BIOL 2401
EXAM REVIEWS
Study these points for your final examination:
1 Anatomy is/Physiology is
Subdivisions of Anatomy/Physiology
Systems of the body
Divisions of the ventral cavity
Quadrants/Regions/Planes of body
Levels of organization
Homeostasis
Positive/Negative feedback
Anatomical terms (sections, regions,
Positions, directions)
Intrinsic/Extrinsic regulation
Parts of homeostatic regulatory mechanism
TERMS: eponyms, peritoneum, viscera,
2 Types of energy
Atom (subatomic parts)
Energy levels
Types of chemical reactions
pH (definition, scale)
States of matter
Types of bonds
Types of covalent bonds
Properties of water
Organic compounds
Components of triglycerides, proteins,
amino acids, nucleic acids, nucleotide
Dehydration/hydrolysis
Acid-base-buffer
Monosaccharide-disaccharide-polysaccharide
DNA-RNA
Hydrophilic-hydrophobic
Types of RNA
Surface tension
High-energy compounds
Anabolism/Catabolism
Exergonic/Endogonic
Parts of a solution
Protein shapes
Metabolic turnover
TERMS: Dalton, mole, nutrients, metabolites,
Electrolytes, colloid, suspension, salt, sickle cell
anemia, isozyme, coenzyme, cofactor, denaturation
3 Parts of a cell
Proteins in plasma membrane
Active/Passive transport
Endocytosis/Exocytosis
Functions of ER, mitochondria, ribosomes,
Mitosis
Functions of plasma membrane
Functions of glycocalyx
Types of solutions
Diffusion/Osmosis
Types of active movements
Steps of protein synthesis
Chromosomes/Chromatids
Diploid/Haploid
Membranous/Non-membranous organelles
Inclusions
Stages of cell life cycle
Mitosis/Cytokinesis
Sex cells/somatic cells
Phospholipids and their role in cell membrane
Cell respiration
Transcription/translation
Codon/Anticodon
Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump
DNA replication
DNA polymerase
TERMS: tubulin, microvilli, cilia, autolysis, histones,
gene, pseudopodia, apoptosis, metastasis
4 Simple/Stratified epithelium
Cilia-flagella
Papillary layer/Reticular layer
Endocrine/Exocrine glands
Epithelial cell shapes
Types of connective tissue
Categories of membranes
Classes of tissues
Functions of epithelial tissue
Functions of connective tissue
Modes of secretions of glands
Types of secretions of glands
Types of loose connective tissue
Types of dense connective tissue
Components of blood
Lymph
Types of supporting connective tissue
Types of cartilage
How cartilage grows
TERMS: ground substance, mesenchyme,
chondrocyte, osteocyte, fasciae, inflammation,
necrosis, abscess, regeneration, osteoporosis
5 Epidermis/Dermis
Melanin/Carotene
Ground substance/Fibers
Papillary layer/Reticular layer
Meissner’s Corpuscles/Pacinian Corpuscle
corpuscles
Functions of Integumentary System
Appendages of the skin
Melanocytes
Sunlight and Vitamin D3 production
Hypodermis role
Accessories of the skin
Glands found in the skin
Secretions of sweat and oil glands
Repair of injury in the skin
Differences in thick/thin skin
Sensible/Insensible perspiration
Role of Arrector Pilli muscle
Types of hairs
Keloids
Rickets
TERMS: keratinocytes, basal cells, cholecalciferol,
calcitriol
6 Functions of skeletal system
Bone shapes and bone markings
Anatomy of a bone (diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis)
Types of bone cells
Compact bone/Spongy bone
Periosteum/Endosteum
Ossification/Calcification
Types of ossification
Appositional growth
Effects of exercise, hormones, nutrition of bone
Hormones that affect bones
Osteopenia/Osteoporosis
Ways in which bone differs from cartilage
Vitamins involved in bone
Yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow
Canals: Volkman’s/Haversian
TERMS: hydroxyapatite, caniculli, trabeculae,
fracture, hematoma, epiphyseal cartilage
osteon
7 Bones of the axial skeleton
Cranial bones
Sinuses, orbital complexes, and nasal complex
Fontanelles
Sutures
Spinal cures and related disorders
Vertebral regions
Atlas/Axis
The ribs
The sternum
True/False/Floating ribs
Hyoid functions
TERMS: facets, foramina, TMJ syndrome, dens,
Vertebra prominens, ligamentum nuchae, ossicles
8Bones of the appendicular skeleton
Pectoral girdle/Pelvic girdle
Anatomical differences in the male/female pelvis
TERMS: laminae, pollex, hallux, pubic symphysis
9 Structural classes of articulations
Functional classes of articulations
Categories of joints
Types of immovable joints
Types of slightly movable joints
Synovial joints
Accessory structrures
Types of movements at synovial joints
Types of synovial joints
Angular movements/Special movements
Intervetebral discs and ligaments
TERMS: bursae, articulation, meniscus, herniated disc
10 Types of muscles
Perimysium/Epimysium/Endomysium
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Sarcomere
Divisions of the A band
I band
Thick/Thin filaments
Levels of functional organization in a skeletal muscle
Sliding filament theory
Neuromuscular junction
Twitch/treppe/wave summation/incomplete and
complete tetanus
Isometric/Isotonic Contractions
Aerobic metabolism
Glycolysis
Muscle fatigue
Stages of muscle metabolism
Types of skeletal muscle fibers
Intercalated discs
Structural characteristics of skeletal, smooth, and
cardiac muscle
Functional characteristics of cardiac/smooth muscle
Role of calcium in muscle contraction
Tendons or aponeuroses
ATP/CP
Adductors-abductors
Flexors-extensors
Hypertrophy-atrophy
Levators-depressors
Periods of muscle contraction
Function of tropomyosin/troponin
TERMS: sarcolemma, cross-bridges, belly, motor unit,
acetylcholine, action potential, depolarization,
acetylcholinesterase, botulism, flaccid, motor end
plate, glycogen
11 Fascicle arrangements
Classes of levers
Origins and insertions
Actions of muscles (antagonist, synergist, agonist)
Naming of muscles
Axial muscle characteristics
Appendicular muscle characteristics
Rotator cuff muscles
Quadriceps
TERMS: fibrosis, hernia, ischemia, Tendon of Achilles,
Fulcrum, lever
12 Functional units of nervous system
CAN/SNS/ANS/PNS
Receptors/Effectors
Parts of a neuron
Synapse role in transmission
Types of synapses
Classes of neurons
Sensory neurons and motor neurons
Interneurons
Types of neuroglia cells
The blood brain barrier
Depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization
All-or-None Principle
Action potential
Types of Axons
Types of neurotransmitters
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Saltatory conduction
Afferent-Efferent
Dendrite-Axon
Exteroceptors-Interoceptors-Proprioceptors
Presynaptic neuron/Postsynaptic neuron
TERMS: myelin sheath, refractory period, summation
13 Meninges
White matter/gray matter
Horns/columns
Perineurium/Epineurium/Endoneurium
Spinal nerve/Peripheral nerve
Nerve Plexuses
Neuronal pools
Reflex arc
Classes of reflexes
Monosynaptic reflexes/polysynaptic reflexes
Patellar reflex-Babinski reflex
Epidural space and subdural space
Tough mother and soft mother
Pneumotaxic area and apneustic area
TERMS: denticulate ligaments, meningitis, shingles,
spinal tap, gray commissures
14 Brain regions
Embryology of the brain
Ventricles of the brain
Protections of the brain
CSF (formation, circulation)
The Blood-Brain Barrier
Functions of the medulla oblongata
Functions of the pons
Functions of the cerebellum
Functions of the mesencephalon, diencephalon
Functions of the thalamus and hypothalamus
The Limbic System
Functions of the cerebrum
Integrative centers
Classes of brain waves
Cranial Nerves
TERMS: EEG, hydrocephalus, cerebral cortex, fissure,
reticular formation
15 The special senses
Adaptation
Receptors (nociceptors, thermoreceptors,
mechanoreceptors)
Types of tactile receptors
Somatic sensory pathway
Visceral sensory pathway
Control of the skeletal muscles
Slow pain, fast pain, referred pain
The suprarenal glands and the hormones
The pineal gland
The Pancreatic Islets and the hormones
Hormones of other organs and systems
Hormones that produce coordinated physiological
responses
Role of hormones in growth and responses to stress
TERMS: anesthesia, cerebral palsy
TERMS: Addison disease, cretinism, goiter,
hyperglycemia, messenger, calcitonin,
16 ANS
Divisions of the ANS
Stimulation of sympathetic neurons
Stimulation of parasympathetic neurons
Neurotransmitters
Dual innervations
Types of visceral reflexes
Types of memory
Stages of sleep
TERMS: NREM, REM, arousal, RAS, Alzheimer
disease
17 The special senses
The taste receptors
Primary taste sensations
Accessory structures of the eye
The layers of the eye
The retina
The chambers of the eye
Types of accommodation
Accommodation problems
Visual pathway
External, middle, inner ear
The ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
Equilibrium in the ear
The equilibrium pathways
The hearing pathway
TERMS: umami, glaucoma, conjunctivitis,
blind spot, cerumen, frequency, hertz, pitch,
decibels
Classes of hormones
Mechanisms of hormone actions
Feedback control of endocrine secretion
Hormones of the pituitary gland
The functions of the thyroid hormones
The parathyroid gland and its hormones