Adulthood
Page 1 of 11
Adulthood
Page 2 of 11
Adulthood
Page 3 of 11
Adulthood
Questions
1.
OUTLINE Erikson’s Eight Ages of Man.
2. Explain Levinson’s Life cycle Theory.
3.
What was Gould’s Theory of Adult Consciousness with evolution?
4.
Write down several Topics which are common and important Life Events in Adulthood.
5.
Bereavement, what does it mean?
6.
What are the difficulties in adjustment to old Age?
7.
Briefly explain the Social disengagement theory.
8.
What’s the contradiction of the Activist theory against the Social disengagement theory?
9.
List the five personality types used by Reichard et al. In his interview about different ways of copying with old age.
10. OUTLINE Atchley’s phases of adjustment to retirement.
Answers
Page 4 of 11
Adulthood
1. Erikson’s Theory: (Eight Ages of Man)

Stage 1 – Infancy (0-1 Year)

Stage 2 – Toddler (2-3 Years)

Stage 3 – Preschool (4-5 Years)

Stage 4 – Childhood (6-12 Years)

Stage 5 – Adolescence (13-19 Years)

Stage 6 – Early Adulthood (20-30 Years)

Stage 7 – Middle Adulthood (30-60 Years)

Stage 8 – Old Age (60 Years or more)
2. Levinson’s Life cycle Theory:
Yale psychologist Daniel Levinson (1986) developed a comprehensive theory of adult development. Through a series of
intensive interviews with men (1978) and women (1987), Levinson proposed a theory based on a series of stages that adults
go through as they develop. At the center of his theory is the life structure, the underlying pattern of an individual's life at
any particular time. An individual's life structure is shaped by the social and physical environment. Many individuals' life
structures primarily involve family and work, although other variables such as religion, race, and economic status are often
important. Levinson's four "seasonal cycles" include preadulthood, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood.
Levinson (1978) originally studied forty adult males between thirty–five and forty–five years of age. Early adulthood is
entered when men begin careers and families. After an evaluation of themselves at about age thirty, men settle down and
work toward career advancement. Then another transition occurs at about age forty, as men realize some of their ambitions
will not be met. During middle adulthood, men deal with their particular individuality and work toward cultivating their skills
and assets. Finally, the transition to late adulthood is a time to reflect upon successes and failures and enjoy the rest of life.
Next, Levinson (1987) interviewed forty–five women between the ages of thirty–five and forty–five years of age. One–
third were homemakers, one–third college instructors, and one-third businesswomen. In general, he found that women go
through the same type of cycles that men do. However, the life stages of women tend to be tied closer to the family life
cycle.
Source: http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch03/levinson.mhtml
Page 5 of 11
Adulthood
3. Roger Gould, psychologist; in 1975 and 1978, published stages of adult personality (outlined below); his work also
considers how people perceive time at different stages; more recent work has been in computer-based brief psychotherapy
Stages of Adult Personality:

Age 16 - 22: Leaving my parents’ world. Answers the childhood assumption that “I’ll always live with my parents.”

Age 22 - 28: I’m nobody’s baby, now. Answers the false assumption that “doing things my parents’ way, with
willpower and perseverance, will bring results.”

Age 28 - 34: Opening up to what’s inside. Answers the false assumption that “life is simple and controllable; I have no
contradictory forces within me.”

Age 34 - 45: Midlife decade. Answers the false assumption that there is no death, no evil.

Age 45 and older: Beyond mid-life. No false assumptions to be answered. Appreciate what you have; focus on what
you’ve accomplished.
Source: http://www.marybold.com/CogFunc.htm#Gould
Page 6 of 11
Adulthood
3. Topics which are common and important in life events in Adulthood:

Marriage

Relationships

Divorces (not always the case)

Parenthood

Aging

Death
4. Bereavement: To be bereaved usually means to lose someone we love through death. It results in a great longing for the
dead person and a period of adjustment which may take years. All parts of our being may be affected - emotional, physical,
spiritual and social - but the overriding feeling is one of intense pain, or grief.

It's estimated that each day 500 women in the UK will become widows.

It's estimated that 175,000 men in the UK become widowers each year.

About 180,000 children under the age of 16 years lose a parent.

About 12,000 children die in the UK each year

Many others are affected by the death of a parent, a friend or a much-loved pet.
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/relationships/coping_with_grief/bereavement_whatis.shtml
Page 7 of 11
Adulthood
5. There are various reasons in which it’s hard to adjust to Old Age.

Retirement generally means less activity

Friends and relatives may have already passed away

Personal Health reasons

Less physical ability

Memory loss may occur

Financial Security

Solitude
6. Disengagement has been defined as, "an inevitable process in which many of the relationships between a person and other
members of society are severed, and those remaining are altered in quality" (Cummings & Henry, 1961, p. 210). In other
words, it involves the process of social and psychological withdrawal of an individual from society. Disengagement is theorized
to result in a reduction of life activities and ego energy in old age.
Disengagement theory has been used in support of the concept of the life review in old age. Butler (1963) hypothesizes that
later life brings on isolation and unoccupied time (disengagement). This isolation provides the individual with time to
reminisce and review one's life. In a sense, it prepares the individual for the ultimate disengagement:
 Death
However, the majority of researchers (for example, Maddox, 1964) have argued against the concept of disengagement. They
have argued that there are many kinds of disengagement and individuals may disengage at different rates. For example,
Carp (1968) found disengagement from family negatively correlated with disengagement from friends. Thus, individuals who
were disengaged from their families maintained strong contact with friends and vice versa. In addition, Tallmer and Kutner
(1969) found disengagement was not related to age but rather to physical and social stress, both of which have been found
to increase with age.
Source: http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/lrdisengage.html
Page 8 of 11
Adulthood
7. The differences which are found with the Activity theory by Havighurst in 1964 are that he supported the maintenance of
regular activities, roles and other social pursuits. He also stated that people who reach optimal age are the people who
maintain active and don’t allow there day to day life break down due to the age boundaries. In order to perform this he
mentioned that individuals should find new roles when they change in order to substitute for the one left behind. An example
for this could be seen as going to the gym to keep fit rather than after retirement staying at home and watching tv.
8. Reichard’s interview was done on 87 Americans (ages between 55 and 84), the FIVE personality types are relevant to the
disengagement and activity theory.
 Hostility
 Self-hatred
 Constructiveness
 Dependent
 Defensiveness
Hostility was described in this case as blaming other people for what the outcomes have been on the individual. Self-hatred is
simply the hatred turned upon the individual by the individual. These two were mainly to do with the disengagement theoy.
The other three are; Constructiveness, which is when an individual overcomes the negativity and accepts that they are
getting old but will continue to maintain their social relations. The Dependent category, which includes regarding old age as a
time of leisure. (Relying on others to help out in any way possible). Finally the Defensiveness which is basically maintaining
very active, disregarding old age completely.
Page 9 of 11
Adulthood
9. Phases of Retirement (Atchley)
Retirement is often viewed as an "event" when retirement is actually both a process (requiring planning and adjustment) and a
life stage (lasting for multiple years). As a result of numerous research studies, Robert Atchley (2000) developed six descriptive
phases of retirement that represent a transitional process individuals go through when they permanently exit the workforce.
These phases do not apply to everyone, of course, because retirement is experienced on an individual basis; however, these
phases do provide a guide for thinking about what some individuals may encounter when they transition into the retirement
stage of life.
Phase 1: Pre-retirement
The phase prior to the actual retirement experience usually involves both disengagement from the workplace and planning for
what retirement will entail.
Phase 2: Retirement
When a person "retires" and therefore, no longer participates in paid employment, they frequently take one of three possible
paths.
The "honeymoon" path is characterized by feeling and acting as if one is on vacation indefinitely. Men and women become very
busy doing many of the leisure activities they never had time for previously, especially travel.
The "immediate retirement routine" path is adopted by those who already had a full and active schedule in addition to their
employment. These individuals easily establish comfortable, yet busy schedules soon after retirement.
The "rest and relaxation" path is described as a period of very low activity as compared to the "honeymoon" path. Persons who
have had very busy careers with limited time to themselves frequently choose to do very little in their early retirement years.
Frequently, however, activity levels do increase after a few years of rest and relaxation.
Phase 3: Disenchantment
For some people, adjusting to retirement is not an easy experience. Following the honeymoon period or a time of continued rest
and relaxation, there may be a period of disappointment or uncertainty. A person may miss the feelings of productivity they
experienced when working. Disenchantment with retirement can also occur if there is a significant disruption in the retirement
experience, such as the death of a spouse or an undesired move.
Page 10 of 11
Adulthood
Phase 4: Reorientation
After a period of rest and relaxation or feelings of disenchantment, it is common for people to "take inventory" of their
retirement experience and outline ways that will improve their retirement role. Becoming more involved in community activities,
taking up a new hobby or relocating to a more affordable setting may contribute to this "second chance" at retirement. A
common goal of reorientation is to design a retirement lifestyle that is satisfying and enjoyable.
Phase 5: Retirement Routine
Mastering a comfortable and rewarding retirement routine is the ultimate goal of retirement. Some adults are able to do this
soon after they leave employment, while others take longer, only finding their way after years of extended leisure or a period of
disenchantment. Once a fulfilling and comfortable retirement routine has been found, this phase of retirement can last for many
years.
Phase 6: Termination of Retirement
Eventually the retirement role becomes less relevant in the lives of older adults. When a person can no longer live independently
due to disability or illness, the role of disabled elder becomes the primary focus of his or her life.
When planning for retirement, it is important to remember that the retirement process requires more than attention to one's
bank account. It is important to start thinking about how you intend to handle the loss of the worker role. For example, will you
be one of the "honeymoon" phasers or do you intend to fall into an immediate retirement routine? Retirement is a stage of life
that could, for some, last anywhere from 5 to as many as 20 years.
Source: Atchley, R.C. (2000). Social Forces and Aging (9th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Page 11 of 11