Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap (C-SERMS), Phase 1
Summary and Recommendations for Policymakers
Katie Auth
Mark Konold
Evan Musolino
Alexander Ochs
Working Draft as of June 2013
Executive Summary
The Caribbean region currently stands at a crossroads, faced with several critical challenges associated
with the generation, distribution, and use of energy. Despite tremendous renewable energy resources,
the region remains disproportionately dependent on imported fossil fuels, which exposes it to volatile
and rising oil prices, limits economic development, degrades local natural resources, and fails to
establish a precedent for global action to mitigate the long-term consequences of climate change, which
pose a particularly acute threat to small-island states and low-lying coastal nations.
The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is poised to play a crucial role in the regional transition to
sustainable energy. CARICOM represents 15 diverse member states: Antigua and Barbuda, The
Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis,
St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. Although the geography,
culture, and economic structures of these states vary widely, they face many common energy challenges
and opportunities.
Recognizing the need to develop a coordinated regional approach to expedite the increased use of
renewable energy and energy efficiency and chart a new, climate-compatible development path that
harnesses indigenous renewable energy resources, maximizes energy use, minimizes environmental
damage, and spurs economic growth and innovation, CARICOM adopted its regional Energy Policy in
2013 after a decade in development. To facilitate the process of translating intentions into action, the
CARICOM Secretariat commissioned the first phase of the Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap and
Strategy (C-SERMS), designed to build on existing regional efforts and to provide CARICOM member
states with a coherent strategy for transitioning to sustainable energy.
In this C-SERMS Phase 1 Summary and Recommendations for Policymakers report, the Worldwatch
Institute provides an overview of the region’s current energy situation, recommends regional targets
for renewable power capacity, energy efficiency, and carbon emissions reductions in the short-term
(2017), medium-term (2022), and long-term (2027), and outlines key strategies for achieving those
goals. A more detailed baseline assessment can be found in the corresponding Baseline Assessment and
Report prepared by Worldwatch.
This report explores the options for energy reform across a wide range of sectors, nearly all of which
face significant energy challenges:

In the power sector, current generation relies heavily on dirty and expensive fuels, and is often
insufficient to meet the needs of local populations. These challenges are often accentuated by
isolated grid networks, high technical and non-technical losses, small overall generation capacity,
outdated equipment, and a lack of financial resources to make needed advancements.

Transportation accounts for a significant share of total energy consumption in nearly all member
states, while energy production, manufacturing, and extractive industries account for a majority of
energy consumption in certain member states.

The tourism sector presents unique opportunities for rapid and significant impact because of its
high energy consumption and enormous economic importance regionally.
Fortunately, extremely strong potential for utilizing domestic renewable resources exists across the
region. Initial technical assessments indicate enormous opportunities for sustainable energy solutions
1
based on energy efficiency improvements and the development of both baseload and variable
renewable resources including geothermal, hydropower, modern biomass, solar, and wind. Current grid
and storage infrastructure, however, is generally insufficient to support such developments on a large
scale. Although still relatively marginal in terms of their overall contribution to the region’s energy mix,
renewable energy technologies are already playing an increasingly significant role throughout CARICOM.
Harnessing observed potential will require that a number of key technical assessment gaps be filled.
Detailed energy efficiency, renewable energy, and grid and storage assessments are still lacking in many
areas across the region and, in cases where these have been conducted, they are often not
communicated or are not made publicly available.
Despite the strong potential for energy efficiency and renewable energy observed in all CARICOM
member states, the development of sustainable energy systems will not occur organically. The
successful expansion of sustainable energy depends largely on the presence of a long-term vision, the
effectiveness of existing policy and regulatory structures, and the surrounding governance and
administrative framework.
To date, all 15 member states have adopted a national energy policy or have a document in advanced
stages of development. National policymakers across the region have set domestic targets to promote
renewable energy use. Many member states have already taken the lead in developing and
implementing domestic policy mechanisms to support an increase in renewable energy and energy
efficiency. At the regional level, policymakers have jointly established net-billing as the appropriate
minimum standard for policy support across CARICOM. Despite these important initial steps, sustainable
energy development across the region continues to be limited by policy and data gaps, administrative
ineffectiveness, and often inefficient and uncoordinated implementation efforts.
Regional collaboration among member states could transform the CARICOM energy sector. Based on an
initial assessment of renewable resource potentials, existing energy policy frameworks, and
international best practices, Worldwatch has developed and recommended regional sustainable energy
targets for renewable power capacity, energy efficiency, and reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions in the short, medium, and long terms. In this report, Worldwatch recommends targets of 20
percent renewable power capacity by 2017, 28 percent by 2022, and 47 percent by 2027; a 33 percent
reduction in energy intensity by 2027; and power sector CO2 emission reductions of 18 percent by
2017, 32 percent by 2022, and 36 percent by 2027. These ambitious targets, many of which were
adopted at the 41st Special Meeting of the Commission on Trade and Economic Development (COTED)
on Energy, unite the region under a common vision and establish CARICOM as a global leader in
renewable energy promotion.
Through regional collaboration, CARICOM’s 15 member states have a tremendous opportunity to
maximize their individual resources and spearhead renewable energy development by working together
toward common and coherent goals. The CARICOM Energy Policy and the C-SERMS project are both
critical steps toward a more cohesive approach to regional energy planning. Many obstacles remain,
however, that must be overcome through the promotion of priority projects, policies, and initiatives at
the regional and national level.
This study identifies and categorizes key initiatives that, if undertaken, will mitigate the unique
information, finance, policy, and capacity barriers faced by the region and foster the development and
deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency across CARICOM. In addition to the full slate of
high-impact activities, Worldwatch recommends three immediate next steps in translating regional
commitments into sustained actions, facilitating CARICOM’s sustainable energy transition.
2
Full transformation of the CARICOM energy sector will be a long-term process requiring extensive
commitment and dedicated collaboration among all member states and relevant regional and
international actors. The regional approach outlined by C-SERMS will ensure that member states are
supported by a network of actors and institutions united under a common vision. With continued
commitment to transforming the regional energy sector, CARICOM and its 15 member states can
become global leaders in sustainable energy development.
3
Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy Phase 1 (C-SERMS-I)
Summary and Recommendations for Policymakers
Recognizing the need to develop a coordinated approach to addressing regional energy challenges, the Caribbean
Community (CARICOM) began developing its Energy Policy in 2002. Approved in 2013, the document promotes a
shift to sustainable energy through increased use of renewable energy sources and improvements in energy
efficiency. In 2009, the Secretariat commissioned the Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (CSERMS), designed to build on existing regional efforts and to provide CARICOM member states with joint regional
sustainable energy targets and a common, coherent strategy for transitioning to sustainable energy systems.
The C-SERMS-I Baseline Report and Assessment provides an overview of the regional energy situation, identifies
critical information and data gaps, and recommends short- (2017), medium- (2022), and long-term (2027) targets
for renewable energy share, energy efficiency improvements, and carbon dioxide emissions reductions in the
power sector. This C-SERMS-I Summary and Recommendations for Policymakers summarizes the major findings
of the Baseline Report and Assessment and recommends a strategic series of priority actions that CARICOM and
its member states can undertake to achieve their goals.
The Need for C-SERMS
The Caribbean region currently stands at a crossroads, faced with several critical challenges associated
with the generation, distribution, and use of energy. (See Figure 1.) Disproportionate dependence on
imported fossil fuels exposes many Caribbean countries to volatile and rising oil prices, limits economic
development, degrades local natural resources, and fails to establish a precedent for global action to
mitigate the long-term consequences of climate change, which pose a particularly acute threat to smallisland states and low-lying coastal nations. In the power sector, these challenges are often accentuated
by high electricity tariffs, isolated grid networks, small overall generation capacity, outdated equipment,
and a lack of financial resources.
Technical
Socioeconomic
Environmental
•Isolated grid
networks
•Small overall
generation capacity
• Inability to meet
existing and future
demand
•Outdated
equipment
•Low efficiency
•High electricity
tariffs
•Vulnerability to
rising, volatile fuel
prices
•Missed
opportunities for
domestic
investment and jobs
•Energy poverty
•Local air, freshwater
and ocean pollution
•Deforestation
•Degradation and
depletion of natural
habitats,
ecosystems and
resources
•Global climate
change
© Worldwatch
Figure 1 Key energy challenges in the Caribbean
4
Fortunately, the region has enormous opportunities for sustainable energy solutions based on energy
efficiency improvements; the development of renewable resources such as biomass, geothermal,
hydropower, solar, waste-to-energy, and wind; and intelligent grid development.
The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Secretariat is poised to play a crucial role in the regional
sustainable energy transition. CARICOM represents 15 diverse member states: Antigua and Barbuda,
The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and
Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. (See Figure 2.)
Although these states vary widely in terms of geography, culture, socioeconomic structure, and other
important features, many among them face similar energy challenges.
Figure 2 CARICOM member states
CARICOM member states share an interest in charting a new, climate-compatible development path
that harnesses indigenous renewable energy resources, improves energy savings and efficiency,
mitigates global climate change, and spurs economic growth and innovation.
A Regional Approach to Energy in the Caribbean
The passage of the CARICOM Energy Policy in 2013 demonstrates the region’s understanding that a
coordinated approach to addressing regional energy challenges offers significant advantages. While
individual CARICOM member states can have a significant impact on expanding the efficient use of
energy and renewable energy technologies, a more cohesive and coordinated regional approach will
facilitate a broader, more durable transition and help achieve sustainable energy goals most cost
effectively. (See Figure 3.)
5
Draw on a common vision and shared goals
Share best practices, experience, and
expertise
Leverage combined economic resources
and complementary renewable energy
resources
Take advantage of cost-effective energy
supply options by creating a regional
energy market
Bundle projects to attract finance
Build regional supply chains
© Worldwatch
Figure 3 Advantages of a regional approach to energy in the Caribbean
C-SERMS I Methodology
Based on a preliminary assessment of current energy systems, renewable resource and energy
efficiency potentials, and existing energy policy frameworks, the C-SERMS Phase I Baseline Report and
Assessment recommends short-, medium-, and long-term sustainable energy targets for renewable
power generation, energy efficiency, and reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and conducts
gap analysis across a number of energy sectors. (See Figure 4.) This Summary and Recommendations for
Policymakers report summarizes the key findings of that analysis, and draws on a combination of
regional and international best practices to outline key elements of a strategic plan for CARICOM to
reach its goals.
6
© Worldwatch
Figure 4 C-SERMS I methodology
Current Energy System Analysis
In general, CARICOM member states exhibit heavy—and in many cases, nearly exclusive—reliance on
fossil fuels (mainly residual and distillate fuel oils as a result of the widespread use of diesel generators).
Because few CARICOM member states have any significant domestic fossil fuel resources, regional
reliance on fuel imports is extremely high. The one big exception is Trinidad and Tobago, where energy
production is a major cornerstone of the economy, accounting for 44 percent of nominal GDP and 58
percent of government revenue in 2010.i
Despite oil’s regional predominance, natural gas also plays a significant role in regional energy
production and consumption. Trinidad and Tobago transitioned its hydrocarbon sector from oil to
i
Trinidad and Tobago produces energy at levels far above those seen in other CARICOM states, accounting for roughly 96
percent of regional primary energy production in 2010. It also consumes much more than the other member states, accounting
for 75 percent of all primary energy consumed within the region in 2010.
7
primarily natural gas in the early 1990s; by 2011, the country’s natural gas output was approximately
eight times higher than its oil production.1 Trinidad and Tobago is solely responsible for the region’s
primary energy production outweighing consumption, as the other 14 member states cumulatively
consume more primary energy than is produced.2 (See Figure 5.)
Total Primary Energy (Quadrillion Btu)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
CARICOM Production
CARICOM Consumption
CARICOM Production without T&T
CARICOM Consumption without T&T
Figure 5 Primary energy production and consumption in the CARICOM region, 2001–10
With the exception of domestic use, however, natural gas from Trinidad and Tobago is primarily
exported for sale in markets outside of CARICOM. The current scale of LNG shipping infrastructure,
coupled with certain economic challenges, has proven prohibitive for CARICOM’s small-island states in
developing liquefied natural gas (LNG) import infrastructure, and Trinidad and Tobago currently exports
significant quantities of natural gas to major consumers in other parts of the world. Nevertheless, some
member states continue to consider the option of LNG—particularly in light of advances in
infrastructure technology. Outside of Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados has developed an extensive
domestic natural gas network connecting 16,575 residential and 640 commercial customers.3 Jamaica is
considering natural gas for the planned expansion of its generation system, with 360 megawatts (MW)
of natural gas-fired combined-cycle capacity scheduled to come online by 2015.
Certain key developments could dramatically improve the sustainability and independence of the
Caribbean energy sector in coming years, as outlined in Figure 6.
8
Geothermal energy
development
Improved energy
efficiency
Expanded use of
distributed
renewables
Regional electricity
interconnection
Increased
deployment of
mainstream
renewable energy
technologies
Future
Sustainable Energy
System in the
Caribbean
Eventual use of
nascent renewable
energy
technologies
© Worldwatch
Figure 6 Potential future game changers in the Caribbean energy system
Electricity Sector
CARICOM member states face a number of common challenges in the electricity sector, from high fuel
costs and isolated grids to the lack of effective regulations and incentives to promote renewable
generation. (See Figure 7.)
Capacity
additions
needed
Small market
size
High fuel costs
Isolated grids
High technical
and nontechnical losses
Tenuous
financial
viability of some
utilities
Lack of effective
regulations and
incentives to
promote
renewable
generation and
efficient use
© Worldwatch
Figure 7 Major challenges in the electricity sector
9
In the absence of policies and measures designed to increase energy conservation and efficiency,
electricity demand is expected to grow dramatically over the coming years, necessitating the expansion
of generation capacity in all 15 CARICOM member states.4 (See Figure 8.)
Antigua and Barbuda
The Bahamas
Existing Capacity
Barbados
2027 Projected Capacity Needs
Belize
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Kitts & Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent & the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad & Tobago
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Installed Capacity (MW)
Figure 8 Existing capacity and projected capacity needs in 2027, business-as-usual scenario notwithstanding future efficiency
and saving policies and measures (See Annex A in C-SERMS Phase 1 Baseline Report and Assessment)
Although most CARICOM member states have high rates of electricity access, expanding electricity
access remains a priority in several countries including Belize, Guyana, Suriname, and particularly Haiti,
where only 25 percent of the population has access to power. Given the overall size of Haiti’s population
(nearly 10 million people), only approximately half of CARICOM’s nearly 17 million people have
electricity access.
The various institutional and market structures in the region’s electricity sector, including where
independent power producers (IPPs) are allowed to operate, are discussed in later sections.
Transportation Sector
Although it varies widely throughout the region, the transportation sector’s share of total energy
consumption in most member states significantly exceeds the global average. Despite the sector’s
importance for energy consumption in CARICOM, transportation is currently the energy sector for
which the least information is available.
10
The impacts and potential solutions for disproportionate transportation energy consumption in the
Caribbean are often overlooked because of the sector’s complexity and the lack of reliable data. In
addition to significant fuel requirements and greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel combustion for
transportation energy has substantial negative effects on local pollution, noise, congestion, health, and
safety.5 The costs associated with existing transportation systems impact the overall cost of goods and
services in the region and have been recognized as one of the “most important barrier[s] to
development for small islands,” highlighting the importance of shifting to more efficient transportation
systems.6 Due to the cross-border nature of certain modes of transportation, namely aviation and
maritime, filling data gaps and transforming the sector will require a concerted effort at both the
regional and national levels.
Technological advancements in the transportation sector have increased the feasibility of a number of
options for fuel switching and fuel replacement, including the introduction of hybrid and electric
vehicles as well as the increased use of liquid biofuels. The small size of many CARICOM member states
is well suited to the 100–200 mile (160–320 kilometer) range of currently available electric vehicles.
Although biofuel production is generally not seen as an appropriate solution in smaller island states, the
development of a regional biofuels market would present an opportunity to maximize the strong
bioenergy potential found in mainland CARICOM member states and select islands that could be
harnessed for the production and distribution of liquid biofuels region-wide. Furthermore, CARICOM
member states have a tremendous opportunity to reform the transportation sector by introducing
currently underutilized public transportation measures, thereby limiting the need for personal vehicle
use across the region.
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Although CARICOM accounts for only a very small share of global carbon dioxide emissions (0.24
percent in 2010),7 preliminary analysis of energy-related emissions indicates significant opportunities
for reductions. A concerted effort on the part of all 15 member states will provide CARICOM with the
authority to serve as a leading voice and set a strong precedent for mitigation action at the global level.
Trinidad and Tobago has by far the highest overall CO2 emissions from energy consumption within the
region, and its emissions have increased significantly over the past decade. This stands in marked
contrast to the other 14 member states, where emissions per capita are generally low compared to
global figures. However, there is still a great deal of room for improvement. Unfortunately, without
updated emissions accounting it is difficult to fully assess the extent and impacts of sectoral emissions
across the region.
The power sector has an extensive carbon footprint, both worldwide and in CARICOM. In a business-asusual scenario based on the region’s existing generation mix, power sector CO2 emissions within
CARICOM member states are expected to increase significantly between 2012 and 2027, reflecting
capacity additions and increased generation.8 (See Figure 9.)
11
Projected Emissions
(million tonnes CO2e per year)
30
24.3
25
20.9
20
17.8
15
10
5
0
2017
2022
2027
Figure 9 Projected business-as-usual power sector greenhouse gas emissions in CARICOM (See Annex A in C-SERMS Phase 1
Baseline Report and Assessment)
Gap Analysis: Electricity, Transportation, and Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Several critical data and information gaps exist in the Caribbean. While information is most readily
available for the electricity sector, detailed energy data in this and other sectors—particularly
transportation—is severely lacking. This impedes analysis and strategic planning. While some degree of
clarity can be obtained with respect to energy production and consumption as well as specific fuel usage
across the region, current data limitations make it extremely challenging to assess energy end-use in
CARICOM. (See Table 1.) Without this information, an accurate breakdown of sectoral energy use cannot
be developed. Additionally, assessing the economic effects of the region’s energy system is hindered by
lack of available data on value and volume of fossil fuel imports.
Table 1. Gap analysis: electricity, transportation, and carbon dioxide emissions
Identified Gap
Electricity
Thorough analysis of electricity end-users
Data often not collected or reported
Detailed data on fuel import costs
Data lacking on economic impact of current energy matrix
Assessment of grid functionality and storage potentials
Information lacking on the extent to which existing electricity networks must be updated
Detailed data on power plants in operation
Readily available information lacking on the current status and operation of existing plants
Updated power sector capacity plans
Available information often out of date; existing plans may change without public notification
Transportation
Coordinated data collection and analysis of transportation
Data often disorganized or uncollected
Updated sector plans and strategies
Available information often out of date
12
Carbon Dioxide
Emissions
Updated emissions reduction plans and strategies
Available information often out of date
Updated greenhouse gas inventories
Information provided to UNFCCC often out of date
Sectoral emissions data
Collected data lacking specificity required for effective policy design
© Worldwatch
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Potential
To enable integrated energy planning, the potential for changes in the energy sector must be measured
and assessed. For CARICOM and its member states, this necessitates a more thorough understanding of
the current experience with and potential for renewable energy, energy efficiency, and grid and
storage solutions. (See Figure 10.)
Renewable
Energy
Integrated Energy
Planning Technical
Assessment Needs
Grid and Storage
Solutions
Energy Efficiency
© Worldwatch
Figure 10 Technical assessments needed for integrated energy planning
Renewable Energy
Existing renewable energy assessments demonstrate significant potential for development and
deployment of renewables in the CARICOM region, including biomass, geothermal, hydropower, ocean
energy, solar, and wind. These existing assessments, although often reliant on different methodologies
and levels of detail, provide a general overview of the available renewable energy resources in each
member state. Most technologies are already being used throughout the region, although far from their
full potential. To facilitate greater deployment, original assessments should be completed where gaps
are identified, and additional, more detailed, assessments should be completed for member states and
resources demonstrating the greatest potential.9 (See Table 2.)
13
Table 2 Documented renewable resource potential in CARICOM member states as share of current peak demand
Hydro
Wind
Geothermal
Solar
Biomass/
Other
*
*
Antigua and
Barbuda
The Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
**
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
*
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the
Grenadines
Suriname
*
Trinidad and
Tobago
Key:
Extremely
High (>100%)
High
(50-100%)
Medium
(20-50%)
Low
(0-20%)
None
Unknown
© Worldwatch
(*) denotes estimated potential based on limited available assessments and personal communication with regional experts,
must be confirmed. (**) denotes potential deemed ‘developable’ in limited assessments, must be confirmed.
Geothermal: Many CARICOM member states, particularly the islands making up the volcanic arc of the
Lesser Antilles, have significant untapped geothermal resources. Development of this resource in
member states such as Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and
the Grenadines could dramatically alter the energy balance of these islands and the region as a whole if
regional grid interconnections are developed to enable renewable energy exports, thereby significantly
increasing the region’s overall renewable share. Currently, no CARICOM state has developed geothermal
power, although exploratory drilling and preliminary investigations are under way in several places.
Hydropower: Large hydropower comprises the majority of renewable power generation within
CARICOM. Development of large-scale hydropower facilities such as the 165 MW Amalia Falls project in
Guyana stands to play a significant role in the changing energy mix.10 Like geothermal, hydropower
presents opportunities to broaden and interconnect regional energy markets, particularly in mainland
member states like Guyana and Suriname. Small hydro plants, typically classified as generating less than
10 MW of electricity, have significant ecological and often human rights advantages, but development
14
feasibility (especially for run-of-the-river systems) requires specific site characteristics that preclude its
use in several small-island CARICOM member states. Elsewhere, the potential for small, sustainable
hydro deployment is enormous, particularly for providing electricity access to remote, currently
underserviced populations, e.g., in the mainland countries as well as Haiti.
Modern biomass (including bagasse and biogas): Belize is a regional leader in the use of bioenergy as a
baseload energy source. Many CARICOM member states, particularly those on the mainland and the
larger island states, have good biomass potential. Waste-to-energy technologies have drawn some
attention throughout the region, although their viability is restricted in those states with limited waste
collection capacity or comparatively small populations, as these do not generate the volumes of waste
necessary to make waste-to-energy plants economically viable. In Haiti, the identified potential for
waste-to-energy technologies has so far been constrained by infrastructural challenges and a lack of
waste collection capacity.
Ocean energy: Energy technologies including wave and tidal and ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) have been identified as a priority area under the Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
Sustainable Energy Initiative (SIDS DOCK),ii as they offer significant potential throughout the region,
presenting opportunities including power generation and the use of deep-sea cooling in the tourism
sector. Marine energy technologies remain in the development phase, however, and still have
prohibitively high costs that limit their deployment in the short-term.11 CARICOM member states are
currently taking steps to advance pilot projects for OTEC, although the technology’s long-term potential
in the region is restricted by factors including uncertain technology development and project scale.
Solar: All CARICOM member states possess strong solar energy potential and opportunities to use
various solar technologies for power generation, heating, and cooling—making solar technology a
crucial, but yet mostly unused, regional sustainable energy solution. The high component costs that
have traditionally plagued solar technologies have declined significantly in recent years, with solar PV
module costs falling nearly 50 percent in 2011 alone, making solar cost-competitive with fossil fuels
under certain conditions.12 Several CARICOM states have already demonstrated enormous success using
solar water heating (with Barbados being a global leader in this technology) and solar photovoltaic (PV)
energy.
Wind: There is also strong regional potential for wind power development. Many experts consider wind
the most viable renewable energy technology for rapid expansion in the region over the next two
decades.13 Currently, however, few CARICOM member states have developed utility-scale wind
infrastructure, aside from Jamaica, which now has over 40 MW of installed wind capacity, and St. Kitts
and Nevis, which has 2 MW installed.
Many renewable energy technologies can be employed at relatively low costs compared to current
electricity generation in the region. Figure 11 provides a comparison of the global range of generating
costs for various renewable technologies (blue bars) with the range of residential electricity tariffs in
CARICOM (lines at 4.5 and 38.2 US cents/kWh).14 It also notes current residential energy prices in
CARICOM member states that demonstrate strong potential for a given renewable energy source.
ii
SIDS DOCK is a sustainable energy initiative comprising member countries of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) with a
focus on achieving sustainable economic development through transformational change in the energy sector.
15
45
Typical Energy Cost (US cents/kWh)
40
 Montserrat
 Antigua & Barbuda
35
 Dominica
St. Vincent & the Grenadines

30
 Guyana
25
20
 Jamaica
 The
Bahamas
 St. Lucia
 Belize
15
10
5

Suriname
0
Figure 11 Global power generation cost ranges by technology, compared to the range of electricity tariffs in CARICOM as well as
specific tariffs in member states that demonstrate particularly good potential for a given resource.
Note: Figure depicts the global range of generation costs for a number of renewable energy technologies, places them within
the range of CARICOM electricity tariffs (4.5–38.2 U.S. cents/kWh, and provides example tariffs in select countries with strong
potential for that particular resource.
Although global generating costs and region-specific residential electricity tariffs are not directly
comparable, they do indicate on a basic level the cost effectiveness of renewable energy technologies,
especially in the context of a region with notoriously high electricity prices.
Energy Efficiency
In tandem with renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency and energy conservation measures
can be deployed across all economic sectors to reduce energy demand, and are often both the
cheapest and fastest way to lessen the economic, social, and environmental costs of energy.iii Energy
efficiency is crucial because of its compounding effects: when a user demands one less unit of energy
because of efficiency measures, the system typically saves much more than one unit of produced energy
because of avoided losses during generation, transmission, and distribution. Especially in countries like
Haiti, where technical and non-technical losses are relatively high, end-user efficiency savings can
translate into much greater savings in generation.
iii
While energy efficiency, which results in the use of less energy to perform the same task, and energy conservation measures,
which look to reduce overall energy use, differ, for the purposes of this analysis energy efficiency is used to describe both sets
of energy reduction solutions.
16
As a result, efficiency improvements can amplify the benefits of developing utility-scale renewable
energy by increasing the impact of added renewable power capacity. As compared to centralized utilityscale power, distributed renewables are often more efficient because they minimize the transmission
losses associated with moving power over long distances.
Opportunities for efficiency measures at the building and household level should be harnessed for
energy and cost savings. Buildings themselves can be made significantly more efficient through proper
insulation, white roofing, and smart architecture/landscaping. In-home products such as household
appliances continue to consume comparatively large volumes of electricity, with their inefficiency
exacerbated in the Caribbean by the prevalence of outdated equipment and a lack of strong efficiency
standards for new appliances. As regional economic development increases, the corresponding growth
in energy demand from these types of appliances and other household products, such as air
conditioning systems, will need to be managed through efficiency standards.
Economic sectors that should be targeted for energy efficiency measures and technologies are those
that: 1) account for a large share of a member state’s energy consumption; 2) are highly energy
intensive or inefficient; or 3) are priority components central to the national economy. Across the
CARICOM region, such sectors include: electricity generation, electricity transmission, hotels and
tourism, mining, the residential sector, and government. Energy efficiency in the transportation sector
must also be addressed through specifically targeted measures that differ from those that can be
deployed in other sectors.
Grid and Storage
Grid and storage solutions have strong potential to transform CARICOM’s existing energy sector. Across
the region, existing grid infrastructure is largely out of date and often insufficient to meet the
population’s current and growing energy needs. This is evidenced by the region’s high technical losses
and, in select member states, a lack of reliable electricity access.
Without further development, existing grid networks will be unable to successfully address the technical
challenges associated with the increased share of renewable energy envisioned by CARICOM and its
member states. New grid infrastructure will be necessary to manage variability and to integrate
complementary renewable energy sources into transmission and distribution networks to supply reliable
power. Smart grid advancements have the potential to manage demand by shifting loads to off-peak
hours and better utilizing domestic renewable energy resources. At the household level, the
deployment of smart meters, combined with appropriate policy mechanisms, would allow customers to
generate their own renewable power and sell excess electricity back to the grid.
Electricity storage has the potential to play an increasingly important role as greater shares of variable
renewables are integrated into grid networks. Storage solutions are currently being assessed in a
number of member states including Antigua and Barbuda, where policymakers are looking into
pumped storage hydropower as a component of wind development.
The development of inter-country infrastructure enabling some degree of electrical integration and/or
regional energy trade could be a potential game changer for CARICOM’s power sector. Already, some
CARICOM member states use submarine interconnection cables to link individual islands, and a number
of preliminary studies have been conducted that together confirm the feasibility and assess the
implications of electricity interconnection in various parts of the Caribbean.
17
Technical Assessment Gap
The completion and communication of technical assessments for renewable energy, energy efficiency,
and grid and storage solutions is the backbone of integrated energy planning. Unfortunately, throughout
CARICOM this is often lacking. Even in areas where the necessary assessments have been completed,
the results are often not communicated and the assessments themselves are unavailable. To facilitate
project development, Table 3 provides a list of identified gaps and the challenges they present. Specific
recommendations to fill these gaps are addressed in later sections.
Table 3 Technical assessment gap
Identified Gaps
Lack of widespread calculation, understanding, and communication of
renewable energy’s cost effectiveness
(continuing perception of renewable energy as prohibitively expensive)
Renewable
Energy
and Energy
Efficiency
Unavailability of renewable energy assessments and technology feasibility
studies
(data often not disseminated for project development)
Higher-resolution assessments for priority geographic locations not
conducted and/or communicated
(in member states without existing detailed resource assessments, research
should focus on priority areas near greatest potential and demand)
Analysis of opportunities for resource complementarity in integrated
energy planning not conducted and/or communicated
(individual assessments usually assess one renewable resource in isolation,
missing critical opportunities for complementarity)
Energy audits not conducted and/or communicated
(limited data on the energy efficiency of sectors, businesses, etc.)
Grid and
Storage
Assessment of grid functionality and storage potentials not conducted
and/or communicated
(information lacking on the extent to which existing electricity networks must
be updated)
© Worldwatch
Existing Energy Policy Framework
Despite the strong potential for energy efficiency and renewable energy observed in all CARICOM
member states, the development of sustainable energy systems will not occur organically, at least not to
the extent or at the pace needed to rapidly harness their full socioeconomic and environmental
benefits. Regional and national governing bodies must be proactive in implementing policy
frameworks that promote the investments needed to encourage energy efficiency improvements and
allow renewable energy projects to take hold.
No single policy mechanism can successfully transform a nation’s entire energy sector. Instead,
policymakers must design and implement an appropriate policy mix that matches unique domestic
conditions. International experience shows that countries that have successfully promoted renewable
energy and energy efficiency score high on three essential building blocks: 1) a long-term vision that
includes goals and targets; 2) concrete policies and measures to achieve these goals and targets; and 3)
18
effective administrative processes and governance structures for implementing and revising these
mechanisms.iv (See Figure 12.)
Long-term
vision
Successful
Promotion
of
Sustainable
Energy
Concrete
policies and
mechanisms
Effective
governance
structures and
administrative
processes
© Worldwatch
Figure 12 Components of successful sustainable energy promotion
Long-term Sustainable Energy Vision
Establishing an official long-term vision for sustainable energy development that lays out clear goals and
priorities and commits all government stakeholders to a common and cohesive strategic agenda
represents a crucial component of effective sustainable energy planning. CARICOM has taken a
significant step forward by finalizing its Energy Policy. In addition to this regional vision, all 15 CARICOM
member states now have a national energy policy in place or in some stage of development, a significant
improvement from when development of the CARICOM Energy Policy began a decade ago.15 (See Table
4.)
Table 4 Existing national energy plans in CARICOM member states
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
National Energy Policy
In Draft (Feb. 2012)
Proposed (Sep. 2010)
Submitted (Dec. 2006)
Proposed (June 2010)
In Draft (Nov. 2011)
Submitted (Sep. 2012)
Name of Policy Document
Final National Energy Policy
Second Report of the National Energy Policy
Committee
The National Energy Policy of Barbados
Sustainable Energy Framework for Barbados
Draft National Energy Policy Framework
MESTPU Strategic Plan 2012–2017
iv
For more information on these three essential components of sustainable energy planning, see the Worldwatch Institute’s
work on Sustainable Energy Roadmaps, in Alexander Ochs and Shakuntala Makhijani, Sustainable Energy Roadmaps: Guiding
the Global Shift to Domestic Renewables (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 2012).
19
Dominica
In Draft (Dec. 2011)
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Approved (June 2011)
Approved (May 2010)
In Draft (Feb. 2011)
Approved (Oct. 2009)
Approved (Sep. 2008)
In Draft (Apr. 2011)
Approved (Jan. 2010)
Approved (Mar. 2009)
Submitted (Nov. 2010)
In Draft (Jan. 2011)
Draft Sustainable Energy Plan of the
Commonwealth of Dominica
The National Energy Policy of Grenada
National Low Carbon Development Strategy
National Energy Sector Development Plan
Jamaica’s National Energy Policy 2009-2030
Montserrat Energy Policy, 2008-2027
Draft National Energy Policy
Saint Lucia National Energy Policy
The Government’s National Energy Policy
Renewable Energy Policy of Suriname
Framework for Development of a Renewable
Energy Policy for Trinidad and Tobago
© Worldwatch
Most CARICOM member states have already set domestic sustainable energy targets across a number of
sectors.16 (See Table 5.)
Emissions Reductions
Energy Efficiency
Renewable Energy in
the Transport Sector
Electricity from
Renewables
Renewable Energy
Supply
Table 5 Existing renewable energy, energy efficiency, and emissions reduction targets in
CARICOM member states
Antigua and Barbuda
The Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Lucia
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Key:
In Place
In development
Suggested
© Worldwatch
Governance and Administration
Governance and administrative structures can be either important enablers to the increased
deployment of sustainable energy or critical barriers to its growth. International experience suggests
that governance and administrative reforms must play a central role in the development of any nation’s
energy sector. The CARICOM region is currently characterized by a vast array of agencies and structures
20
responsible for various aspects of energy sector governance (see Table 6), and a variety of institutional
and governance challenges persist. (See Figure 13.)
Overlapping/opposing mandates and priorities among
various government agencies and institutions
Few CARICOM member states have significant capacity
dedicated exclusively to sustainable energy issues
Resource constraints (human capacity, small budgets, limited
staff, diverse responsibilities)
In some member states, continuing dominance of single
utility monopolies in the electricity sector
© Worldwatch
Figure 13 Institutional and governance challenges in CARICOM
21
Antigua and Barbuda
Ministry of Public Works and the Environment
The Bahamas
Ministry of the Environment
Barbados
Ministry of Finance, Economic Affairs, and
Energy
Belize
Ministry of Energy, Science & Technology, and
Public Utilities
Ministry of Public Utilities, Energy, Ports, and
the Public Service
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the
Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Ministry of Finance, Planning, Economy,
Energy & Cooperatives
Ministry of Natural Resources and the
Environment
Ministry of Energy
Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and
Mining (MSTEM)
Ministry of Communication, Works and Labor
(Energy Development Committee)
Ministry of Public Works, Housing, Energy and
Utilities (St. Kitts) \ Ministry of
Communications, Utilities, Posts, Planning,
Natural Resources and Environment (Nevis)
Ministry of Sustainable Development, Energy,
Science and Technology
Ministry of Energy
Designated Institution for
Renewable Energy
Regulator
Energy Desk, Office of the
Prime Minister
APUA
Utilities
Regulation and
Competition
Authority
Renewable Energy and
Energy Conservation Unit
within the responsible
Ministry
Energy Unit within the
responsible Ministry
Utility
Fair Trading
Commission
Public Utilities
Commission
Independent
Regulatory
Commission
X
Bahamas
Electricity Corp.
and Grand
Bahama Power
Corp.
Barbados Light
and Power
X
(BEC)
Belize Electricity
Ltd.
DOMLEC
X
GRENLEC
Guyana Energy Agency
Public Utilities
Commission
Centre of Excellence for
Sustainable Energy
Developments (CESED)
Office of Utilities
Regulation
Public Utilities
Commission
Energy Policy Advisory
Committee
Energy Unit
Ministry of Natural Resources
Energy Unit of the Ministry
of Natural Resources
Ministry of Energy and Energy Affairs;
Ministry of Public Utilities
Renewable Energy
Committee
Ministry of Public
Utilities
Regulated
Industries Comm.
Guyana Power
and Light
EDH
JPS
Montserrat
Utilities Ltd.
SKELEC &
NEVLEC
IPPs
Allowed
Ministry
Privately
Owned
Member State
StateOwned
Table 6 Institutional and Governance Structure of the Energy Sector in CARICOM Member States
X
(GBP
C)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
LUCELEC
X
X
X
VINLEC
X
X
Energie
Bedrijven
Suriname (EBS)
T&TEC
X
X
X
© Worldwatch
Concrete Policies and Measures
Once the vision has been established, direct support mechanisms for renewable energy and energy
efficiency are necessary to support the development and deployment of these technologies and to meet
overarching energy targets. Although such measures have been widely implemented across the region
(see Table 7), a significant need for policy evaluation and the development of additional measures
remains.17
Table 7 Renewable energy and energy efficiency support policies in CARICOM member states
Fuel Efficiency Standards
Import Tax Exemption/
Reduction
Blend Mandate
Transportation
Appliance Labeling
Standards
Prohibited Use/ Import of
Incandescent Bulbs
Public Demonstration
Tax Reduction/ Exemption
Tax Credits
National Energy Efficiency
Standards
Green Public Procurement
Energy Efficiency
Public Loans/Grants
Tax Reduction/ Exemption
Tax Credits
IPPs Permitted
RPS/Quota
Net Metering/ Billing
Feed-in Tariff
Renewable Energy
Antigua and
Barbuda
The Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Kitts and
Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and
the
Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and
Tobago
© Worldwatch
Key:
In Place
In development
Suggested
Note: “Suggested” indicates that the measure has been cited or discussed in some official state capacity (including in an official planning
document or in public remarks) but has not yet been implemented. Only self-generation from wind and solar PV is permitted through
NEVLEC.
Even when a policy exists, its impact depends on its design and the way in which it is implemented. A
cohesive regional energy strategy requires an assessment of the effectiveness of existing policy design
and implementation across the region. The same applies to existing national energy institutions and
governance structures.
Policy Gaps
Although certain policy measures have been enacted, their ultimate effectiveness depends on factors
including design, implementation, and institutional capacity. Analytic information regarding these
factors must be developed. (See Table 8.)
Table 8 Policy assessment gaps
Identified Gap
Administration
and Governance
Policy
Mechanisms
National-level assessments of institutional effectiveness
National-level assessment of policy effectiveness and efficiency
(ensuring that policies address the primary obstacles to energy efficiency and
renewable energy development)
© Worldwatch
Regional Targets
In order to harness renewable energy and energy efficiency potential, appropriately ambitious regional
targets need to be set. Worldwide, targets are increasingly being adopted at the national, regional, and
international levels. Here, as a primary input to the C-SERMS process, Worldwatch has developed and
suggested short-, medium-, and long-term targets for the share of renewable energy in the CARICOM
electricity mix, energy efficiency improvements, and carbon dioxide emissions reductions. These
targets are designed to provide an ambitious vision for fostering a dramatic increase in renewable
energy and energy efficiency across the region and to help establish CARICOM as a global leader in
sustainable energy development.
Proposed Targets for Share of Renewable Energy in CARICOM’s Electricity Mix
The regional targets for overall renewable energy electricity share were based on the cumulative
documented resource potential in member states. This potential was compared to projected generation
capacity needs calculated to 2027 under a business-as-usual scenario. Based on this analysis, CARICOM
may set overall goals of 20 percent renewable power capacity by 2017, 28 percent by 2022, and 47
percent by 2027. Achieving these regional goals will require targeted actions at the national level
supported by regional collaboration.
Individual shares of that regional target were then apportioned to specific member states based on a
combined analysis of country-specific resource assessments, renewable energy baseload potential,
viable additions of intermittent renewable energy resources, and existing national targets. (See Figure
14.)
24
© Worldwatch
Figure 14 CARICOM Target Methodology
Table 9 presents the CARICOM Sustainable Energy Targets adopted by CARICOM member states and a
preliminary matrix of suggested national targets to meet the regional goals.18 It is expected, however,
that member state-specific targets will be discussed and assessed within CARICOM, and that final
national efforts will reflect this internal debate.
Table 9 Regional and national renewable energy targets
Regional CARICOM Sustainable Energy Targets
Base Year 2012: Share of renewable energy in electricity generation capacity is 8%
Short Term
Medium Term
Long Term
Country
Antigua and Barbuda
The Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
2017
2022
2027
Suggested National Targets
Estimated National Renewable
Share of Installed Capacity to Meet
Regional Target of 48% by 2027
61%
55%
67%
76%
56%
70%
84%
46%
20%
28%
47%
Estimated Renewable Energy Share
of Generation in 2027
(based on installed capacity target)
62%
51%
55%
85%
100%
100%
90%
52%
25
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Kitts and Nevisv
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
58%
34%
St. Kitts: 57%; Nevis: 67%
69%
59%
52%
52%
40%
100%
St Kitts: 100%; Nevis: 100%
100%
81%
60%
29%
© Worldwatch
Due to data availability constraints, these CARICOM Sustainable Energy targets and corresponding
theoretical national targets were initially calculated as a share of installed power capacity needs in each
member state. Using capacity is an imperfect measure. Within the power sector, more detailed
resource assessments and power plant performance data would enable development of generationbased targets that could provide additional guidance to CARICOM member states. Based on currently
available data, initial modeling has produced estimates for the potential generation share of each
theoretical national capacity target. (See Table 9.) Overall, filling significant data gaps with respect to
energy statistics in other sectors, most notably transportation, would facilitate regional and national
target setting for renewable energy shares of total energy use.
Proposed Target for Energy Intensity Improvements in the CARICOM Region
Energy efficiency improvements are also crucial to the development of the region’s future energy
supply, and are often the quickest and most effective way to reduce costs in the energy sector. Energy
efficiency improvements should make it possible for CARICOM member states to meet and even exceed
renewable energy goals by reducing overall energy consumption below the assumed trajectories used to
calculate renewable power targets. Efficiency can be measured using a variety of metrics. Based on
international experiences and projections, Worldwatch recommends a target for CARICOM of a 33
percent reduction in energy intensity by 2027.
Proposed Target for CO2 Emissions Reductions in the CARICOM Region
Although net CO2 emissions from CARICOM member states remain negligible compared to global figures,
demonstrating a concerted regional effort to increase energy services while mitigating harmful
emissions will constitute a strong negotiating position and set a precedent for international action.
Many small-island states, including Dominica and Grenada in CARICOM, have already set ambitious
national goals.
Various metrics and methodologies can be used to set emissions reduction targets for CARICOM. Based
on initial research in the region and on observed international best practices, Worldwatch recommends
short-, medium- and long-term targets for emissions reductions within the power sector against
business-as-usual projections. The proposed emissions reduction targets are based on emission
projections resulting from the modeled generation mix designed for each member state to meet the
adopted regional renewable energy targets.19 (See Table 10 and Annex A, Baseline Report and
Assessment.) Worldwatch further suggests preliminary estimated national commitments required to
meet these regional goals by 2027. These national recommendations should serve as a preliminary guide
for translating regional targets to national action. Each suggested target is subject to change based on
more-detailed national assessments and dialogue between member states.
v
St. Kitts’ installed capacity and generation figures included imported geothermal power from Nevis.
26
Table 10 Regional and national emissions reduction targets
Horizon
Short Term
Medium Term
Long Term
(5 years)
(10 years)
(15 years)
Country
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Regional CARICOM Targets
Target Year
CARICOM Targets
(CO2 emissions reduction in the power sector
against business-as-usual)
2017
18%
2022
32%
2027
46%
National Targets
Estimated CO2 Emissions Reduction
(against business-as-usual in 2027)
62%
53%
61%
62%
100%
100%
82%
44%
51%
100%
100%
100%
78%
43%
29%
© Worldwatch
This approach results in bold overall targets that would make CARICOM one of the most ambitious
regions worldwide in sustainable energy development, especially in the long term (by 2027). Such
targets produce a powerful long-term vision that makes significant renewable energy capacity a central
pillar of energy planning and overall development strategy in each member state, and in the region as a
whole.
Renewable energy technologies often face resistance from those who believe that available renewable
resources are inadequate to supply the demands of an entire country. The ability to set such
ambitious—yet feasible—regional targets clearly demonstrates that, given the ample biomass,
geothermal, hydro, solar, and wind resources of the Caribbean, renewable energy technologies are
capable of providing a significant share of regional power requirements relatively soon. Widespread
energy efficiency improvements would make this even more feasible.
Roadmap and Strategy
Analysis across key sectors reveals critical gaps that must be filled in order for a regional Roadmap and
Strategy to be developed beyond the First Phase. (See Figure 15.)
27
Electricity
•Updated power sector generation capacity plans and strategies
•Detailed data on power plants in operation
•Analysis of electricity end-users
•Grid and storage assessments and expansion plans
Tranportation
•Updated tranportation sector plans and strategies
•Energy statistics in the transportation sector
•Fuel use
•Vehicle registration database
Emissions
•Updated emissions reduction plans and strategies
•Updated greenhouse gas inventories
•Sectoral emissions data
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Potentials
•LCOE+ (levelized cost of energy, plus externalities)
•Centralized database for renewable energy assesments
•Assessments at higher resolutions for priority areas
•Analysis of opportunities for complementarity
•Energy audits
Policy and Finanace
•Review of governance and administration effectiveness
•Review of policy effectiveness
•Identification of financial barriers to renewable energy within each member state
© Worldwatch
Figure 15 Regional gap analysis
Filling these gaps will allow for the formulation and implementation of various strategies toward
achieving CARICOM’s targets and will require coordinated efforts on both the regional and national
levels. (See Figure 16.) On the national level, individual member states must implement domestic policy
mechanisms and enact needed reforms to meet their contribution to the regional target. At the same
time, CARICOM can play a crucial role in coordinating these national efforts, ensuring that the progress
of individual member states is monitored and verified, and providing critical support to member
states.
28
CARICOM
Member
States
© Worldwatch
Figure 16 Achieving targets through coordinated regional and national efforts
Recommendations for Moving Forward: An Outline for Regional and National Action
Based on available data on the region’s current energy situation and the identified gaps, a number of
targeted strategies could have a significant impact in accelerating the development and deployment of
renewable energy and energy efficiency across CARICOM. Here, recommendations have been structured
according to four major regional goals:
1. Information: improve the region’s energy information network by strengthening existing
information systems and building awareness of renewable energy;
2. Finance: identify innovative financing mechanisms for renewable energy projects;
3. Policy: support the implementation of regulatory frameworks that enable renewable energy
development; and
4. Capacity: build technical capacity among players in the renewable energy field including project
developers, financiers, engineers and technicians, policymakers, and planners.
The projects, policies, and initiatives presented across all four categories aim to mitigate some of the
most prevalent barriers in the region. (See Table 11.) While each individual action is listed and described
independently, in practice many rely on the execution of complementary tasks also enumerated here.
Overall, completion of the full slate of potential activities described below would allow CARICOM to
meet and likely exceed its regional sustainable energy goals.
29
Reg./Nat’l/Both
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
Table 11 Priority Initiatives, Policies, Projects, and Activities (PIPPA) for CARICOM
INFORMATION
1
1.1.
1
1.1.
2
1.1.
3
1.1.
4
1.2.
1
1.2.
2
1.2.
3
1.3.
1
1.3.
2
1.3.
3
2
2.1
Conduct and Communicate Key Resource and
Technical Assessments
Identify renewable resource assessment needs in
member states
Commission any renewable resource assessments
necessary to fill identified gaps
Assess renewable technology uses (generation, solar
cooling, solar water heating, etc.)
Communicate key findings
Identify priority sectors for energy efficiency
assessments (e.g., industry, households,
transportation)
Conduct energy audits of identified target areas
Communicate key findings
Assess current grid and storage: infrastructure
capabilities
Identify solutions to bridge gap between existing (1.3.1)
and projected (2.3) grid and storage needs
Grid and storage: Communicate key findings
Conduct and Communicate Electricity System
Modeling
Facilitate country-specific LCOE+ modeling of allinclusive electricity generation scenarios (incl.
renewable energy, fossil fuels)


 






    







 































     
  
        
 
    
      
      


 B
 B
 B
 B










 B







 B







 
       












   



     






  



 B
















 B
 B
 B

 B
2.3
3
3.1
3.2
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5
5.1
5.2
  






   











R/N/B
2027
2026
2025


 B







 B


2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2.2
Calculate electricity generation scenarios examining
various generation mixes (e.g., BAU,30% renewables,
50% renewables, 80% renewables) and associated
socioeconomic impacts (e.g., jobs)
Conduct load profile analysis for overlay with modeled
scenarios to determine grid and storage transition
needs
Conduct On-Site Feasibility Studies (Community
Impact, Economic Cost, Environmental Footprint,
etc.) for Priority Resources Identified
Assess feasibility of resources with regional potential
(e.g., geothermal, offshore wind, maritime power)
Assess feasibility of priority resources at national level
Coordinate Information Gathering and
Communication
Identify set of key energy indicators
In cooperation with existing initiatives (CEIS, CIPORE,
OLADE), fill identified energy system data gaps
Provide open and user-friendly access to regularly
updated data
Create (or reform) national data collection and tracking
systems
Conduct Regional Assessment of Technological
Lessons Learned
Facilitate and regularly update compilation of regional
experience with energy efficiency and renewable
energy deployment, financing, and use
Disseminate information to facilitate knowledge sharing








       






    






R
 N
 








  




















 R
     









R
              
    


















 





B
N
              
R
               B
31
6.1
7
7.1
7.2
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
9
9.1
9.2
9.3
Coordinate International Finance
Establish and maintain regional institutional structure to
match key regional needs to available sources of
climate finance (e.g., coordinate and bundle projects,
develop NAMAs, etc.)
Serve as regional representative and voice in
international climate negotiations
Develop Innovative Financing Mechanisms for
Renewable Energy Projects
Design and develop a regional strategy to promote
financing of small- and medium-scale renewable energy
enterprises
Design a model financing window to be implemented in
commercial banks
Establish a dedicated renewable energy revolving fund
Develop Targeted Financing Tools to Support Key
High Impact Areas
Develop a Geothermal Risk Mitigation Fund for the
CARICOM region
Support financing of new infrastructure development by
conducting financial assessments for regional
development needs (smart grid development, energy
storage, electric vehicle charging, etc.)
Support financing for distributed renewables by
designing and establishing financial mechanisms
targeting the sector
 









     













R/N/B
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
6
Facilitate communication and outreach to the
general public
Implement options for more-effective communication
(educational programs, energy competitions, road
shows, etc.)
B
FINANCE
 













              
R
              




   




















R


R
   









     








R
 R









       







      
















R
B
     









B
32
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
12
12.1
12.2
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
Identify and implement high-impact opportunities for
public procurement for sustainable transport options
Establish publicly backed demonstration projects
Support the development of public-private partnerships
De-Monopolize Grid Access and Encourage IPP
Generation
Facilitate dialogue among key stakeholders (e.g.,
policymakers, utilities, end-users) to identify action plan
for enacting reform
Follow CARICOM action plan to: 1) Provide IPPs with
guaranteed and priority access to electricity grids; 2)
Establish independent regulatory bodies with capacity
to design and enforce PPAs
Set Regional Standards
Identify priority areas where regional standards can be
set (e.g., building codes, technology standards, fuel
efficiency standards, R&D, etc.)
Design and enact regional standards in collaboration
with member states
Ensure that domestic policy reflects and enforces
regional standards
    









R/N/B
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
9.4
Identify and communicate sources of funding for
regional research, development, and innovation (RDI) in
sustainable energy
Utilize Government Resources to Promote
Renewable Energy
Identify and implement high-impact opportunities for
public procurement for renewable power generation and
energy efficiency

B




   






















N
         





N
               N
               B
POLICY




   






















R
     









N



  
























R
   











    










R
N
33
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
Incentivize Renewable Generation Through
Regulatory Reform
Develop template for member states to systematically
identify the most effective policy mix
Develop model legislation
Promote the adoption of net billing as agreed at COTED
Identify and implement renewable energy support
policies. (Options to design the appropriate policy mix:
Establish feed-in tariff, adopt production tax credit,
establish net metering/net billing, utilize
auctions/tendering, develop dedicated rural
electrification programs focused on renewable power)
Identify and implement policy mechanisms specifically
targeting areas/populations with limited access to
electricity
Support Energy Efficiency Through Targeted
Legislation
Identify key sectors for efficiency improvements
Identify opportunities and strategies for demand-side
management
Develop and enforce national building codes that
promote energy efficiency
Mandate appliance labeling and efficiency standards
Offer fiscal incentives (e.g., rebates, tax exemptions) for
energy audits and purchasing of energy efficient
products














R/N/B
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
14

   










  
  




















R
 R
 R
    













N
    










N















  











 R
  












    










   










N
 N
  












B
N
34
17
Ensure Policy Effectiveness
17.1
Identify key policy effectiveness indicators
Track, assess, and communicate effectiveness of policy
framework across member states
Track effectiveness of domestic policy implementation
Ensure consistent policy implementation
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
17.2
17.3
17.4
18
18.1
18.2
18.3
19
19.1
Coordinate International Initiatives in the Region
Compile past and ongoing international studies
and projects across member states
Identify areas of duplicated effort and critical gaps
Work with outside actors (GIZ/CREDP, IRENA, etc.) to
ensure that key needs are being met within the region
Build Capacities with Key Supporting Stakeholders
Assess current human, institutional, and education/
training/research capacity within CARICOM to identify
key capacity gaps














R/N/B
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
16.5
Implement Policies to Support the Growth of
Renewable Energy in the Transportation Sector
Develop standards for inter-member state transport
(e.g., shipping and air travel)
Conduct feasibility studies for alternative transportation
systems
Coordinate the creation of a regional biofuel market
Establish support for public transportation
Create mandates and market incentives to promote
fuel-efficient and alternative-fuel vehicles
16

   











   











    
    


















R
 R
 N
      











  






















R
N

 R
              
R
               N
               N
CAPACITY
              
  











   











R
 R
              















   











R
R
35
19.3
19.4
19.5
20
20.1
20.2
20.3
21
21.1
21.2
22
22.1
22.2
  











R/N/B
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
19.2
Create shared database of existing regional training
materials, available training tools and curricula,
education programs, etc.
Encourage development of regional professional
networks including a database of trained renewable
energy and energy efficiency professionals
Facilitate training and education programs for key
stakeholder groups including: policymakers, financial
institutions, job force, private sector
Establish renewable energy and energy efficiency
technology centers throughout CARICOM (locations
based on national resource potential and technological
experience)
Improve Institutional Effectiveness
Develop guiding framework for appropriate energy
institution structure and operation
Assess effectiveness of existing energy institutions
Improve structure and operation of existing energy
institutions based on regional recommendations and
national assessments
Support and Manage Regional Electricity
Interconnection
Conduct feasibility studies examining
interconnection scenarios
Establish enabling regulatory framework: Develop
standards to coordinate electricity sector planning and
operation of pooled electric systems; create mechanism
for enforcing compliance with mandatory standards
Mainstream Renewable Energy
Integrate renewable energy and energy efficiency
across government planning processes
Ensure the participation and coordination of all
government branches and departments

R
  












R
    










R
      








B















  












   










R
 N
      








N







    


















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R
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N
N
36
R/N/B
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
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 N
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25.1
Establish an effective platform for inter-ministerial
dialogue
Simplify Regulatory Compliance
Survey regional project developers to identify
onerous regulatory barriers
Assess efficiency of existing regulations
Enact regulatory reform that prioritizes efficiency and
simplicity (e.g., establish a one-stop shop for renewable
energy project development)
Communicate regulations to project developers and
stakeholders
Maximize Societal Benefits of Sustainable Energy
Identify opportunities for mutually beneficial
partnerships between cultural industries and the
renewable energy sector
Develop programs to ensure that women benefit from
sustainable energy and can participate fully in energy
transition
Promote Capacity in Research, Development, and
Innovation (RDI)
Create platform for Science, Technology, and
Innovation (STI) associations (institutions, researchers,
public and private sector agencies, tertiary institutions,
etc.) engaged in sustainable energy to encourage
communication and build constructive partnerships
across countries and relevant disciplines
Develop R&D training programs in collaboration with
regional STI associations
   
25.2
22.3
23
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
24
24.1
24.2
25

N
N
      
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N
B
  
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
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
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
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  
© Worldwatch
37
These recommendations identify regional and national actions that will have the greatest impact across
CARICOM based on observed regional and domestic conditions. These general principles are not always
equally applicable to each of the 15 member states. In fact, a number of member states have already
begun to distinguish themselves as leaders with respect to many of the categories outlined above. Based
on a detailed assessment of unique local conditions, policy development should therefore focus on the
most critical areas within each member state. (See Table 12.)
Table 12 Priority Action Areas for CARICOM Member States
Renewable Energy
in Transportation
Maximizing Energy
Efficiency
Incentive for Rural
Renewables
Generation
Incentives
IPP Reform
Concrete Policies and Mechanisms
Antigua and Barbuda
The Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
© Worldwatch
Overview of Important Products from Existing Regional Sustainable Energy Initiatives
The information and recommendations contained in this report are based on analysis of the numerous
sustainable energy development activities already under way within CARICOM. Moving forward, it is
crucial that these existing initiatives and the knowledge they have generated be integrated and
expanded as the next slate of relevant projects, initiatives, policies, and activities is developed and
implemented under C-SERMS. In the ongoing effort to maximize resources and build on existing regional
knowledge and capacity to achieve the vision established by the CARICOM Energy Policy, these
initiatives may serve as a valuable point of departure.
The Caribbean Renewable Energy Development Programme (CREDP), which commenced in 2004,vi is a
cornerstone example of sustainable energy initiatives in the region. Since its inception, CREDP has
served as an important catalyst for advancing renewable energy in CARICOM. Arising from CREDP and
subsequent regional level initiatives—such as the Caribbean Renewable Energy Capacity Support
(CRECS) project executed by the CARICOM Secretariat, the Caribbean Sustainable Energy Programme
vi
The UNDP component of CREDP ended in 2009 while the GIZ component extended until 2013.
(CSEP) executed by OAS, etc.—a number of important products have been produced to support
renewable energy development. To help establish a baseline of relevant work being done throughout
the region, Table 13 provides a summary of important outputs from various initiatives over the past
decade.
Table 13 Overview of Important Products from Existing Regional Sustainable Energy Initiatives
INITIATIVE/PROJECT
CARICOM Energy
Programme/
C-SERMS
IMPLEMENTING BODY
CARICOM Secretariat
RELEVANT OUTPUT
1.
2.
3.
CREDP/UNDP/GIZ
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Eastern Caribbean
Energy Labeling
Project (ECELP)
CREDP/GIZ
1.
2.
3.
Caribbean
Renewable Energy
Capacity Support
(CRECS)
CARICOM Secretariat
1.
2.
3.
4.
Quarterly regional coordination
meetings among relevant
sustainable energy
partners/projects/initiatives
CARICOM Energy Week
Framework Document for
Research, Development &
Innovation in Sustainable Energy
in CARICOM
C-SERMS Platform
Carbbean Information Portal on
Renewable Energy (CIPORE)
Baseline Study of Energy Policies
and Legislation in Selected
Caribbean Countries
Standards and assessment
instruments for Technical
Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) assessors and trainers for
solar water heating installation
and maintenance
Energy Week in the Caribbean – A
Guide for Organizers
Customer’s Guide – Energy
Efficiency of Household
Appliances
Retailer’s Guide – Energy
Efficiency Labels for Household
Appliances
Flyers on energy efficiency
standards and labels for
appliances, labels, and illuminants
Model electricity and energy
sector laws and primary and
secondary laws at national level
with renewable energy focus
MSc. RE Programmes at UWI
Communication strategy
development for energy-related
programme in the Caribbean –
Guidelines for Implementers
Model Caribbean sustainable
energy public awareness
COMMENTS
Where relevant, will
be made available on
www.ccenergyprogramme.org
www.cipore.org
Will be made available
on www.ccenergyprogramme.org
www.credp-giz.org
www.ecelp.org
www.ecelp.org
www.ecelp.org
Will be made available
on www.ccenergyprogramme.org
Will be made available
on www.ccenergyprogramme.org
Will be made available
39
INITIATIVE/PROJECT
IMPLEMENTING BODY
RELEVANT OUTPUT
5.
6.
Caribbean
Sustainable Energy
Programme (CSEP)
CARICOM
Secretariat/OAS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Caribbean Policy
Research Institute
(CaPRI) Renewable
Energy Project
CaPRI
1.
2.
3.
4.
CARILEC Energy
Efficiency and
Renewable Energy
Project
UN ECLAC
Renewable Energy
Project
CARILEC/IDB
SIDS DOCK
SIDS DOCK
1.
1.
1.
2.
programme
Network of R&D Institutions to
support renewable energy
Strategy for the Promotion of
Solar Water Heating in CARICOM
Member States
Caribbean Educator’s Guide to
Sustainable Energy Education and
Awareness
Teachers’ Resource Booklet for
Integrated Instruction in
Sustainable Energy
Learn and Save Booklet
Financiers’ Guide to Sustainable
Energy Lending in the Caribbean
Energy Efficiency Guidelines for
Office Buildings in Tropical
Climates
Country-specific database for
potential investors on technology
options, costs, and performance
characteristics of typical
renewable energy systems
Country profiles related to the
renewable energy investment
environment, including databases
on related policies, regulation,
incentives, and availability and
suitability of financing
Cost-benefit analysis tool to
identify viable/near viable
technologies and analyze the
impact of financing conditions on
viability, to raise awareness
among financiers and potential
adopters of RE technologies
Tool for policymakers to analyze
the impact of alternative policy
options on RE project viability
Model Power Purchase
Agreement
Identification of fiscal and
regulatory barriers in selected
Caribbean countries: Bahamas,
Guyana, and Suriname
Strategy Paper for Policy
Harmonization
National Financing Mechanism
COMMENTS
on www.ccenergyprogramme.org
Will be made available
on www.ccenergyprogramme.org
All documents will be
made available on
www.oas.org/dsd
Work in progress
Work in progress
Work in progress
Work in progress
www.carilec.com
Work in progress –
will be available at
40
INITIATIVE/PROJECT
IMPLEMENTING BODY
RELEVANT OUTPUT
3.
4.
Sustainable Energy
Technical
Assistance (SETA)
OECS/CDB
1.
2.
Guidebook
SIDS Appropriate Sustainable
Energy Technology Assessment
SIDS Public Education and
Awareness Programme
OECS Sub-regional Energy
Efficiency Strategy complemented
by National Energy Efficiency
Strategies and Action Plans
Model legislation including
regulations and rules for energy
management
COMMENTS
www.sidsdock.org
Work in progress
Work in progress
will be available at
www.oecs.org
Note: List of compiled activities based on communication with the CARICOM Secretariat
Looking Ahead: Immediate Next Steps in the Sustainable Energy Transition for CARICOM
The ambition demonstrated by CARICOM’s 15 member states in adopting the CARICOM Energy Policy
and committing to regional renewable energy targets forecasts a bright future for the Caribbean. As
demonstrated, however, a great deal of work remains to be done. The projects, policies, and initiatives
recommended and outlined here represent a strategic program for making this vision a reality. Each
member state, with the support of CARICOM, must now begin the process of translating its ambitious
regional commitments into tangible action at the regional and national level.
The success of the CARICOM Energy Policy and the realization of the energy transformation it embodies
will rely on all 15 member states making sustained, collaborative progress over the coming years.
CARICOM can play a key role in ensuring that this process is cohesive and effective by developing and
implementing a systematic and transparent process for facilitating and monitoring action.
To do this, international best practice suggests the development of National Implementation Plans and a
systematic monitoring and evaluation framework to standardize renewable energy and energy efficiency
development and deployment across the region. (See Table 14.) Worldwatch recommends three priority
steps for CARICOM: 1) develop and communicate a standardized framework methodology for
developing implementation plans to be applied across the region, 2) support the development of
national implementation plans, and 3) devise and implement a transparent system for monitoring and
supporting national actions. Together, these three things will help ensure that as national, regional, and
international actors embark on the priority projects and initiatives outlined in this report, efforts across
the region are coordinated and consistent—and that member states can access the support they need
to contribute to regional goals.
41
Table 14. Immediate Next Steps in Facilitating the Transition to Sustainable Energy for CARICOM
Develop Frameworks for National
Implementation Plans
Ensure coordinated progress towards
achieving CARICOM Energy Policy goals by
developing a standardized template for
member states to enact new national
implementation plans where none exist, or
update existing plans to meet regional goals
Facilitate process by which regional targets
are translated into national targets
Communicate and train national policymakers
on using the developed framework
methodology
Reg./Nat’l/Both
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
Goals/Objectives and Specific Measures to
Implement
2013
Schedule
           

          R
              R
               R
Support the Development of National
Implementation Plans
             
Develop national implementation plans under
the framework provided by CARICOM,
including nationally appropriate targets and
strategies to ensure coherence between
national policy and CARICOM energy goals
             B
Monitor and Support National Actions
to Meet Regional Energy Policy Goals
             
Design a systematic process for tracking
progress toward regional goals, including
setting major benchmarks and identifying key
energy sector indicators
Identify appropriate platform for collaborative
MRV by CARICOM and individual member
states
Develop and implement a systematic process
for tracking and assessing national progress
              R
             
              B
©Worldwatch
Although sustainable energy solutions have made great strides in the Caribbean, many significant gaps
and barriers remain. In the coming decades, however, these barriers—to energy access as well as to
renewable energy, energy efficiency, and reliable grid development and deployment—can be
overcome.
Through a cohesive regional effort coordinated and led by CARICOM and fully supported by each of its
15 member states, the region can ensure that each member state will be supported by a network of
actors united under a common vision for the Caribbean energy sector. While the full transformation of
CARICOM’s energy sector will be a long-term process, the priority areas identified in this C-SERMS I
42
report simultaneously represent urgent needs and opportunities for rapid progress. If implemented, the
matrix of projects, policies, and initiatives listed here will result in effective and efficient sustainable
energy development, making CARICOM a global sustainable energy leader.
43
Endnotes
1
International Monetary Fund (IMF), Trinidad and Tobago: Selected Issues (Washington, DC: 2012), p.
15.
2
Figure 5 from U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), “International Energy Statistics,”
www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm, viewed 12 March 2013.
3
Barbados National Oil Company Limited (BNOCL), “Natural Gas,”
www.bnocl.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:natural-gas&catid=6:news&Itemid=9, viewed 15 March 2013.
4
Figure 8 from existing energy sector data and Worldwatch projections.
5
Alison Pridmore and Apollonia Miola, Public Acceptability of Sustainable Transport Measures: A Review
of the Literature, Discussion Paper 2011-20 (Leipzig: International Transport Forum, 2011).
6
Gui Lohmann and David Ngoc Nguyen, “Sustainable Tourism Transportation in Hawai’i: A Holistic
Approach,” in J. Carlsen, ed., Island Tourism: Sustainable Perspectives (Wallingford, U.K.: CABI, 2011),
pp. 197–214.
7
EIA, op. cit. note 2.
8
Figure 9 from existing energy sector data and Worldwatch projections.
9
Table 2 is based on the following sources: Franz Gerner and Megan Hansen, Caribbean Regional
Electricity Supply Options: Toward Greater Security, Renewables and Resilience (Washington, DC: World
Bank, 2010); geothermal potential from Charles Visser and Michael Hillesheim, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL), “Application of Geothermal Technology in the Caribbean,” PowerPoint
presentation at Low Carbon Communities in the Caribbean Energy Workshop, 2 March 2011, at
www.edinenergy.org/pdfs/lccc11_Visser.pdf; Belize and Guyana solar potential from OpenEI database,
http://en.openei.org/wiki/Main_Page, viewed 6 November 2012; Haiti potentials from Matt Lucky and
Katie Auth, Roadmap to a Sustainable Electricity System: Harnessing Haiti’s Renewable Energy Resources
(Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, forthcoming 2013); Jamaica potentials from Shakuntala
Makhijani, Roadmap to a Sustainable Electricity System: Harnessing Jamaica’s Renewable Energy
Resources (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, forthcoming 2013). Assessments cited for Barbados
indicate potential deemed economically and commercially viable now or in the near term; solar includes
solar water heaters. Additional information from personal communications with regional experts.
10
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), “Amalia Falls Hydroelectric Project,”
www.iadb.org/en/projects/project-description-title,1303.html?id=GY-L1035, viewed 6 February 2013.
11
Joseph Williams, “Opportunities and Challenges in the Development of Marine Renewable Energy In
the Caribbean,” presentation to the 13th Meeting of UN Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on
Oceans and Law of the Sea, New York, NY, 30 May 2012.
12
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), Global
Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2012 (Frankfurt: 2012).
13
Gerner and Hansen, op. cit. note 9, p. 14.
14
Figure 11 compiled from: CARICOM member electricity rates are provided for domestic consumers
using less than 100 kWh per month. Data from CARILEC, CARILEC Tariff Survey Among Member Electric
Utilities – Mid-Year (June) 2010, at www.carilec.com/services/tariff2010.pdf; Haiti (EDH) from Matt
Lucky and Katie Auth, Roadmap to a Sustainable Electricity System: Harnessing Haiti’s Sustainable
Energy Resources (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, forthcoming 2013); Guyana from Guyana
Power and Light Inc., “Electricity Rates,” www.gplinc.com/?q=information/rates, viewed 16 January
2013. Global average generation rates by technology are provided by Renewable Energy Policy Network
for the 21st Century (REN21), Renewables 2012 Global Status Report (Paris: 2012), pp. 28–29.
15
Table 4 derived from national energy policies and draft energy policies provided by CARICOM partners.
44
16
Table 5 derived from national energy policies and draft energy policies provided by CARICOM
partners.
17
Table 7 derived from national energy policies and draft energy policies provided by CARICOM
partners.
18
Table 9 based on Worldwatch calculations.
19
Table 10 based on Worldwatch calculations.
45