Flashcards: AP Psych Review
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ablation
removal or destruction of brain tissue in a
surgical procedure
absolute threshold
intensity level at which one can detect a
stimulus 50% of the time
accommodation
the process of modifying a schema to
account for new information; the process
of the eyes lens changing shape in order to
focus on distant or near objects
acetylcholine (ACh)
a neurotransmitter involved in learning,
memory and muscle movement
need for achievement
desire for accomplishment, mastery of
people, ideas, things, desire for reaching a
high standard
achievement test
a test that assesses what one has learned
acquisition
a process in classical conditioning by which
the association of a neutral stimulus with a
natural stimulus is first established
action potential
the electrical process by which information
is transmitted the length of an axon
activation synthesis
the idea that dreams are the result of the
cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing
random flashes of brain activity,
originating in the lower brain structures,
especially the pons
adrenal gland
source of the hormone norepinephrine
which affects arousal
affective disorders
psychological disturbances of mood
need for affiliation
desire to associate with others, to be part
of a group, to form close and intimate
relationships
after image
an image that remains after a stimulus is
removed, especially one in which the colors
are reversed
agonists
drugs which mimic the activity of
neurotransmitters
alcohol
the most frequently used and abused CNS
depressant in most cultures; its use
affects mood, judgment, cognition
all-or-nothing
description of the action of neurons when
firing
alpha waves
seen when an individual is in a relaxed,
unfocused, yet still awake state
amygdala
limbic system component associated with
emotion, particularly fear and anger
anal stage
Freud's pychosexual period during which a
child learns to control his bodily excretions
anorexia (nervosa)
an eating disorder in which one starves
oneself even though significantly
underweight
antagonist
drug which blocks the activity of
neurotransmitters
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events that occur after
the onset of the amnesia; eg, see in a
boxer who suffers a severe blow to the
head and loses memory for events after
the blow
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory for events that occurred
before the onset of amnesia; eg a soldier's
forgetting events immediately before a
shell burst nearby, injuring him
antisocial personality disorder
psychological disorder in which one
demonstrates a lack of conscience
anvil
the middle of the three ossicles
aphasia
impairment of language usually caused by
damage to the left hemisphere
arousal
condition in which the sympathetic nervous
system is in control
artificial intelligence
a subdiscipline of computer science that
attempts to simulate human thinking
assimilation
interpreting new experiences in terms of
existing schema
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex which have no
specific motor or sensory repsonsibilities,
but rather are involved in thinking, memory
and judgment
associative learning
learning in which an organism learns that
certain events occur together, such as my
cat knowing that she will be fed when I get
home from work
attachment
theory developed by Harlow; types include
secure and insecure
attitude
a relatively enduring evaluation of a person
or thing; Asch demonstrated that this
doesn't always match one's behavior
attraction
feeling of being drawn toward another and
desiring the company of a person
attribution theory
a way of explaining others' behavior by
either one's disposition or one's situation
auditory canal
the area that sound waves pass through to
reach the eardrum
authoritarian
style of parenting in which the parent
creates strict rules for the child and the
child has little or no input into determining
the rules
autonomic nervous system
division of the nervous system that control
the glands and organs; its divisions arouse
or calm
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to
exercise will and to do things
independently; failure to do so causes
shame and doubt
availability heuristic
this cognitive shortcut features the idea
that events which are vividly in memory
seem to be more common
axon
extension of the neuron which carries, via
an action potential, information that will be
sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands
babbling
stage of language development at about 4
months when an infant spontaneously
utters nonsense sounds
basic research
scientific investigations intended to
expand the knowledge base
applied research
scientific investigations intended to solve
practical problems
behavioral
perspective on psychology that sees
psychology as an objective science without
reference to mental states
belief perseverance
situation in which one's beliefs continue
despite the fact that the ground for the
beliefs have been discredited
big 5 personality factors
openness to new experience,
conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, neuroticism
binocular cues
retinal disparity and convergence which
enable people to determine depth using
both eyes
biological
perspective that stresses links between
biology and behavior
bipolar cells
eye neurons that receive information from
the retinal cells and distribute information
to the ganglion cells
bipolar disorder
mood disorder in one experiences both
manic and depressed episodes
blind spot
point in the retinal where the optic nerve
leaves the retina so there are no rods or
cones there
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with sensory receptors
and works its way up to the brain's
integration of sensory information
hemispheres
we have two, right and left, and some brain
functions seem to centered in one or the
other
brainstem
oldest part of the brain, beginning where
the spinal cord swells upon entering the
skull; controls fundamental survival
processes like heartrate and breathing
bulimia
eating disorder characterized by excessive
eating followed by purging
bystander effect
the tendency to not offer help when
needed if others are present who do not
offer help
Cannon-Baird
theory of emotion that says that a stimulus
causes simultaneously psyiological arousal
and the subjective experience of an
emotion
case study
scientific investigation in which a single
subject is studied in great detail
CAT scan
a method of creating static images of the
brain through computerized axial
tomography
catatonic
a form of schizophrenia in which the
patient has muscle immobility and does not
move
catharsis
release of aggressive energy through
activity or fantasy
Central Nervous System
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
cerebellum
brain structure that controls well-learned
motor activities like riding a bike
cerebral cortex
the fabric of interconnecting cells that
blankets the brain hemispheres; the
brain's center for information processing
and control
chaining
using operant conditioning to teach a
complex response by linking together less
complex skills
chunking
organizing units of information into
manageable units such as memorizing a
phone number as three groups of
information 248-555-1212
circadian rhythm
the daily biological rhythms that occur in a
24-hour period
classical conditioning
method of learning in which a neutral
stimulus can be used to elicit a response
that is usually a natural response to a
stimulus
client-centered therapy
developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic
therapy includes unconditional positive
regard
clinical
this type of psychologist studies, assesses
and treats those with psychological
disorders
cochlea
this coiled structure in the inner ear is
fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound
waves stimulate hair cells
cognitive dissonance theory
this says that we will suffer discomfort
and act to change the situation when our
thoughts and actions seem to be
inconsistent
cognitive
perspective on psychology that stresses
the importance of mental activities
associated with thinking, remembering, etc
cognitive therapy
treatment for psychological disorders that
centers on changing self-defeating thinking
collective unconscious
Jung's theory that we all share an
inherited memory that contains our
culture's most basic elements
color blindness
a variety of disorders marked by inability
to distinguish some or all colors
collectivist
this adjective describes cultures in which
the individual is less important than the
group
concrete operations
Piaget's stage in which children learn such
concepts as conservation and mathematical
transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age
concurrent validity
the extent to which two measures of the
same trait or ability agree
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the response
elicited by the conditioned stimulus
conditioning
generally, learning in which certain
experiences make certain behaviors more
or less likely; there are two forms of this
conduction
one type of hearing impairment caused by
mechanical problems in the ear structures
cones
neurons in the retina that are responsible
for color vision
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that
supports one's preconceptions
conformity
adjusting behavior to meet a group's
standard
confounding variable
extraneous factor that interferes with the
action of the independent variable on the
dependent variable
consciousness
one's awareness of one's environment and
oneself.
consummate love
includes passion, intimacy and committment
control group
subjects in an experiment who do not
receive application of the independent
variable but are measured nonetheless for
the dependent variable
convergent thinking
a type of critical thinking in which one
evaluates existing possible solutions to a
problem to choose the best one
cornea
the transparent outer covering of the eye
corpus callosum
the fibers that connect the right and left
hemispheres, enabling them to
communicate
correlation
the degree of relationship between two
variables
correlation coefficient
a positive one near 1.0 indicates two
variable are positively related; a negative
number indicates a negative relationship;
zero indicates no relationship
cross-sectional
type of study that measures a variable
across several age groups at the same time
debriefing
giving participants in a research study a
complete explanation of the study after
the study is completed
defense mechanisms
Freud's processes by which individuals
express uncomfortable emotions in
disguised ways
deindividuation
when an individual seems to lose himself or
herself in the group's identity
deinstitutionalization
moving people with psychological or
developmental disabilities from highly
structured institutions to home- or
community-based settings
delta waves
largest brain waves, associated with deep,
dreamless sleep
delusion
irrational, highly improbable belief
dendrite
a branch off the cell body of a neuron that
receives new information from other
neurons
denial
a defense mechanism in which unpleasant
thought or desires are ignored or excluded
from consciousness
dependent variable
the variable that the experimenter
measures at the end of the experiment
depressant
any agent that reduces the activity of the
CNS
depth perception
an ability that we exercise by using both
monocular and binocular cues
difference threshold
also called the jnd; smallest distinction
between two stimuli that can consistently
be detected
diffusion of responsibility
reduction in sense of responsibility often
felt by individuals in a group; may be
responsible for the bystander effect
discrimination
treating members of different races,
religions, ethnic groups differently; usually
associated with prejudice
displacement
defense mechanism in which unwanted
feelings are directed towards a different
object
dispositional attribution
assuming that another's behavior is due to
personality factors, not situational ones
dissociative identity disorder
also called multiple personality disorder
dissociative fugue
disorder in which one travels away from
home and is unable to remember details of
his past, including often his identity
divergent thinking
a type of creative thinking in which one
generates new solutions to problems
dopamine
a neurotransmitter that is associated with
Parkinson's disease (too little of it) and
schizophrenia (too much of it)
double blind
this term describes an experiment in which
neither the subjects nor the experimenter
knows whether a subject is a member of
the experimental group or the control
group
dreams
occur most often during REM sleep; may be
caused by activation-synthesis, or may be a
way of cementing memories
drive reduction
theory that claims that behavior is driven
by a desire to lessen drives resulting from
needs that disrupt homeostasis
DSM
initials of the American Psychiatric
Association's book that lists diagnostic
criteria for many psychological disorders
dyslexia
a learning disability that results in
difficulty reading and writing
eardrum
also called the tympanic membrane
echoic
term that describes memory of sounds
EEG
initials of a method of representation of
brain waves
ego
the Latin for "I"; in Freud's theories, the
mediator between the demands of the id
and the superego
egocentrism
in a toddler, the belief that others
perceive the world in the same way that he
or she does
Electra complex
counterpart to the Oedipus complex for
females
electroconvulsive therapy
a treatment in which low level electric
current is passed through the brain
embryo
early stage of human development, when
cells have begun to differentiate
emotion theories
James-Lange, Cannon-Baird and SingerSchachter are three
encoding
conversion of sensory information into a
form that can be retained as a memory
endocrine system
the slow messenger system of the body;
produces hormones that affect many bodily
functions
endorphins
neurotransmitters that give one a feeling
of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain
episodic
describes a type of memory that includes
specific events that one has personally
experienced
evolutionary
perspective that stresses the value of
behavior in Darwinian terms
experiment
form of scientific investigation in which
one variable is tested to determine its
effect on another
experimental group
subjects in an experiment to whom the
independent variable is administered
explicit
term that describes memories that can be
consciously recalled
external locus of control
this term describes what you have if your
behaviors are driven mainly by outside
forces
extinction
in classical conditioning, the process of
eliminating the previously acquired
association of the conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response
extraversion
one of the Big 5, a personality trait orients
one's interests toward the outside world
and other people, rather than inward
extrinsic
term that describes motivations that drive
behavior in order to gain rewards from
outside forces
false consensus
a belief that others share the same opinion
about something, when actually most don't
feature detection
the ability of the brain to identify specific
components of visual stimuli such as
corners or edges
fetal alcohol syndrome
sometimes the result in a child of the
mother's excessive drinking while
pregnant, characterized by low birth
weight, facial abnormalities, mental
retardation
fetus
a stage in human development extending
from about ten weeks after conception to
birth
figure-ground
refers to our ability to distinguish
foreground from background in visual
images
fixed interval
describes the schedule of reinforcement
wherein a worker receives a paycheck
every Friday
fixed ratio
describes a schedule of reinforcement
wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum
for each product produced
flashbulb
term describes a vivid memory of a
personally significant and emotionalevent
fluid
term describes a type of intelligence used
to cope with novel situations and problems
crystallized
term describes a type of intelligence which
applies cultural knowledge to solving
problems
foot-in-the-door
term describes a phenomenon in which
people who agree to a small request are
more likely to later agree to a larger
request
formal operations
One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability
to use abstract thinking
fovea
the central focus area of the retina
frequency
theory of hearing which states that the
rate of nerve impulses traveling up the
auditory nerve matches the tone's
frequency
functional fixedness
the tendency to think about things only in
terms of their usual uses; can be a
hindrance to creative thinking
functionalism
William James's school of thought that
stressed the adaptive and survival value of
behaviors
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute others' behavior to
their dispositions and our own behaviors to
our situations
ganglion cells
their axons form the optic nerve
general adaptation syndrome
Seyle's concept that the body responds to
stress with alarm, resistance and
exhaustion
generativity vs. stagnation
Erikson's stage of social development in
which middle-aged people begin to devote
themselves more to fulfilling one's
potential and doing public service
gene
made of DNA, it is the basic building block
of heredity
genital stage
Freud's stage of psychosexual development
when adult sexuality is prominent
gestalt
German word for "whole", it refers to our
tendency to perceive incomplete figures as
complete
glial cell
this acts as a support system for neurons
grammar
a system of rules in a language
social norm
a group's determination of socially
acceptable behavior
group polarization
tendency of group members to move to an
extreme position after discussing an issue
as a group
groupthink
tendency for group members to think alike
with certainty of correctness, biased
perceptions of outgroup members, and
generally defective decision-making
processes
hallucination
a false sensory perception that seems to
be real but for which there is not an actual
external stimulus
hallucinogen
a substance capable of producing a sensory
effect in the absence of real external
sensory stimuli
heritability
the extent to which differences in a group
of a characteristic is due to genetics, not
environment
heuristic
a useful, but unprovable, cognitive
shortcut, such as a "rule of thumb"
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's theory of the most important
motivations people have
hindsight bias
the tendency, after an event occurs, to
overestimate the likelihood that an event
could have been predicted
hippocampus
limbic system component associated with
memory
homeostasis
the steady, stable state that is the body's
regulatory processes try to maintain
hormone
chemical substance secreted by endocrine
glands that affect body processes
humanist
perspective in psychology that stresses the
goodness of people and their possibility of
reaching their fullest potential
hunger
it is regulated by the lateral hypothalamus
and the ventromedial hypothalamus
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person
suggests to another that certain events or
emotions will occur
hypochondriasis
a disorder characterized by an
unreasonable fear that one has a serious
disease
hypothalamus
limbic system component that regulates
hunger, body temperature and other
functions
hypothesis
a prediction of how the an experiment will
turn out
iconic
term that describes the memory of images
id
in Freud's conception, the repository of
the basic urges toward sex and agression
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson's stage during which teenagers and
young adults search for and become their
true selves
imprinting
evidence of critical period in some animals;
they follow the first moving thing they see
after hatching
in-group bias
tendency to favor one's own group over
other groups
incentive
an external stimulus that tends to
encourage behavior
independent
type of variable manipulated by the
experimenter
individualist
culture in which the individual is valued
more highly than the group
industry vs. inferiority
Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years,
when the child learns to be productive
inferiority complex
Adler's conception of a basic feeling of
inadequacy stemming from childhood
experiences
information processing
humans accomplish this either in parallel
(unconsciously) or in serial fashion
(consciously)
informed consent
agreement to participate in psychology
research, after being appraised of the
dangers and benefits of the research
initiative vs guilt
Erikson's third stage in which the child
finds independence in planning, playing and
other activities
insanity
a legal term describing one's inability to be
responsible for one's action due to the
condition of the mind
insight
in psychoanalysis, the basic understanding
one develops of the underlying sources of
emotion or behavioral difficulty
insomnia
inability to fall asleep or remain asleep long
enough for sufficient rest
instinct
a complex pattern of behavior that is fixed
across a species
integrity vs despair
Erikson's final stage in which those near
the end of life look back and evaluate their
lives
Intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, to use
information, to understand things
IQ
the average is 100; there are many
definitions of this attribute, including
multiple and crystallized
internal locus of control
people with this tned to respond to internal
states and desires; they tend to see their
successes as the result of their own
efforts
interneurons
cells in the spinal cord through which
reflexes travel without going to the brain
interposition
monocular visual cue in which two objects
are in the same line of vision and one
patially conceals the other, indicating that
the first object concealed is further away
intimacy vs isolation
Erikson's stage in which individuals form
deeply personal relationships, marry, begin
families
intrinsic
term that describes motivations that
derive from one's interest in the object of
the motivation, rather than from rewards
that one might gain
introversion
a personality trait that signifies that one
finds energy from internal sources rather
than external ones
James-Lange
theory of emotion in which physiological
arousal precedes the emotion
just world
phenomenon that describes the belief that
what happens to people is what they
deserve
just noticeable difference
the threshold at which one can distinguish
two stimuli that are of different
intensities, but otherwise identical
kinethesis
sense of balance and of one's physical
position
latent
Freud's stage of psychosexual development
occuring from about age 6 to puberty
during which little happens in psychosexual
terms
latent content
the hidden or disguised meaning of dreams
latent learning
a change in behavior due to experience
acquired without conscious effort, s, for
example, a student using a quote in an exam
essay that the student had never tried to
memorize, though eh had encountered it in
studying
law of effect
Thorndike's rule that behaviors which have
positive outcomes tend to be repeated
learned helplessness
lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant
stimuli after one has failed before to
escape similar stimuli
lens
a curved, transparent element of the vision
system that provides focus
lesion
any destruction or damage to brain tissue
lithium
in psychopharmacology, this is used to
control bipolar symptoms
longitudinal
describes research that measures a trait
in a particular group of subjects over a long
period of time
long term
refers to memory that is stored
effectively in the brain and may be
accessed over an extended period of time
long term potentiation
a possible source of the formation of
memories; improvement in a neuron's
ability to transmit caused by repeated
stimulations
lucid
describes a dream in which the dreamer is
aware that he or she is dreaming and is
able to influence the progress of the
dream narrative
eidetic
describes a type of visual memory that is
retained for a long time; photographic
mania
high state of arousal, often accompanied
by poor judgment
manifest
describes, in Freudian terms, the surface
content of a dream
marijuana
a drug, often smoked, whose effects
include euphoria, impairment of judgment
and concentration and occasionally
hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive
mean
numerical average of a set of numbers
median
the middle one of a set of numbers
medulla
part of the brain nearest the spinal cord
which controls breathing, heart rate and
blood pressure
memory
functions associated with this include
encoding, storage and retrieval
mental age
developed by Binet; equal to one's
chronological age times the percentage
score on an IQ test
mere exposure effect
this phenomenon causes one to prefer a
stimulus as a consequence of repeated
exposures to that stimulus, particularly is
there is no adverse result of the exposure
metacognition
thinking about thinking
MMPI
the initials of a long, detailed personality
inventory
mnemonic device
method of improving memory by associating
new information with previously learned
information
mode
the most commonly occurring term in a
batch of data
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a
behavior
monocular
terms that means "one eyed", used to
indicate the sort of of enviromental cues
to depth perception tha tonly require one
eye, for example, interposition
morpheme
in language, the smallest unit that carries
meaning
motion parallax
a depth cue in which the relative movement
of elements in a scene gives depth
information when the observer moves
relative to the scene
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs
behavior
motor cortex
an area of the brain, near the rear of the
frontal lobes, that controls voluntary
movement
motor neuron
this carries information from the brain to
the muscles; also called "efferent"
MRI
a technique that enables us to see static
images of the brain's structures; uses
magnetism to achieve this effect
dissociative identity disorder
also called multiple personality disorder
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue encasing a neuron's
axon that speeds transmission
narcolepsy
a disorder characterized by sudden sleep
attacks, often at inopportune times
naturalistic
term refers to observations made of
individual's behavior in an everyday life
setting
nature vs nurture
name for a controversy in which it is
debated whether genetics or environment
is responsible for driving behavior
negative reinforcement
in operant conditioning, removing something
unpleasant in order to elicit more of a
particular behavior
neural network
refers to interconnected neuron cells
neuron
the fundamental building block of the
nervous system
neuroscience
perspective on psychology that emphasizes
the study of the brain and its effects on
behavior
neurotransmitter
a chemical that is released by a neuron for
the purpose of carrying information across
the gaps (synapses) between neurons
neutral
describes a stimulus in classical
conditioning that would normally not elicit
the response intended, such as the tone in
Pavlov's experiments before it was
associated with the food
night terrors
also called sleep terror disorder, these
include the characteristic of waking
abruptly in a state of panic, usually in
children, less often in adults
normal distribution
describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve
that shows the distribution of many
physical and psychological attributes
norm
an understood rule for social behavior
NREM
refers to sleep during which there is no
rapid eye movement
obesity
condition of having excess body fat
resulting in being greatly overweight
object permanence
recognition that things continue to exist
even though hidden from sight; infants
generally gain this after 3 to 7 months of
age
observational learning
change in behavior due to watching other
people behave
obsessive-compulsive disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by
repetitive obsessions and compulsions
occipital
this lobe contains the primary vision
processing function
Oedipus complex
in Freud's theory, the conflict which
results in a boy gaining a superego and
beginning to emulate his father
olfactory bulb
the first brain structure to pick up smell
information from the nose
omission training
a procedure in which reinforcement occurs
when a specific behavior does not occur in
a fixed period of time
operant conditioning
a method of influencing behavior by
rewarding desired behaviors and punishing
undesired ones
operational definition
a description of an experimental variable in
such a way that the variable can be
measured and the procedure can be
replicated
optic chiasm
the point in the brain where the visual field
information from each eye "crosses over"
to the appropriate side of the brain for
processing
optic nerve
the axons of the ganglion cells form this
oral stage
Freud's first stage of psychosexual
development during which pleasure is
centered in the mouth
opponent process theory
term used in both vision theory and
emotion theory
outgroup
generally, any group that one does not
belong to
oval window
membrane at the enterance to the cochlea
through which the ossicles transmit
vibrations
panic disorder
characterized by recurrent, unexpected
panic attacks
paranoid
a type of schizophrenia characterized by
prominent delusions that are persecutory
or grandiose
parasympathetic
the branch of the nervous system that
automatically calms us down when the
reason for arousal has passed
parietal
lobe that contains the sensory cortex
Parkinson's disease
this ailment, whose symptoms includes
tremors and later difficulty walking, is
caused by inability to produce dopamine
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting
sensory information
peripheral nervous system
the subsystem of the nervous system that
does not include the CNS
permissive
describes a parenting style that is
characterized by the parent making few
demands on the child
person-centered
therapy developed by Rogers featuring the
patient's self-discovery and actualization;
also called client-centered
personality
a consistent pattern of thinking, acting,
feeling
PET scan
method of brain imaging using positron
emissions
phallic
name for Freud's stage which features the
Oedipus stage
phobia
fear
phoneme
in language, smallest distinctive sound unit
pituitary
gland that is the master gland of the
endocrine system
place theory
the idea that different sound frequencies
stimulate different locations on the basilar
membrae
placebo
an inert substance given to the control
group in an experiment
placebo effect
phenomenon that some people get better
even though they receive not medication
but an inert substance which should have
no medical effect
plasticity
the ability of the brain to adapt to damage
by reorganizing functions
pons
part of the brain, works with the
cerebellum in coordinating voluntary
movement; neural stimulation studied in
activation synthesis theory may originate
here
population
all of the individuals from which subjects
for an experiment may be drawn
positive psychology
field of study which concentrates on good
psychological traits such as contentment
and joy; it also studies character traits
such as wisdom, integrity and altruism
PTSD
initials representing a disorder in which
one relives painfully stressful events
preconscious
in Freud's theory, the level of
consciousness in which thoughts and
feelings are not conscious but are readily
retrieveable to consciousness
preconventional
Kohlberg's stage of moral development in
which rewards and punishments dominate
moral thinking
prejudice
a negative attitude formed toward an
individual or group without sufficient
experience with the person or group
preoperational
Piaget's second stage of cognitive
development, when egocentrism declines
proactive interference
when prior learning disrupts the recall of
new information
projection
defense mechanism in which one disguises
one's won unacceptable impulses by
attributing them to others
projective
term describes a personality test in which
ambiguous stimuli trigger revelation of
inner feelings, thoughts
psychiatrist
medical doctor who has specialized in
treating psychological disorders
psychoanalysis
Freud's therapeutic technique
psychodynamic
term describes the perspective on
psychology in which inner feeling and
unconscious tensions are emphasized
psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of drugs on the
mind and behavior
punishment
can be either positive or negative, intended
to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
random
term that describes assignment in which all
subjects have an equal chance of being
assigned to the control group or to the
experimental group
REBT
Albert Ellis's form of therapy for
psychological disorders
rationalization
"The only reason I flunked the test is
because our teacher is no good."
reaction formation
defense mechanism in which unacceptable
impulses are transformed into their
opposite
reciprocal determinism
Bandura's idea that though our
environment affects us, we also affect our
environment
refractory period
resting time; occurs in both neuron firing
and in human sexual response
regression
defense mechanism in which one retreats
to an earlier stage of life
rehearsal
conscious repetition of information in
order to fix it in memory, such as
practicing a list of terms to memorize
reinforcer
in operant conditioning any event that
strengthens the behavior it follows
reliability
in testing, the characteristic of a test that
produces consistent scores through
retesting or alternate halves or other
methods
REM
describes sleep in which vivid dreams
typically occur; this type of sleep increases
as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep
decreases
representative
this kind of sample accurately reproduces
the characteristics of the population a
researcher is studying
representativeness heuristic
this cognitive short cut enables one to
generalization based on how closely a
stimulus matches a typical member of a
class; given a picture of a man in a tweed
jacket with a textbook, is this man a
professor or a truck driver?
repression
defense mechanism in which painful
memories are excluded from consciousness
reticular formation
a network of cells in the brainstem that
filters sensory information and is involved
in arousal and alertness
retina
the sensory reception system of the eye;
includes rods and cones
retrieval
the process of recovering information
stored in memory
retroactive interference
when new learning disrupts the recall of
previously-learned information
rods
responsible for black and white vision
role-play
technique in therapy and training in which
participants act out new behaviors or skills
rooting
a reflex in which a newborn turns its head
in response to a gentle stimulus on its
cheek
Rorschach test
a projective test that uses inkblots as the
ambiguous stimulus
safety
the second rung of Maslow's hierarchy;
refers to need for freedom from danger
scapegoat
this theory says that having suffered
negative experience, an individual might
blame an innocent person or group for the
experience and subsequently mistreat the
person or group
scatterplot
name for a graph of data points in a two
variable correlation
schedules of reinforcement
these include fixed interval and variable
ratio
schema
a collection of basic knowledge about a
category of information; serves as a means
of organization and interpretation of that
information
schemata
plural form of schema
schizophrenia
disorder characterized by hallucinations
and delusions
higher-order
term describes conditioning in which the
CS for one experiment becomes the UCS in
another experiment so that another
neutral stimulus can be made to elicit the
original UCR
selective attention
this term describes the situation when you
are focused on certain stimuli in the
environment while other stimuli are
excluded
self-concept
one's idea and evaluation of oneself; this
contributes to one's sense of identity
self-efficacy
one's ability to act effectively to bring
about desired results; from Bandura
self-actualization
the highest of Malow's needs; "the full use
of talent"
self-esteem
the more positive one's estimation of one's
qualities and characteristics, the higher
this is
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief or expectation that helps to make
itself true
self-serving bias
he tendency to assign oneself credit for
successes but to blame failures on external
forces
semantics
in language, study of meanings of words
sensorimotor
describes Piaget's stage in which the child
explores the world through interaction of
his mouth and hands with the environment
sensory adaptation
reduced responsiveness caused by
prolonged stimulation
sensory cortex
the parts of the brain that receive
information from the sensory receptors
sensory neurons
nervous system cells that receive
information from the environment
afferent
in neurons, another name for sensory
serial position effect
this tells us that the best recall of a list of
items will be of those at the beginning of
the list
serotonin
a neurotransmitter; associated with
improved mood and other positive emotions
SSRI
class of drugs used to relieve anxiety by
limiting reuptake of a neurotransmitter
set point
the point at which one's body tries
maintain weight
sexual response
its four stages are excitement, plateau,
orgasm and resolution
shaping
an operant conditioning technique in which
reinforces guide behavior to closer and
closer approximations of the desired
behavior
short-term
type of memory that holds a few items
briefly before they are lost
signal detection
this theory predicts how and in what
circumstances we can detect a stimulus;
assumes there is no single threshold
sleep apnea
a disorder characterized by cessation of
breathing during sleep
sleep spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in
stage 2 sleep
socio-cultural
a perspective on psychology that
emphasizes effects on behavior and
thinking of one's culture and the people
around one
social exchange
a theory that suggests that our behavior is
based on maximizing benefits and
minimizing costs
social facilitation
a phenomenon in which we perform simple
or well-learned tasks better when in the
presence of others
social learning
a theory that suggests we learn social
behaviors by watching and imitating others
somatic
a division of the nervous system that
controls voluntary muscle movements
somatoform disorder
any of a group of psychological
disturbances characterized by physical
symptoms for which there is not a medical
cause
split brain
a condition in which the two brain
hemispheres are isolated by cutting the
corpus callosum
spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning the re-occurence
of conditioning after it had appeared to be
extinct
standard deviation
a computation of how much scores vary
around a mean
stereotype
a set of generalizations about a group
structuralism
school of psychology developed by Wilhelm
Wundt
sublimation
a defense mechanism in which unacceptable
energies are directed into socially
admirable outlets, such as art
superego
the part of the personality in Freud's
theory that is responsible for making moral
choices
sympathetic
part of the nervous system that controls
the "flight or fight" response
synaptic gap
space between the axon terminal of one
neuron and the receptors of the next
neuron
syntax
in language the set of rules that describe
how words are arranged to make sentences
temperament
personality component that ranges from
very calm to very exitable
temporal
the lobe that controls audition
thalamus
the sensory switchboard
TAT
a projective test in which subjects look at
and tell a story about ambiguous pictures
theory
this organizes data and is used to make
predictions
threshold
in a neuron, reaching this causes the
neuron to fire
token economy
a technique in operant conditioning by
which desired behaviors receive forms of
currency that can be exchanged for
rewards
twin studies
a common method of investigating whether
nature or nurture affects behavior
unconditioned response
in conditioning the behavior elicited by the
unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
in conditioning it elicits the UCR