Female Role in Advertisements / 59
Robert A, Peterson and Roger A. Kerin
The Female Role in
Advertisements:
Some Experimental Evidence
Do male and female respondents react the same to nudity?
I
N recent years widespread attention has focused upon the roles portrayed by women in
advertisements. Considerable research has been
conducted on this issue and, for the most part,
study findings have been disparaging of advertising.^ In particular, advertising has been criticized
for presenting women as simple-minded, noncareer oriented, and male-dependent. Essentially,
say the critics, advertising perpetuates archaic and
distorted sex role stereotypes.^
While controversy over the occupational and
social roles portrayed by women in advertisements continues to simmer, there is a second, related phenomenon which may possess even more
long run significance both for marketing managers
and society in general. This is the trend toward
increasing eroticism and nudity in advertisements.
As Wise, et al have previously noted, the use
of erotic or sexual appeals in advertisements is
hardly new.^ What is new is the intensity of such
appeals and the increasing number and variety of
products being marketed with sexual overtones.
Likewise, one need only peruse almost any
magazine to personally observe the increasing use
of nudity, primarily female nudity, in advertisements. No longer are fringe media, questionable
products, or shady firms solely associated with
About the Authors
ROBERT A. PETERSON is Associate Professor Marketing, The University of Texas at Austin.
ROGER A. KERIN is Assistant Professor of Marketing, Southern Methodist University, Dallas.
nudity in advertising. Now, not only are nude
models used to advertise well-known consumer
products such as cosmetics, ski equipment, and
wearing apparel, but they are even used by
companies like Amoco, Arco and Ashland Oil to
market industrial products. No longer is nudity
employed solely as a shock device or attentioncreating ploy. It is increasingly being used in a
more sophisticated and aesthetic sense in a functional communication role.
Perhaps
the epitome of this new
"functionalism" is the Faberge advertisement initially appearing in the October, 1976 issue of
Cosmopolitan. In this four-color advertisement, a
well-known New York model is posed in an
above-the-waist frontal nude illustration for a skin
moisturizer. The general thrust of the advertisement is geared directly toward women and can be
described as "female communicating with female.'"*
Purpose
While there has been considerable discussion
about this particular advertisement, and nudity in
advertisements generally, surprisingly little is
known about the effects of employing either nudity or sexual overtones in advertising. The few
empirical studies which have been conducted relied heavily upon secondary data analyses or were
less than generalizable due to the subjects employed.*
It is readily understandable that companies
employing nudity or sexual overtones in their advertisements would be reluctant to release sales
60 / Journal of Marketing, October 1977
data permitting direct measurement of the effects
of such advertisements. Still, it should be possible
to partially evaluate the effects of such advertisements by means of pertinent attitudinal studies.
This is the purpose of the present study.
Specifically, the objectives of this research
were to investigate consumer attitudes toward:
•
An advertisement.
•
The product displayed in the advertisement.
•
The company producing the product.
All three were viewed as a function of the role of
a female model in the advertisement.
Research Design
To accomplish the research objectives an experiment was designed with three factors or independent variables. These were product type, advertisement content, and respondent sex. The first
two factors were manipulation factors, the latter
was a control factor.
Two products were employed in the
study—a body oil (a personal feminine product)
and a ratchet wrench set (an impersonal masculine product). The brand name assigned to both
products was the same; both products were called
Four advertisements were prepared for each
product. The copy was identical for each advertisement. Only the illustration differed among the
advertisements.
blouse and slacks. However, in this instance
the blouse was completely unbuttoned, and
was fastened only by knotting the blouse at
sternum level. Hence, the blouse was relatively open, and exposed some midriff and
cleavage. This was termed the "seductive
model" advertisement.
•
Study subjects were 224 middle-class adults
in three southwestern metropolitan areas. Because
sex of subject was an experimental factor, data
were analyzed separately for the 112 males and
112 females.
Data collection was carried out by means of
in-home personal interviews. Subjects were
handed a portfolio of three "mock-up" advertisements and requested to independently evaluate
each advertisement under the guise of a new product test. Two of the advertisements were "dummies", and were identical for all subjects. The third
advertisement was the experimental one.
After viewing the advertisements, respondents were asked to indicate on 7-point scale:
•
whether the advertisement itself is appealing . . .
unappealing.
•
whether the product advertised is high quality
. . . low quality.
•
whether the company which produces the
product advertised is repMfflb/e . . . not reputable.
Product-Only Advertisements
In this advertisement the product was presented
by itself on a covered, waist-high pedestal. The
pedestal stood in front of an innocuous brick
background.
The Nude Model In a third advertisement
the .model was completely undressed. This
was characterized as the "nude model" advertisement.
As shown in Exhibit 1, there were 16 different
cells in the experiment with each corresponding to
one particular treatment combination:
Sex (2) X Ads (4) X Products (2)
Product and Model Advertisements
In three advertisements a professional model was
positioned partially behind the product and
pedestal. Her hands rested lightly on the pedestal
to the side and rear of the product.
•
•
The Demure Model In one advertisement
the model was dressed in a long-sleeved,
medium dark blouse which was completely
buttoned down the front and tucked into a
pair of tan slacks. This was called the "demure model" advertisement.
The Seductive Model In a second advertisement the model was dressed in the same
EXHIBIT 1
Experimental Design
Type of Advertisement
Product
Body
Oil
Ratchet
Set
Respondents
Product Demure
Only
Model
Seductive
Nude
Model Model
Male
1
2
3
4
Female
5
6
7
8
Male
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Female
Female Role in Advertisements / 61
EXHIBIT 2
Significance Levels for Experimental Effects
EXHiBiT 3
Advertisement Illustration Evaluation
100 | -
Dependent Variables
Advertisement
Appeal
Product
Quality
Company
Reputation
Product (P)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Respondent (R)
.000
.001
.08
Advertisement (A)
.10
.000
.000
PXR
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
PXA
.02
.000
.02
RXA
.01
N.S.
N.S.
PXRXA
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Effects
60
High
Product
Quality
50
Highly —
Reputable
Company
»
I
40
»
Very
Appealing
Advertisement
30
n
20 -
K
Fourteen subjects were randomly assigned to each
cell. For example, cell 1 contained 14 males who
were exposed to a body oil advertisement in which
the illustration consisted solely of a container of
body oil.
Results
Data were analyzed by means of standard analysis
of variance (ANOVA) techniques. This was done
separately for each of the three dependent variables. Exhibit 2 contains summary findings from
these analyses. In general:
•
There were no differences between the manner in which the two products—body oil and
ratchet set—were perceived.
•
Males were more favorably disposed toward
the advertisements, products and producing
company than were females.^
Most important, significant differences were
found in subject perceptions as a function of advertisement type. Exhibit 3 portrays, in diagrammatic
form, the main effect due to type of advertisement.
Across products and respondents, the advertisement containing a nude model was consistently
perceived as the least appealing, while the associated product and producing company were perceived as, respectively, possessing the lowest quality and being the least reputable.
Additionally, there was a consistently significant product-by-advertisement type interaction
effect. As can be noted in Exhibit 4, the Seductive
Model/Body Oil treatment combination was simultaneously perceived as the most appealing advertisement containing the highest quality product
produced by the most reputable company. The opposite was true for the Nude Model/Body Oil treat-
Product
Only
Demure
Model
Seductive
Model
Nude
Model
Type of Advertisement lilustratlon
Computed by dividing appropriate mean score by Its scale base
and multiplying the result by 100% .
ment combination. This combination resulted in
the least appealing advertisement with the lowest
product quality and least reputable company.
Finally, there was one statistically significant
Respondent X Advertisement type interaction effect,
and that was for advertisement appeal. Males perceived the Seductive Model/Body Oil advertisement
to be the most appealing, while females evaluated
the Nude Model/Ratchet Set as least appealing.
Implications
It is tempting to broadly generalize the results of
this experiment, especially those relating to advertisement type. However, restraint must be maintained, and findings interpreted in light of the usual
study caveats—subjects, manipulation effectiveness, and data collection. Still, statistically significant findings were obtained. The fact that the
nude model consistently elicited the least favorable
evaluations of advertisement, product, and company is, to say the least, intriguing, and certainly
merits further investigation.
One general issue which obviously requires
attention is that of consistency. While prior research has demonstrated the need for advertisement/audience consistency—the need for an advertisement to be appropriate for a given target
audience—this study suggests the need for
product/model congruency within an advertisement
as well.
62 / Journal of Marketing, October 1977
EXHIBIT 4
PXA Interaction Effect for All Dependent Variables: Means and Standard Deviations
Type of Product
Body Oil
Type of
Advertisement
Ad Appeal
fVI
Product
Quality
Ratchet Set
Company
Reputation
Ad Appeal
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Product Only
4.25
1.75
3.82
1.73
3.59
1.84
4.48
Demure Model
5.08
2.21
3.46
1.77
3.51
1.91
4.14
Seductive Model
3.68
1.63
4.42
1.71
3.15
1.52
4.92
Nude Model
5.33
1.87
2.07
1.33
5.41
1.90
4.88
Product
Quality
Company
Reputation
M
SD
M
SD
2.20
3.71
2.07
3.54
2.01
2.12
3.75
1.09
3.93
1.70
1.76
2.36
1.28
4.82
1.85
2.15
2.65
1.63
5.07
1.57
The smaller the Mean, the more appealing the advertisement, the lower the product quality or the more reputable the company was perceived to be.
Product/model congruency can be conceptualized as lying along a continuum, shown in Exhibit 5. At one extreme, the model serves a communicative role; his/her presence is integral to conveying the message desired. Depending upon the
exact copy employed, this functional role might be
best illustrated by treatment cell 8 (body oil, female
respondent, nude female model).
The exploitive end of the continuum is represented by "cheesecake" advertisements in which
the model only serves a titillating function. This
advertisement type is represented in the present
study by treatment cells 12 and 16; the nude model
has no relationship to the product advertised other
than physical proximity.
In the middle of the continuum the model
fills a decorative role, neither strictly communicative nor exploitive. This is perhaps the most
common model role in an advertisement, and it is
illustrated to a certain extent by both the demure
and seductive model advertisements for the body
oil product.
To a limited extent the above notion of
product/model congruency was empirically supported by the data in the present study. Analyses
of those advertisements containing the female
model indicated that perceptions were more
favorable when the product was body oil as compared to the ratchet set. Indeed, more favorable
ratchet set evaluations were obtained when the
product was presented with no model in the advertisement. Needless to say, however, such
findings must be replicated prior to formulation of
any substantive conclusions.
A second aspect worth briefly mentioning relates to a broader issue of whether advertising reflects or causes (or simultaneously does both)
EXHIBIT 5
Product/Model Congruency
•*
Functional Roie of Model-
Communicative
Decorative
High
Congruency
Exploitive
Low
Congruency
societal values. While there appears to be a trend
toward increasing nudity in advertisements, albeit
"functional" or "tasteful" nudity, in the present
study use of a nude model resulted in the least
favorable perceptions. Hence, at this time it is
perhaps appropriate to question whether marketers are making a fundamental mistake by employing nudity in their advertisements. Rather than
appearing as innovative (fashionable?), the use of
nudity may ultimately produce deleterious effects,
not only regarding perceptions toward the firm's
advertisements, but even towards its products
and corporate image.
ENDNOTES
1. Donald E. Sexton and Phyllis Haberman, "Women in
Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 14 (August 1974), pp. 41-46; Ahmed Belkaovi and Janice M. Belkaovi, "A Comparative Analysis
of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Print Advertisements: 1958, 1970, 1972," Journal of Marketing
Research,
Vol. XIII (May 1976), pp. 168-72; Alice E. Courtney and
Sarah Wemick Lockeretz, "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Acivertisements," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. VIII
(February 1971), pp. 92-95; Louis C. Wagner and Janis
B. Banas, "A Woman's Place: A Follow-up Analysis of
the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. X (May
1973), p p . 213-14.
Female Role In Advertisements / 63
pp. 15-19; Robert Danielenko, "Do Sexy Ads Sell Products?" Product Management, (February 1974), pp, 21-26;
Wise, et al, same as reference 3 above,
6. The brand name Vade has been shown to be an innocuous name. See Robert A. Peterson and Ivan Ross,
"How to Name New Brands," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 12 (December 1972), pp. 29-34.
7. There were no statistically significant effects for the
"dummy" or control advertisements (median p = .59).
This attests, in part, to the internal validity of the
study.
2. Mary Harvey, "Images of Women in Advertising,"
The Corporate Examiner (July 1975), pp. 3A-3D.
3. Gordon L. Wise, Alan L. King and J. Paul Merenski,
"Reactions to Sexy Ads Vary with Age," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 14 (August 1974), pp. 11-16.
4. "Faberge Uses Nude Woman in Ad to Women," Advertising Age, September 27, 1976, pg. 8.
5. Bruce John Morrison and Richard C. Sherman, "Who
Responds to Sex in Advertising?" Journal of Advertising
Research, Vol. 12 (April 1972), pp. 15-19; Major Steadman, "How Sexy Illustrations Affect Brand Recall,"
Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 9 (February 1969),
Alarketing Alemo
The Social Responsibility of Business and Business Greed
The contention that business has an overriding "responsibility" to devote its resources
to the resolution of certain "social problems," raises another question with long-term implications: Is the basic purpose of business to promote the interests oi owners of the business, or
the interests of non-owners? The popular response may be to opt for the latter, with the
argument that businessmen should elevate their motives above the "greedy" pursuit of
material gain, and, instead, use their resources to serve others. But since such a response
normally comes from non-owners who might anticipate benefitting from such a reordering of
business priorities, one might conclude that their definition of a "greedy" person is "one
who puts his selfish interests ahead of mine."
Butler D. Shaffer, "The Social Responsibility of
Business: A Dissent," Business and Society,
Vol. 17 Number 2 (Spring 1977), pp, 11-18, at
page 13.