specifically working on classes 3,4 and
5 in Winneba, north campus. The purpose of the study was to find out if any
differences existed in the motor skill – related physical fitness variables between the
two groups of pupils. This chapter explains how the study was conducted. Items
discussed in this chapter include the following: research design, population, sample,
and sampling procedure, instrument, validity and reliability of instrument, data
collection and data analysis procedure.
Research Design
A cross – sectional, descriptive design was utilized to conduct this study. Data was
collected to determine the current motor skill-related physical fitness levels of boys
and girls to find out if any significant difference existed between them.
Population
The term population refers to the complete set of individuals(subjects), objects or
events having common observable characteristics in which the researcher is interested
in studying (Agyedu, Donkor, & Obeng, 2007). The target population for the study
were the pupils of university practice primary school. The school total pupils’
enrolment of university practice primary was one hundred and twenty (120). Majority
of the pupils are boys with their ages ranging between eight (8) and thirteen (13) years
in the school.
53
Sample and Sampling Techniques
The researcher used purposive technique to select the school. Because the school is
located near the University of Education, they use university facilities which are an
advantage to them. Sixty (60) pupils from university practices primary School were
tested. They ranged from 8 to 13 years of age. There were 20 pupils from each class,
consisting boys and girls. Within the participants, there were 10 boys and 15 girls who
participated in agility, balance, accuracy, speed and reaction time tests. For the
selection of the participant for this study, simple random sampling procedure was
used to select the pupils for the study so that each pupil of the population will have
the equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. A table of random
numbers was used to get the pupil for the study from class 3, 4 and 5 and the random
numbers was generated from the computer. In this regard, data that was obtained from
this sample was the one from which generalisations or an inference about the entire
population was made.
Instruments of the study
The measuring instruments for the agility was shuttle run test, balance -standing
stroke test, accuracy -throw hit test , speed - 50m dash test and reaction time- ruler
drop test.
The instruments have been validated and found to be reliable and are widely used in
the United States of America, Europe and other parts of the world for all categories of
people.
According to Fleishman (1964) as cited in Verducci (1980) stated that
construct validity for speed was used in selecting this measuring instrument (50m
dash). The test – retest reliability coefficient was 0.86 and 0.94 Jackson and
Baumgartner (1969) as cited in Verducci (1980).
54
For shuttle run test, Fleishman (1964) concluded in his study that a shuttle run
measures explosive strength broad jump, but that each of these emphasises different
parts of the body. The shuttle run and 50m dash are general measures with the shuttle
run involving legs, speed and gross body movement. Fleishman obtained a reliability
coefficient of 0.85 on the shuttle run.
Again, construct validity for balance, accuracy and reaction time were used in
developing the measuring instrument and a test – retest reliability of the instruments
were 0.83, 0.82 for throw hit test and 0.98 for ruler drop test (Ogum, 2000).
Testing Procedures
The test was taken on 13th and 16th August, 2011 (Tuesday to Friday), from 9:00a.m.
to 1:00p.m. on the field of the Public Schools. First of all, the researcher distributed
record sheets to the pupils and explains the testing procedure in details. Then, a 5minute to 10-minute warm up session was given to the pupils before the testing. Also,
a letter of consent was given to the pupils two weeks before the test. The pupils and
their guardians signed on the letter and returned it to the researcher before testing.
Standing Stroke Test
The standing stroke test requires the person to stand on one leg. The purpose is to
assess the ability to balance on the ball of the foot. The equipment required are flat,
non-slip surface, stopwatch, paper and pencil. Pupil removed their shoes and places
the hands on the hips, then position the non-supporting foot against the inside knee of
the supporting leg. The pupil is given one minute to practice the balance. The pupil
raises the heel to balance on the ball of the foot. The stopwatch is started as the heel is
raised from the floor. The stopwatch is stopped if any of the follow occur:
55
o
the hand(s) come off the hips
o
the supporting foot swivels or moves (hops) in any direction
o
the non-supporting foot loses contact with the knee.
o
the heel of the supporting foot touches the floor.
Scoring: The total time in seconds is recorded. The score is the best of three attempts.
50m Dash Test
The equipment and materials used for the test were stopwatches, cones and tape. As
for the setting, a 50 meter running track with two lanes that was straight, level and
placed cross-wind were set with cones, and the start line and finish line were marked
by tape.
Two pupils ran at the same time. Both started from a standing position. The
commands, “ready” and “go!” were given. At the command to go, the starter drops his
or her arm so that the timer at the finish line could start the timing. The pupils ran as
fast as possible across the finish line.
Two trials were administered with 30 seconds rests provided after each trial to the
pupil. Tester recorded the time taken to the nearest 0.01 of a second on the record
56
sheet. The best trial was recorded as the score (Johnson & Nelson, 1986[as cited in
Yin, 2004]).
Ruler Drop Test
The equipment used for the test was Metre ruler and assistant. Ruler was held by the
assistant between the outstretched index finger and thumb of the pupil dominant hand,
so that the top of the pupil’s thumb is level with the zero centimetre line on the ruler.
The assistant instructs the pupil to catch the ruler as soon as possible after it has been
released and then releases the ruler and the pupil catches the ruler between their index
finger and thumb as quick as possible. The assistant records distance between the
bottom of the ruler and the top of the pupil’s thumb where the ruler has been caught.
The test was repeated 2 more times with no rest in between and the average value was
used in the assessment.
57
Shuttle Run Test
The equipment and materials used for the test were stopwatches, bean bags, and
colour tape. As for the setting, two parallel lines were marked on the ground 10
meters apart (measured between the two inside edges of the line), then the cones were
placed on either side of the start and finish line.
The pupils stood behind the starting line and on the signal “Go” ran to the opposite
line, picked up a bean bag, pivoted and returned to the start line; the pupils then
repeated the process with the second bean bag.
Two trials were given with 30 seconds rests allowed between them. Tester recorded
the time taken to the nearest 0.01 of a second. The faster trial was recorded as score
(Johnson & Nelson, 1986[as cited in Yin, 2004]).
Throw hit test
A Milo tin placed 10metre away from the pupil. The pupils gages and throw a tennis
ball for it to enter the object. Each pupil has in his or her disposal 90seconds. The
pupil with the highest success is measured to have the most accuracy rate.
Data collection procedure
In July 30, 2011, the researcher sent a letter to the head of the sampled school; a
detailed testing procedure, the pupil’s consent forms, and the data collection form to
the University practices primary. After receiving the permission for data collection
from the head, the Physical Education teacher would be contacted directly to make
arrangement for the test.
58
Each pupil has a record sheet which was distributed to the physical education teachers
who were trained for the recording of the test. The sheet was used to write down the
personal information and the results of each testing.
Before the test, the pupils had 5-minute to 10-minute warm up session.
The data on each pupil’s performance in the tests and the measurements of motor
skill-related physical fitness components were collected with the help of five (5)
research assistants who are physical education tutors and have knowledge of test and
measurement. The research assistants were briefed on the mode of the assessment.
One day was used to collect the data for the group. It was at university practice field,
there all the pupils of university practice primary who whose chosen were tested using
the five items. The pupils were briefed a day earlier and were given details of what
was entitled in the test and measurement. Just after morning assembly, the pupils in
the company of one of their teachers arrived on the field for the testing. After, taking
the pupils round the 5 test venues on the field, the research assistants took them
through vigorous warm-up and stretching for 5 to 10 minutes before the testing began.
The testing started at 8.05am and ended at 12.55pm. The research assistants were
given special assignments which they carried throughout the testing for day. The
research assistants were responsible for a component each. Recording sheet was given
to each pupil who gave them to the research assistants on the arrival at that point for
the scores to be recoded.
The pupils were asked to complete the standing stroke Test, the 50m Dash Test, the
Shuttle Run Test; the throw hit test and the ruler drop test on the same day.
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Data analysis procedure
The data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Windows
15.0. The data collected was entered onto the SPSS programme. The test instruments
were entered first and then they were given codes and divided into the boys and girls.
The data were analysed using the mean, standard deviation, standard error deviation
and independent sample t-test. The independent sample t-test used to test for the
significant differences was chosen because there were only two different groups for
comparison. The independent samples t-test was used to find out whether any
differences existed among the boys and girls concerning the motor skill related
physical fitness levels. It tested the statistical hypothesis that there would be no
significant difference in motor skill related fitness between boys and girls at 0.05
alpha level of significant.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The purpose of the study was to find out the motor skill related physical fitness levels
of boys and girls pupils, and to find out if some differences existed between them.
The chapter presents the analyses of data obtained from boys and girls of university
practice primary school in Winneba.
It also presents a summary of findings and discussion of the results.
Hypothesis 1:-There would be no significant different in accuracy test scores
between boys and girls motor skill performance.
Table 1
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Accuracy (throw hit test).
GENDER
M
SD
SED
N
df
T
sig
Boys
2.33
1.295
0.237
30
58.0
-0.382
0.704
Girls
2.47
1.408
0.257
30
source : Field data ( October , 2011)
p>.05, NS= not significant
Table 1 illustrates the test values obtained by both boys and girls. The independent
samples t-test analysis showed that there was no significant difference between the
boys and the girls with boys (t (58) = -0.382, p> .05). Whiles the boys obtained a
mean of 2.33, the girls obtained a mean of 2.47. Boys obtained a standard deviation
(SD) of 1.295, whilst the girls obtained 1.408. The standard error deviation (SED) of
girls was slightly higher than that of the boys which are 0.257 and 0.237 respectively.
The hypothesis which stated that there would be no significant difference between
boys and girls motor skill performance regarding accuracy scores (throw hit test) was
accepted.
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Hypothesis 2:- There would be no significant difference in balance test scores
between boys and girls motor skill performance.
Table 2
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Balance (standing stroke).
GENDER
M
SD
SED
N
df
T
Sig
Boys
17.80
11.547
2.108
30
58.0
-2.43
0.458
Girls
25.50
12.945
2.363
30
source : Field data ( October , 2011)
p>.05, NS= not significant
Table 2 outline the test values obtained by both boys and girls on the bass test for
balance. Whereas the boys had a mean of 17.80, the girls had 25.50 as the mean
value. This showed that the girls performed better in balance test.
The independent sample t-test showed that there was no significance difference
between boys and girls at (t (58.0 = - 2.43, p > .05). This also indicated that the
hypothesis, which stated that there would be no significant difference regarding
balance (standing stroke) test scores is true so the hypothesis was accepted.
Hypothesis 3:-There would be no significant difference in speed test scores between
boys and girls motor skills performance
Table 3
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls in running Speed (50m dash).
GENDER M
SD
SED
N
df
t
Sig
Boys
9.53
5.104
0.932
30
58.0
0.699
0.939
Girls
8.53
5.952
1.087
30
source : Field data ( October , 2011)
62
Table 3 illustrates the test values obtained by boys and girls. In the speed performance
which measured by the 50m dash test, mean score for the girls was 8.53 which was
better than the boys with the mean score of 9.53. Moreover, there was no significant
mean difference between the boys and the girls (t (58) = 0.699, p> .05). So the
hypothesis stated for boys and girls motor skill performance that there would be no
significant mean difference in speed test scores between them was accepted.
The finding also revealed with the girls mean 8.53 indicated that the girls have more
speed than the boys. The t-test value indicates that though the mean shows that girls
have more speed than boys it is not significant. This result is in support with
Butterfield, Lehnhard, Lee and Coladarci (2004) which states that there was no sex
different in running speed of 11 to 13 years of age for either initial status or growth
rate.
Hypothesis 4:- There would be no significant difference in agility test scores between
boys and girls motor skills performance.
Table 4
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Agility test scores (shuttle run).
GENDER M
SD
SED
N
df
t
sig
Boys
8.43
5.418
0.989
30
58.0
-0.148
0.199
Girls
8.60
2.966
0.542
30
source : Field data ( October , 2011)
With reference to table 4 on agility which measured the shuttle run test of boys and
girls obtained mean value of 8.43 and 8.60, standard deviation of 5.418 and 2.966,
and standard error deviation of 0.989 and 0.542 respectively. The independent sample
t-test indicated that there was no significant difference between girls and boys at (t
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(58.0) = - 0.167, p > .05). Consequently, hypothesis which stated that there would be
no significant difference in agility test scores between boys and girls was accepted.
This finding for the mean was not surprising because the girls were expected to more
agile than boys in general. Polland, Sigward, & Powers (2007) as cited in Carol and
Fabes (2008) also agreed and said girls are more flexible in their hip joints so they
are agile than the boys.
Hypothesis 5:- There would be no significant difference in reaction time test scores
between boys and girls motor skills performance.
Table 5
Independent samples t-test of the Boys and Girls Reaction time (Ruler drop test).
GENDER
M
SD
SED
N
df
t
sig
Boys
13.60
7.171
1.309
30
58.0
-0.129
0.770
Girls
13.83
6.838
1.249
30
source : Field data ( October , 2011)
Table 5 outlines the values obtained by both boys and girls in the ruler drop test for
reaction time. Whereas the boys had a mean value of 13.60, the girls had a value of
13.83. This showed that the girls reacted faster in the ruler drop test than the boys.
The independent samples t-test of (t (58.0) = - 0.129, p> .05) showed that the
hypothesis which stated that there would be no significant mean difference in reaction
time of boys and girls motor skill performance was true so the hypothesis was
accepted.
The finding on ruler drop test in table 5 revealed that, the reaction time of girls was
better than that of the boys.
The independent samples t-test value of – 0.129 indicates that the widely accepted
view that girls are quick to react is really true.
64
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of the study was to compare the motor skill–related physical fitness
levels of boys and girls pupils of class 3, 4 and 5 in Winneba and to find out if any
differences existed.
This chapter presents the summary alongside the conclusion and recommendations.
Presentation of the subject matter is under the following subheadings;
i.
Overview of Research Problem and Methodology
ii.
Summary of Findings
iii.
Conclusion
iv.
Recommendations
Overview of Research Problem and Methodology
The major research problem of the study focused on the motor –skills performance
between the boys and girls using standing stroke test, ruler drop test, throw hit test,
shuttle run test and 50m dash test. The study involved a randomized population of 60
pupils aged between 8 and 13 years, from university practice primary school, in the
Winneba municipality. The data for the study were collected in one day. In the
university practice primary school field at school premises for the pupils from
university practice primary school Data obtained from the test of both boys and girls
were analyzed using the independent sample t-test to determine whether any
significant differences existed.
65
Summary of Findings
The summary of the study is presented in five main sections according to the
hypotheses. The result revealed that:1. In the accuracy performance, the girls performed little higher than the boys
when the mean are compared but the independent t-test samples indicated that
there was no significant difference between the boys and girls.
2. In the standing stroke test for balance for the boys and girls, the results
indicated that girls have more balance than the boys when you looked at their
means. But there was no significant difference between the boys and girls in
balance.
3. There was no significant mean difference (p > .05) in running speed
performance between boys and girls motor skill execution.
4. Between the boys and girls, there was no significant difference (p > .05) in the
agility performance.
5. In the ruler drop test item for reaction time, the pupil had a full visualization of
the examiner because the student went through eye test examination organised
by happy eye clinic from Accra a day before the researcher went for the
collection of data. The participants that were used for the study were declared
visually fit.
Conclusion
Within the delimitations and limitations of this study, based on the data analysis, the
conclusion made was that there are no differences between boys and girls in the
performance of motor skills in primary 3, 4 and 5 of university practice. Also in
66
comparing the mean values in general from the tables, it was observed that the girls
performed better than the boys in all the activities.
Recommendations
Based on the results of present study, the following recommendations are presented as
suggestions for further study:
1. In this study, the sample size is not large enough which may affect the
reliability of the study in expressing the difference in motor performance
between boys and girls. The sample size of further study should be larger so
that the study can be more representative.
2. The pupils being examined in this study were the 8 – 13 years old children;
therefore, the findings may not be applicable to other age groups.
3. More professional physical education teachers should be posted to the basic
schools to help them in the acquisition of motor skill.
4. In service training should be given to those already in the field.
67
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APPENDIX A
Letter to the head of University Practice Primary school
Asesewa Senior High School
P. O. Box 4
Asesewa.
Date: 18th July, 2011.
The Head teacher,
University Practice Primary School,
North Campus,
Winneba.
Dear Sir/ Madam,
Gender factor in motor skills performance of selected basic schools pupils in
Winneba, Central Region of Ghana
I am Master of Education final year student majoring in Physical Education in
University of Education , Winneba and my honours dissertation is conducting a study
on the gender factor in motor skills performance of selected basic schools pupils in
Winneba, central Region of Ghana.
I should be grateful if you could allow 60 pupils who are primary 3 to
primary 5 (There should be 30 boys and 30girls.) to participate in this research on
th
19 July, 2011, from 10:00a.m. to 1:00p.m. In this research, 5 motor skills
performances will be tested, including dynamic balance, speed, agility, accuracy and
reaction time. All data obtained will be kept strictly confidential.
If you have inquires, please feel free to contact me at 0244963202. Your
help would be greatly appreciated.
Yours sincerely,
(
)
Bliss Dziedzorm Addo
72
APPENDIX B
Data Collection Form
A) Personal Information:
Name: ________________
Age: _________
Sex: _________
Class: ________
B) Testing Score:
1. Throw hit test
Trial 1: successful hits................
Trial 2: successful hits.................
2. Ruler drop test
Trial 1: ______cm
Trial 2: ______cm
3. 50m Dash
Trial 1: ______sec.
Trial 2: ______sec.
4. Standing stroke test
Trial 1: ______sec.
Trial 2: ______sec.
5. Shuttle run
Trial 1: ______sec.
Trial 2: ______sec.
73
74