Aggression (Linked to Sport)
Certain types of behaviour and aggression are
acceptable/unacceptable in sporting situations. Some
have argued that the increase in aggressive behaviour on
the pitch is a reflection of society.
Aggression can be demanded by coaches, i.e. ‘win the
ball’. The serve volley in tennis, full court press in
basketball, big hits in rugby etc. Aggression in this case
means the performer is being energetic and persistent in
his actions.
The other side is negative aggression, eg. Stamping /
head butting in rugby, verbal abuse to officials, fights
etc. Aggression in this case denotes anti-social
behaviour.
Different people may view the same incident and
disagree to its acceptability. So defining aggression in
sport is not always easy.
Definition of Aggression
Baron’s (1977) ‘Aggression is any form of behaviour
toward the goal of harming or injuring another living
being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.’
This definition suggests aggression is intentional and a
deliberate behaviour. It can be inferred that aggression :
 Is a first act of hostility or injury
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 Involves physical or verbal action/behaviour
(thinking is not being aggressive unless it leads to
action)
 Involves an implied intention
 Ultimately damaging, physically/mentally
Anger is not seen as aggression but a state of emotional
and physiological arousal- aggression is usually seen as
the destructive behavioural expression of anger.
Clarifying between what is acceptable and what is not
Buss (1961), feshback (1964) and Moyer (1976) made
the distinction betweem the two types:
1 Hostile aggression – aimed at hurting someone,
inflicting injury.
2 Instrumental aggression – aggression to achieve a
non – aggressive goal. E.g. praise, money-victory.
Instrumental (also known as channelled) aggression
appears initially more acceptable and covers most
examples in sport.
Both types involve the intention to hurt or cause pain,
and it is debatable whether or not they should be
encouraged in sport.
In trying to end the confusion of the word aggression the
term assertive behaviour was suggested by Husman and
Silva (1984).
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Assertive Behaviour
Assertive behaviour is seen as acceptable but forceful
behaviour, it is also:
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Goal directed behaviour
Use of legitimate verbal or physical force
Behaviour which has no intention to harm or injure
Behaviour which doesn’t violate rules/laws of game
Subjective interpretations of assertive behaviour can also
be a problem, i.e. what is a high tackle in rugby, what is
a deliberate foul in hockey?
An action is described as aggression when the intention
is clearly to harm or injure someone outside the laws of
the game.
Many sports by their nature involve a lot of contact,
which can lead to misuse or misinterpretation by officials
Officials often take into account the context of the
assertive action eg. What has gone on before, state of the
game, where on the pitch incident happened etc.
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In discriminating between assertion and aggression
sports psychologists accept there are ambiguities.
In sports such as rugby, hockey, ice hockey or wrestling
the grey area is larger than non contact sports.
**Work through activity 8 page 567**
Theories of Aggression
Is it nature or nurture?
 Are aggressive individuals born with certain innate
characteristics or
 Are they a product of learning and environmental
influences
The main theories associated with these questions are:
 Instinct theory
 Drive theory/frustration aggression hypothesis
 Social learning theory
Instinct theory
View aggression as instinctive within human beings,
developed as a result of evolution. In our fight for
survival aggression is seen as inevitable. Two distinct
perspectives
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Psychoanalytical approach
Freud approach to the instinct theory of aggression,
aggression viewed as a destructive force.
Aggressive tendencies expressed in the self destructive
death instinct. This is balanced by our life instincts.
Freud and Lorenze saw aggression building up within the
person with life instincts helping to direct it away from
self and into some other form of aggression. This could
be acceptable or unacceptable behaviour.
Ethological approach
Lorenze compared human behaviour to animals and their
aggressive behaviour.
Human attempts at territorial invasions has been used to
justify comparisons.
This perspectivc sees aggression as building up within
humans to create a drive which, if not released in some
form of constructive way achieving catharsis will lead to
spontaneous aggressive behaviour.
Like Freud, Lorenze thought we should be able to control
our natural aggressive instinct through socially
acceptable competitive sport (invasion games).
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Catharsis
For instinct theorists the view that sport and exercise can
channel aggressive urges into more socially desirable
behaviour is important.
Research has not found this theory to be true.
It has even been suggested that rather than having a
cathartic effect (drive reducing), watching aggressive
behaviour may be drive enhancing. Eg. The boxing
spectator who wants to reproduce aggression.
Criticisms of instinct theory
Psychologists believe that parallels between human and
animal have been oversimplified. Furthermore:
 No biological innate aggressive drive has ever been
identified
 Measuring cathartic effect of aggression is difficult
 Cross-cultural studies do not support the view that
all human beings are naturally aggressive
 Cultural influences seen as more important than
biological factors
 Human aggression is not always spontaneous
 Human aggression is seen as reactive
 Lorenze doesn’t take into account learning and
socialising influences which may override innate
aggression
 Aggression is seen more as a learned response.
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The Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Dollard et al. (1939) tried to deal with some of the
limitations of instinct theory.
Linked to drive theory proposing that frustration always
leads to aggression and aggression is always as a result
of frustration.
Eg. Player in a major final trying to achieve (drive),
opposition constantly killing the ball (blocking goal
orientated behaviour) becomes frustrated.
They are driven to do something about it (increase drive),
maybe work harder, if frustration continues this drive
may become aggressive drive, (aggressive behaviour).
If held, player may retaliate with a punch, reducing
frustration which in turn will have a cathartic effect.
However it may have a negative effect on the game.
Success
Drive to
Goal
Obstacle
to goal
Frustration
catharsis
Aggression
Punishment
The Frustration-aggression model is cyclic
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Criticism of early frustration-aggression hypothesis
Original model initially found support, has been found to
have little credence due to the insistence that frustration
always leads to aggression.
Critics point out that:
 Not all frustration leads to aggression in sport
 Aggression can be a learned response, doesn’t
always happen as a result of frustration
 Individual and situational differences not taken into
account
 Cathartic effect of aggression in sport not upheld
 Some aggressive participants have been shown to
become more aggressive through participation in
sport.
Frustration
Increased
Socially
Aggression
Arousal
learned cues
Failure
eg. Pain/anger
Unsuccessful
e.g. overt or
Goals blocked
covert approval
Lose game or
by coach
Play badly
A defender lashing out at a player who has just beaten
him in soccer may act in such a way if the coach has
previously accepted such behaviour.
Frustration can turn to aggression if not thinking logical
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Social Learning theory of aggression
See aggression as being influenced by learning. Bandura
(1973) states that aggression is not instinctive but a
learned response.
Peformer can learn to be aggressive if aggression has
paid of or coach approval has been given. (Bobo doll
experiment) by Bandura.(Page 570)
If high sports performers are aggressive and get away
with it this will encourage younger players to imitate.
Observational learning usually happens very early in a
performer’s development as a performer will quickly
learn what behaviour is acceptable or unacceptable in
various specific situations.
When expected rewards are seen to outweigh expected
punishment a player will be prepared to transgress the
rules.
Social learning theorists believe that reinforcement
values/punishment values are major factors in
influencing the selection of aggressive behaviour.
Can also be a positive effect, if performers can learn
aggressive sporting behaviour they can also learn nonaggressive behaviour.
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Controlling and Reducing Aggression
Situations that can cause individual aggression:
 Facing defeat
 Officiating is perceived as unfair
 Embarrassment
 Physical pain
 Playing below expectations
General causes of aggression:
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Demands of pro. Game encourage aggression
Competition
Media intervention and comment
Over emphasis on winning
Crowd reaction
Increased rewards
Coaches and parents
Can you make a list of strategies to limit or control
aggression amongst sports performers, see Page 572 if
stuck.
Controlling Spectator aggression
Limit/bann alcohol, reduce levels of rivalry, remove
aggressive spectators, seating control, words with
coaches on inciting aggression, media support for non
aggressive support, making sports situations more family
orientated etc.
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