UNIT 1
Chapter-1
Introduction to MIS
Ques. What is MIS? Discuss in detail?
OR
Describe the three words of MIS: Management, Information, System.
OR
Discuss the objectives and characteristics of MIS.
Ans.: Management Information Systems (MIS), referred to as Information Management and
Systems, is the discipline covering the application of people, technologies, and procedures
collectively called information systems, to solving business problems.
“'MIS' is a planned system of collecting, storing and disseminating data in the form of
information needed to carry out the functions of management.”
Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods
tied to the automation or support of human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert
Systems, and Executive Information Systems.
Management : Management is art of getting things done through and with the people in formally
organized groups. The basic functions performed by a manager in an organization are: Planning,
controlling, staffing, organizing, and directing.
Information : Information is considered as valuable component of an organization. Information is
data that is processed and is presented in a form which assists decision maker.
System : A system is defined as a set of elements which are joined together to achieve a common
objective. The elements are interrelated and interdependent. Thus every system is said to be
composed of subsystems. A system has one or multiple inputs, these inputs are processed through a
transformation process to convert these input( s) to output.
1.1 MIS DEFINITION:
The Management Information System (MIS) is a concept of the last decade or two. It has been
understood and described in a number ways. It is also known as the Information System, the
Information and Decision System, the Computer- based information System.
The MIS has more than one definition, some of which are give below.
1. The MIS is defined as a system which provides information support for decision making in the
organization.
2. The MIS is defined as an integrated system of man and machine for providing the information to
support the operations, the management and the decision making function in the organization.
3. The MIS is defined as a system based on the database of the organization evolved for the purpose
of providing information to the people in the organization.
4. The MIS is defined as a Computer based Information System.
Thought there are a number of definitions, all of them converge on one single point, i.e., the MIS is
a system to support the decision making function in the organization. The difference lies in defining
the elements of the MIS. However, in today.s world MIS a computerized .business processing
system generating information for the people in the organization to meet the information needs
decision making to achieve the corporate objective of the organization. In any organization, small or
big, a major portion of the time goes in data collection, processing, documenting it to the people.
Hence, a major portion of the overheads goes into this kind of unproductive work in the
organization. Every individual in an organization is continuously looking for some information
which is needed to perform his/her task. Hence, the information is people-oriented and it varies with
the nature of the people in the organization.
The difficulty in handling this multiple requirement of the people is due to a couple of reasons. The
information is a processed product to fulfill an imprecise need of the people. It takes time to search
the data and may require a difficult processing path. It has a time value and unless processed on
time and communicated, it has no value. The scope and the quantum of information is individual
dependent and it is difficult to conceive the information as a well-defined product for the entire
organization. Since the people are instrumental in any business transaction, a human error is
possible in conducting the same. Since a human error is difficult to control, the difficulty arises in
ensuring a hundred per cent quality assurance of information in terms of completeness, accuracy,
validity, timeliness and meeting the decision making needs.
In order to get a better grip on the activity of information processing, it is necessary to have a
formal system which should take care of the following points:
Handling of a voluminous data.
Confirmation of the validity of data and transaction.
Complex processing of data and multidimensional analysis.
Quick search and retrieval.
Mass storage.
Communication of the information system to the user on time.
Fulfilling the changing needs of the information.
The management information system uses computers and communication technology to deal with
these points of supreme importance.
1.2 Objectives of MIS :
1. Data Capturing : MIS capture data from various internal and external sources of organization.
Data capturing may be manual or through computer terminals.
2. Processing of Data : The captured data is processed to convert into required information.
Processing of data is done by such activities as calculating, sorting, classifying, and summarizing.
3. Storage of Information : MIS stores the processed or unprocessed data for future use. If any
information is not immediately required, it is saved as an organization record, for later use.
4. Retrieval of Information : MIS retrieves information from its stores as and when
required by various users.
5. Dissemination of Information : Information, which is a finished product of MIS, is
disseminated to the users in the organization. It is periodic or online through computer terminal.
1.3 Characteristics of MIS :
1. Systems Approach : The information system follows a systems approach. Systems approach
means taking a comprehensive view or a complete look at the interlocking sub-systems that operate
within an organization.
2. Management Oriented : Management oriented characteristic of MIS implies that the
management actively directs the system development efforts. For planning of MIS, top-down
approach should be followed. Top down approach suggests that the system development starts from
the determination of management’s needs and overall business objective. To ensure that the
implementation of system’s polices meet the specification of the system, continued review and
participation of the manager is necessary.
3. Need Based : MIS design should be as per the information needs of managers at different levels.
4. Exception Based : MIS should be developed on the exception based also, which means that in
an abnormal situation, there should be immediate reporting about the exceptional situation to the
decision –makers at the required level.
5. Future Oriented : MIS should not merely provide past of historical information; rather it should
provide information, on the basis of future projections on the actions to be initiated.
6. Integrated : Integration is significant because of its ability to produce more meaningful
information. Integration means taking a comprehensive view or looking at the complete picture of
the interlocking subsystems that operate within the company.
7. Common Data Flow : Common data flow includes avoiding duplication, combining similar
functions and simplifying operations wherever possible. The development of common data flow is
an economically sound and logical concept, but it must be viewed from a practical angle.
8. Long Term Planning : MIS is developed over relatively long periods. A heavy element of
planning should be involved.
9. Sub System Concept : The MIS should be viewed as a single entity, but it must be broken down
into digestible sub-systems which are more meaningful.
10. Central database : In the MIS there should be common data base for whole system
1.4 ROLE OF THE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM:
The role of the MIS in an organization can be compared to the role of heart in the body. The
information is the blood and MIS is the heart. In the body the heart plays the role of supplying pure
blood to all the elements of the body including the brain. The heart works faster and supplies more
blood when needed. It regulates and controls the incoming impure blood, processes it and sends it
to the destination in the quantity needed. It fulfills the needs of blood supply to human body in
normal course and also in crisis. The MIS plays exactly the same role in the organization.
(1) The system ensures that an appropriate data is collected from the various sources, processed,
and sent further to all the needy destinations. The system is expected to fulfill the
information needs of an individual, a group of individuals, the management functionaries:
the managers and the top management.
(2) The MIS satisfies the diverse needs through a variety of systems such as Query Systems,
Analysis Systems, Modeling Systems and Decision Support Systems the MIS helps in
Strategic Planning, Management Control, Operational Control and Transaction Processing.
(3) The MIS helps the clerical personnel in the transaction processing and answers their queries
on the data pertaining to the transaction, the status of a particular record and references on a
variety of documents. The MIS helps the junior management personnel by providing the
operational data for planning, scheduling and control, and helps them further in decision
making at the operations level to correct an out of control situation.
(4) The MIS helps the middle management in short them planning, target setting and controlling
the business functions. It is supported by the use of the management tools of planning and
control. The MIS helps the top management in goal setting, strategic planning and evolving
the business plans and their implementation.
(5) The MIS plays the role of information generation, communication, problem identification
and helps in the process of decision making. The MIS, therefore, plays a vita role in the
management, administration and operations of an organization.
Ques Discuss an Organizational Need for MIS in a Company?
Ans.: To facilitate the management decision making at all levels of company, the MIS must be
integrated. MIS units are company wide. MIS is available for the Top management. The top
management of company should play an active role in designing, modifying and maintenance of
the total organization wide management information system. Information system and Information
technology have become a vital component of any successful business and are regarded as major
functional areas just like any other functional area of a business organization like marketing,
finance, production and HR. Thus it is important to understand the area of information system just
like any other functional area in the business. MIS is important because all businesses have a need
for information about the tasks which are to be performed. Information and technology is used as a
tool for solving problems and providing opportunities for increasing productivity and quality.
Information has always been important but it has never been so available, so current and so
overwhelming. Efforts have been made for collection and retrieval of information, However,
challenges still remain in the selection analysis and interpretation of the information that will
further improve decision making and productivity.
MIS for a Business Organization :
1. Support the Business Process : Treats inputs as a request from the customer and outputs as
services to customer. Supports current operations and use the system to influence further
way of working.
2. Support Operation of a Business Organization : MIS supports operations of a business
organization by giving timely information, maintenance and enhancement which provides
flexibility in the operation of an organizations.
3. To Support Decision Making : MIS supports the decision making by employee in their
daily operations. MIS also supports managers in decision making to meet the goals and
objectives of the organization. Different mathematical models and IT tools are used for the
purpose evolving strategies to meet competitive needs.
4. Strategies for an Organization : Today each business is running in a competitive market.
MIS supports the organization to evolve appropriate strategies for the business to assented
in a competitive environment.
Ques Discuss the Prerequisites of an Effective MIS?
Ans.: Essential Requirement of an Effective MIS :
(i) Qualified System and Management Staff : The prerequisite of an effective MIS is that it
should be managed by qualified officers. These officers should have a mutual understanding about
the roles and responsibilities of each other. be understand clearly the view of their fellow officers.
For this, each organization should have two categories of officers :
(a) System and Computer Experts who in addition to their expertise in their subject area , they
should also be capable of understanding management concepts to facilitate the understanding of
problems asked by concern. They should also be clear about the process of decision making and
information requirements for planning.
(b) Management experts who should also understand quite-clearly the concepts and operations of
a computer. This basic knowledge of computer will be useful will place them in a comfortable
position, while working with systems, technicians in designing or other wise, of the information
system.
(ii) Futuristic Perspective : An effective MIS should be capable of meeting the future
requirements of its executives as well. This capability can be achieved by regular monitoring and
updating the MIS.
(iii) Support of Top Management : For a management information system to be effective, it must
receive the full support of top management. The Reasons for this are :
(a) Subordinate managers are usually lethargic about activities which do not receive the support of
their superiors.
(b) The resources involved in computer based information system are larger and are growing larger
and larger in view of importance gained by management information system.
(iv) Common Database : It is an integrated collection of data and information which is utilized by
several information subsystems of an organization. A common database may be defined as a super
file which consolidates and integrates data records formerly stored in a separate data file. Such a
database can be organized as an integrated collection of data records into a single super file or it
can be organized as an integrated collection of several data file.
(v) Control and maintenance of MIS : Control of the MIS means the operation of the system as it
was designed to operate. Some times, users develop their own procedures or short cut methods to
use the system which reduces its effectiveness.
Ques What do you understand by Information System? Discuss various type of
Information.
Ans.: A business has several information systems :
(A) Formal Information System
(B) Informal Information System
(C) Computer Based Information System
(a) Formal Information System : It is based on organizational chart represented by the
organization.
(b) Informal Information System : It is an employee based system designed to meet personal and
vocational needs and to help in the solution of work-related problems. It also funnels information
upward through indirect channels. It works within the framework of the business and its stated
policies.
(c) Computer Based Information System (CBIS) : This category of information system depends
mainly on the computer for handling business application. System analysis develops different types
of information system to meet variety of business needs. There is class of system known as
collectively as computer based information system. They are categorized in the following 6 classes:
i) Transaction Processing System (TPS)
ii) Management Information System (MIS)
iii)Decision Support System (DSS)
iv)Executive Support System (ESS)
v)Office Automation Systems (OASs), and
vi)Business Expert Systems (BESs)
Figure shows the specific types of information systems that correspond to each organizational level. The
organization has executive support systems (ESS) at the strategic level; management information systems (MIS)
and decision-support systems (DSS) at the management level; knowledge work systems (KWS) and office
systems at the knowledge level; and transaction processing systems (TPS) at the operational level. Systems at
each level in turn are specialized to serve each of the major functional areas. Thus, the typical systems found in
organizations are designed to assist workers or managers at each level and in the functionsof sales and marketing,
manufacturing, finance, accounting, and human resources.
1. Transaction Processing System:
TPS processes transaction and produces reports. It represents the automation of the fundamental,
routine processing used to support business operations.It does not provide any information to the
user to his/her decision-making. TPS uses data and produces data as shown in the following
diagram.
Previously, TPS was known as Management Information System. Prior to computers, data
processing was performed manually or with simple machines. The domain of TPS is at the lowest
level of the management hierarchy of an organization.
2. Management Information System (MIS)
MIS is an information system, which processes data and converts it into information.A management
information system uses TPS for its data inputs. The information generated by the information
system may be used for control of operations, strategic and long-range planning. Short-range
planning, management control, and other managerial problem solving. It encompasses processing in
support of a wide range of organizational functions & management processes. MIS is capable of
providing analysis, planning & decision making support. The functional areas of a business may be
marketing, production, human resource, finance and accounting.
3. Decision Support System (DSS)
A decision support system (DSS) is an information system application that assists decision-making.
DSS tends to be used in planning, analyzing alternatives, and trial and error search for solution. The
elements of the decision support system include a database, model base & software. The main
application areas of DSS are Production, finance and marketing.
DSS can be differentiated from MIS on the basis of processing the information. MIS processes data
to convert it into information. DSS processes information to support the decision making process of
a manager.
4. Executive Support System (ESS)
Executive Support System (ESS) is an extension of the management information system, which is a
special kind of DSS; An ESS is specially tailored for the use of chief executive of an organization to
support his decision-making. It includes various types of decision-making but it is more specific
and person oriented.
5. Office Automation Systems (OAS)
Office automation refers to the application of computes and communication technology to office
functions. Office automation systems are meant to improve the productivity of managers at
various levels of management of providing secretarial assistance and better communication
facilities.
Office activities may be grouped under two classes, namely
i)Activities performed by clerical personnel (clerks, secretaries, typist, etc.,) and
ii)Activities performed by the executives (managers, engineers or other professionals like
economist, researches etc.)
In the first category, the following is a list of activities.
a) Typing
b)Mailing
c)Scheduling of meetings and conferences,
d) Calendar keeping, and
e)Retrieving documents
The following is a list of activities in the second category (managerial category)
a)Conferencing.
b)Production of information (messages, memos, reports, etc.) and controlling performance.
6. Business Expert Systems:These systems are one of the main types of knowledge-based
information systems. These systems are based on artificial intelligence, and are advanced
information systems. A business expert system is a knowledge based information system that uses
its knowledge about a specific, complex application area to act as an expert. The main components
of an expert system are:
a. Knowledge Base
b. Interface Engine
c. User Interface
Chapter-2
Information
INFORMATION CONCEPTS
The word .information. is used commonly in our day to day working. In MIS, information has a
precise meaning and it is different from data. The information has a value in decision making while
data does not have. Information brings clarity and creates an intelligent human response in the
mind. In MIS a clear distinction is made between data and information. Data is like raw materials
while the information is equivalent to the finished goods produced after processing the raw
material. Information has certain characteristics. These are: Information
Improves representation of an entity
Updates the level of knowledge.
Has a surprise value.
Reduces uncertainty.
Aids in decision making.
The quality of information could be called good or bad depending on the mix of these
characteristics. Devis and Olson defines information as a data that has been processed into a form
that is meaningful to the recipient and is of real or perceived value in the current or the prospective
actions or decisions of the recipient. Data is defined as groups of non-random symbols in the form
of text, images or voice representing quantities, actions and objects. Whether an entity is a data or
information, it must be transferred through communication from the Source. to the Destination
without loss of content. The general model for such communication is given in Fig.
The above model of communication is used in the MIS. The MIS is equivalent to the transmitter
which provides information and sends through reports (channel) to the various receivers, which is
decoded or interpreted by the receiver at the destination. The poor quality of information due to
various factors would create confusion and misunderstanding, which is equivalent to a Noise and a
Destortion in the communication model. A good MIS communicates the information without a
noise and a distortion to the user.
Information Presentation
Presentation of the information is an art. The data may be collected in the best possible manner and
processed analytically, bringing lot of value in the information; however, if it is not presented
properly, it may fail to communicate anything of value to the receiver. The degree of
communication is affected by the methods of transmission, the manner of information handling and
the limitations and constraints of a receiver as the information processor and the organization as the
information user.
The methods used for improving communication are summarization and message routing. The
concept of summarization is used to provide information which is needed in the form and content.
The information can be summarized in a number of ways as shown in Table .
The principle behind summarization is that too much information causes noises and distortions, i.e.,
confusion, misunderstanding and missing the purpose. The summarization suppresses the noise and
the distortions.
Another method of improving the degree of communication is through message routing. The
principle here is to distribute information to all those who are accountable for the subsequent
actions or decisions in any manner. That is if the information is generated with a certain purpose for
a primary user, then such information may have secondary purposes to some other users in the
organization. This is achieved by sending the copies of the reports or documents to all the
concerned people or users. The principle of the message routing achieves the spread of information
to the appropriate quarters.
Knowledge is a power and an intelligent person in the organization can misuse this power to
achieve personal goals undermining the functional and organizational goals. This tendency should
be curbed. Further, the decision maker may call for the information on the grounds that, just in case
required, he should readily have it. Apart from the misuse of information, it has an impact on the
cost of information processing. In order to curb the misuse of information, a control is exercised on
the content of information and its distribution.
Bias in information
While choosing the appropriate method of communicating information a care has to be taken to see
that is not biased. For example, while using the techniques of classification or filtering the
information, it should not happen that certain information gets eliminated or does not get classified.
That is, a deliberate bias in covering certain information is to be avoided. This bias enters because
people try to block sensitive information which affects them. To overcome this problem, a formal
structure of organization should be adopted and the type of information and its receiver should be
decided by the top management.
Many a times the data and the information are suppressed but the inferences are informed, with no
or little possibility of verification or rethinking. In this case one who draws inferences may have a
bias in the process of collection, processing and presentation of data and information. Though the
deliberate enforcement of the inference on the receiver avoids a possibility of the multiple
inferences, but in this case processor.s bias is forced on the receiver. For example, organizations
have departments like Corporate Planning, Market Research, R and D, HRD and so on, which
collect the data and analyze it for the company and communicate the inferences. In all these cases
personal bias, organizational bias and management bias may be reflected in the entire process of
collection processing, and communication inference.
The presentation of the information will generate a bias and may influence the user. For example, if
the information is presented in an alphabetical order and if it is lengthy, the first few information
entities will get more attention. If the information is presented with a criteria of exception, the
choice of exception and deviation from the exception creates a bias by design itself. For a quick
grasp, the information is presented in a graphical form. The choice of scale, the graphic size and the
colour introduced a bias in the reader.s mind.
The base, which may creep in inadvertently because of the information system design, can be
tackled by making the design flexible, so far as reporting is concerned. Allow
the manager or the decision maker to choose his classification or filtering criteria, the scope of
information, the method of analysis and the presentation of inference. However, somewhere balance
needs to be maintained between the flexibility of the design and the cost, and its benefits to the
managers. Disregarding the bias in information, it must have certain attributes to increase its utility
as shown in Table.
Redundancy is the repetition of the parts or messages in order to circumvent the distortions or the
transmission errors. The redundancy, therefore, sometimes is considered as an essential feature to
ensure that the information is received and digested. In MIS the redundancy of data and
information, therefore, is inevitable on a limited scale. Its use is to be made carefully so that the
reports are not crowded with information.
Characteristics of Information :
The parameters of a good quality are difficult to determine, however, the information can be termed
as of a good quality if it meets the norms of impartiality, validity, reliability, consistency and age.
The quality of information has another dimension of utility from the user.s point of view. The users
being many, this is difficult to control. Therefore, if one can develop information with due regards
to these parameters, one can easily control the outgoing quality of the information with the probable
exception of the satisfaction at the users end.
Following are the essential characteristic features :
(i) Timeliness : Timeliness means that information must reach the recipients within the prescribed
timeframes. For effective decision-making, information must reach the decision-maker at the right
time, i.e. recipients must get information when they need it. Delays destroys the value of
information. The characteristic of timeliness, to be effective, should also include up-to-date, i.e.
current information.
(ii) Accuracy : Information should be accurate. It means that information should be free from
mistakes, errors &, clear Accuracy also means that the information is free from bias. Wrong
information given to management would result in wrong decisions. As managers decisions are
based on the information supplied in MIS reports, all managers need accurate information.
(iii) Relevance : Information is said to be relevant if it answers especially for the recipient what,
why, where, when, who and why? In other words, the MIS should serve reports to managers which
is useful and the information helps them to make decisions..
(iv) Adequacy : Adequacy means information must be sufficient in quantity, i.e. MIS must provide
reports containing information which is required in the deciding processes of decision-making. The
report should not give inadequate or for that matter, more than adequate information, which may
create a difficult situation for the decision-maker. Whereas inadequacy of information leads to
crises, information overload results in chaos.
(v) Completeness : The information which is given to a manager must be complete and should
meet all his needs. Incomplete information may result in wrong decisions and thus may prove
costly to the organization.
(vi) Explicitness : A report is said to be of good quality if it does not require further analysis by the
recipients for decision making.
(Vii) Impartiality: Impartial information contains no bias and has been collected without any
distorted view of the situation. The partiality creeps in, if the data is collected with a preconceived
view, a prejudice, and a pre-determined objective or a certain motive.
(viii)Validity: The validity of the information relates to the purpose of the information. In other
words, it is the answer to the question-dose the information meet the purpose of decision making for
which it is being collected? The validity also depends on how the information is used. Since the
information and the purpose need not have one to one correspondence, the tendency to use it in a
particular situation may make the information invalid. For example, if the quality of the
manufactured product is deteriorating and it is decided to select the causes of poor quality, then one
must collect all the possible causes which may affect the quality. Quality is a function of the raw
material, the process of manufacture, the tools applied, the measures of the quality assessment, the
attitude of the people towards the control of quality. However, if the information collected talks
only about raw materials and the process of manufacture, then this information is not sufficient and
hence it is not valid for all the decisions which are required to control the quality.
(ix) Reliability: It is connected to the representation and the accuracy of what is being described.
For example, if the organization collects the information on the product acceptance in the selected
market segment, the size of the sample and the method of selection of the sample will decide the
reliability. If the sample is small, the information may not give the correct and a complete picture
and hence it is not reliable. The reliability is also affected from the right source.
(x)Consistency:The information is termed as inconsistent if it is derived form a data which dose not
have a consistent pattern of period. Somewhere, the information must relate to a consistent base or a
pattern. For example, you have collected the information on the quantity of production for the last
twelve months to fix the production norms. If in this twelve months period, the factory has worked
with variable shift production, the production statistics of the twelve months for comparison is
inconsistent due to per shift production. The consistency can be brought in by rationalizing the data
to per shift production per month. The regularity in providing the information also helps in
assessing the consistency in the information.
(xi)Age: If the information is old, it is not useful today. The currency of the information makes all
the difference to the users. If the information is old then it does not meet any characteristics of the
information viz., the update of knowledge, the element of surprise and the reduction of uncertainty,
and the representation. Maintaining these parameters at a high degree always poses a number of
problems. These problems are in the management of the operations, the sources, the data processing
and the systems in the organization. A failure to maintain the parameters to a high degree affects the
value of the information to the decision maker.
Q.2 What are the different types of Information?
Ans.: Classification of Information : The information can be classified in a number of ways
provide to better understanding.
Jhon Dearden of Harvard University classifies information in the following manner :
(1) Action Verses No-Action Information : The information which induces action is called
action information. ‘No stock‘report calling a purchase action is an action information. The
information which communicates only the status is No-Action Information. The stock balance is
no-action information.
(2) Recurring Verses No-Recurring Information : The information generated at regular intervals
is recurring information. The monthly sales reports, the stock statement, the trial balance, etc are
recurring information. The financial analysis or the report on the market research study is
norecurring information.
(3) Internal and external information : The information generated through the internal sources of
the organization is termed as Internal Information, while the information generated through the
govt. reports, the industry survey etc., termed as External Information, as the sources of the data
are outside the organization.
The information can also be classified, in terms of its application :
(i) Planning Information : Certain standard norms and specifications are used in planning of any
activity. Hence such information is called the Planning Information. e. g. Time standard, design
standard.
(ii) Control Information : Reporting the status of an activity through a feedback mechanism is
called the Controlling Information. When such information shows a deviation from the goal or the
objective, it will induce a decision or an action leading to control.
(iii) Knowledge Information : A collection of information through the library records and the
research studies to build up a knowledge base as an information is known as Knowledge
Information.
(iv)Organization Information : When the information is used by everybody in the organization, it
is called Organization Information. Employee and payroll Information is used by a number of
people in an organization.
(v) Functional/ Operational Information : When the information is used in the operation of a
business it is called Functional/Operational Information.
(vi) Database Information : When the information has multiple use and application, it is called as
database information. Material specification or supplier information is stored for multiple users.
Q.6 What is the difference between Data Processing and Information Processing?
Ans.: Data Processing : Data Processing is a process that converts data into information or
knowledge. The processing is usually assumed to be automated and running on a computer. Because
data are most useful when well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems are
often referred to as information systems to emphasize their practicality. Nevertheless, both terms are
roughly synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate
raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to
produce information as output. Data processing is that a business has collected numerous data
concerning an aspect of its operations and that this multitude of data must be presented in
meaningful, easy-to-access presentations for the managers who must then use that information to
increase revenue or to decrease cost. That conversion and presentation of data as information is
typically performed by a data-processing application.
Information Processing : Information processing is the change or processing of information in any
manner detectable by an observer. Information processing may more specifically be defined in
terms by Claude E. Shannon as the conversion of latent information into manifest information.
Latent and manifest information is defined through the terms of equivocation, remaining
uncertainty, what value the sender has actually chosen, dissipation uncertainty of the sender what
the receiver has actually received and transformation saved effort of questioning - equivocation
minus dissipation. Practical Information Processing can be described as a cycle, where data which
may have no inherent meaning to the observer is converted into information, which does have
meaning to the observer.
Q.7 What are the different methods for Data Collection?
Ans.: Methods of Data and Information Collection :
Several methods are available for the collection of data. The choice of method will have an impact
on the quality of information. Similarly the design of data collection method also decides the
quality of data and information. The methods of data collection and processing become a part of the
MIS. The various methods of data collection are explained in Table . An awareness of these
methods is essential to the manager. Further, he should also nunderstand the potential problems of
bias, currency, and the fact versus the opinion in the various types of methods. The observation, the
experiment, the survey and the subjective estimation are the methods chosen for data collection and
information about a specific problem, while the remaining methods are chosen to collect data on a
routine basis without any particular problem whatsoever.
Following are the methods of data collection :
i) Observation
ii) Experiment
iii) Survey
iv) Subjective Estimation
v) Transaction Processing
vi) Purchase from Outside
vii) Publication
viii)
Government Agencies
Methods of Data and Information Collection :
The specific methods analysts use for collecting data about requirements are called fact – finding
techniques. These include the interview, questionnaire, record inspections (on – site review) and
observation. Analysts usually employ more that one of these techniques to help ensure an accurate
and comprehensive investigation.
1 )Interview
Analysts use interviews to collect information from individuals or from groups. The respondents are
generally current users of the existing system or potential users of the proposed system. In some
instances, the respondents may be managers or employees who provide data for the proposed
system or who will be affected by it. Although some analysts prefer the interview to other fact –
finding techniques, it is not always the best source of application data. Because of the time required
for interviewing, other methods must also be used to gather the information needed to conduct an
investigation.
It is important to remember that respondents and analysts converse during an interview – the
respondents are not being interrogated. Interviews provide analysts with opportunities for gathering
information form respondents who have been chosen for their knowledge of the system under study.
This method is frequently the best source of qualitative information (opinions, policies, and
subjective descriptions of activities and problems). Other fact finding methods are likely to be more
useful for collecting quantitative data (numbers, frequencies, and quantities).
This method of fact – finding can be especially helpful for gathering information from individuals
who do not communicate effectively in writing or who may not have the time to complete
questionnaires. Interviews allow analysts to discover areas of misunderstanding, unrealistic
expectations, and even indications of resistance to the proposed system.
Interviews can be either structured or unstructured:
Unstructured interviews, using a question – and – answer format, are appropriate when analysts
want to acquire general information about a system. This format encourages respondents to share
their feelings, ideas, and beliefs.
Structured interviews use standardized questions in either an open response or closed – response
format. The former allows respondents to answer in their own words; the latter uses a set of
prescribed answers.
Each approach has advantages and disadvantages. The success of an interview depends on the skill
or the interviewer and on his or her preparation for the interview. Analysts also need to be sensitive
to the kinds of difficulties that some respondents create during interviews and know how to deal
with potential problems. They need to consider not only the information that is acquired during an
interview, but also its significance. It is important to have adequate verification of data through
other data collection methods.
2 ) Questionnaire
The use of questionnaires allows analysts to collect information about various aspects of a system
from a large number of persons. The use of standardized question formats can yield more reliable
data than other fact – finding techniques, and the wide distribution ensures greater anonymity for
respondents, which can lead to more honest responses. However, this method does not allow
analysts to observe the expressions or reactions or respondents. In addition, response may be
limited, since completing questionnaires may not have high priority among the respondents.
Analysts often use open – ended questionnaires to learn about feeling, opinions, and general
experiences or to explore a process or problem.
Closed questionnaires control the frame of reference by presenting respondents with specific
responses form which to choose. This format is appropriate for electing factual information.
The high cost of developing and distributing questionnaires demands that analysts carefully
consider the objective of the questionnaire and determine what structure will be most useful to the
study and most easily understood by the respondents. Questionnaires should also be tested and, if
necessary, modified before being printed and distributed.
As with interviewees, recipients, of questionnaires would be selected for the information they can
provide. The analysts should ensure that the respondents, background and experiences qualify them
to answer the questions.
3 )Record Review
Many kinds of records and reports can provide analysts with valuable information about
organizations and operations. In record reviews, analysts examine information that has been
recorded about the system and user. Record inspection can be performed at the beginning of the
study, as an introduction, or later in the study, as a basis for comparing, actual operations with the
records indicate should be happening.
Records include written policy manuals, regulations and standard operating procedures used by
most organizations and a guide for managers and employees. They do not show what activities are
actually occurring, where the decision – making power lies, or how tasks are performed. However,
they can help analysts understand the system by familiarizing them with what operations must be
supported and with formal relations within the organization.
4 ) Observation
Observation allows analysts to gain information they cannot obtain by any other fact – finding
method. Through observation, analysts can obtain firsthand information about how activities are
carried out. This method is most useful when analysts need to actually observe how documents are
handled, how processes are carried out, observers know what to look for and how to assess the
significance of what they observe.
Ques Explain the level of business activity with reference to information required?
Ans.: While developing an information management strategy within an organization, it is useful to
consider informations need at on three levels :
(i) Corporate (Top Level )
(ii)Team, Division, Business Unit (Middle Level)
(iii)Individual (Low Level )
The needs of each of these three levels must be met if a coordinated and effective solution is to be
maintained in the long-term.
Failure to address any one of the levels will lead to areas of the business or individuals finding their
own solution, which may not fit well within the strategic goals of the organization.
(i) Corporate (Top Level Information) : At the top level corporate information that is useful for
the whole organization. This 'global' information is generally well addressed by the corporate
intranet. Examples of corporate information include policies and procedures, HR information,
online forms, phone directory, etc. Interestingly, there may be a limited amount of truly global
information, and it may not deliver the greatest (measurable) business benefits.
(ii) Team, division, business unit (Middle level) : The middle level is perhaps the most important,
as it covers all the information shared within teams, divisions, business units, etc. This information
may be critical to the day-to-day activities of the group, but of little interest to the rest of the
organization. Examples include project documentation, business unit specific content, meeting
minutes, etc. This level is generally poorly-served within organizations, although collaboration
tools are increasingly being used to address team information needs. It is also being recognized that
it is this 'local' information that may be the most valuable, in terms of driving the day-to-day
activity of the organization.
(iii) Individual (Low Level) : At the lowest level the personal information need of staff exists
throughout the organization. Examples include correspondence, reports and spreadsheets. In most
organizations, staff must struggle with using email to meet their information management needs.
While staff generally recognizes the inadequacy of e-mail, they have few other approaches or
technologies at their disposal.
Managing the Levels : While managing the information at each of the three levels, consider
aspects need consideration:
(a) An information management solution must be provided for staff at each of the three levels.
If corporate solutions aren't provided, then staff will find their own solutions. This is the source of
poor-quality intranet sub-sites, and other undesirable approaches.
(b) A clear policy must be developed, outlining when and how it will apply at all the three levels
and how information should be managed at each level.
(c) Processes must be put in place to 'bubble up' or 'promote' information from lower levels to
higher levels. For example, some team-generated information will be critical for the whole
organization.
(d) As much as possible, a seamless information management environment should be delivered that
covers all the three levels.
Ques What do you mean by Value of Information?
Ans.: Dimensions of Information : There are three most common dimensions of information for
MIS :
(i) Economic Dimension : Economic dimension of information refers to the cost of information
and its benefits. Generation of information costs money. Measuring cost and benefit of information
is difficult because of intangible characteristic of information.
Cost of Information : Cost of information may include: Cost of acquiring data, Cost of
maintaining data, Cost of generating information and Cost of communication information. Cost
related to the response time require to generate information and communicating it. Thus, for system
with low response time, the cost is high. The cost is depends on accuracy, speed of generation etc.
Value of Information : Information has a cost for its acquisition and maintenance. Thus before a
particular piece of information is acquired, decision maker must know its value. The information
has a perceived value in terms of decision making. The decision maker feels more secured when
additional information is received in case of decision making under uncertainty or risk.
Perfect Information : The information is called a Perfect Information, if it wipes out uncertainty
or risk completely. However, perfect information is a myth. The value of information is the value of
the change in decision behavior because of the information. The change in the behaviour due to new
information is measured to determine the benefit from its use. To arrive at the value of information,
the cost incurred to get this information is deducted from the benefit.
Value of information = Cost to get information-benefit
Given a set of possible decisions, a decision maker will select one on the basis of the available
information. If the new information causes a change in the decision, then the value of information is
the difference in the value between outcome of the old decision and that of new decision, less the
cost obtaining the new information. The value of the additional information making the existing
information perfect (VPI) is:
VPI = (V2 - V1) - (C2 - C1)
Where V is the value of the information and C is the cost of obtaining the information. V 1 and C1
relate to one set of information V2, C2 relate to the new set.
In MIS, the concept of the value of information is used to find out the benefit of perfect information
and if the value is significantly high, the system should provide it. If the value is insignificant, it
would not be worth collecting the additional information.
(ii) Business Dimension : Different types of information are required by managers at different
levels of the management hierarchy. The information needs of managers at strategic planning level
are altogether different that those of operational control managers. It is because of the fact that
managers at different levels are required to perform different functions in an organization.
(iii) Technical Dimension : This dimension of information refers to the technical aspects of the
database. It includes the capacity of database, response time, security, validity, data interrelationship
etc.
Unit 2
Chapter 3
DEFINING A SYSTEM
A collection of components that work together to realize some objectives forms a system. Basically
there are three major components in every system, namely input, processing and output.
In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are interdependent.
For example, human body represents a complete natural system. We are also bound by many
national systems such as political system, economic system, educational system and so forth. The
objective of the system demands that some output is produced as a result of processing the suitable
inputs. A well-designed system also includes an additional element referred to as „control‟ that
provides a feedback to achieve desired objectives of the system.
Term system is derived from the Greek word „Systema‟ which means an organized relationship
among functioning units or components.
Definition of System :
"A system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a
plan to achieve a specific objective".
Characteristics of a System:
• Organization
• Interaction
• Interdependence
• Integration
• Central Objective
i) Organization-It implies structure and order.
ii) Interaction-It refers to manner in which each component functions with other components of
the system.
iii)Interdependence-Units/parts are dependent on each other.
iv)Integration-The parts of a system work together within the system even though each part
performs a unique function.
v)Central Objective-Objective may be real or stated. All the components work together to
achieve that particular objective.
1.5 Elements of a System
In most cases, systems analysts operate in a dynamic environment where change is a way of life.
The environment may be a business firm, a business application, or a computer system. To
reconstruct a system, the following key elements must be considered:
1. Outputs and inputs.
2. Processor(s).
3. Control.
4. Feedback.
5. Environment.
6. Boundaries and interface.
1 ) Outputs and Inputs : A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has value to its
user. Whatever the nature of the output (goods, services, or information), it must be in line with the
expectations of the intended user. Inputs are the elements (material, human resources, and
information) that enter the system for processing. Output is the outcome of processing. A system
feeds on input to produce output in much the same way that a business brings in human, financial,
and material resources to produce goods and services. It is important to point out here that
determining the output is a first step in specifying the nature, amount, and regularity of the input
needed to operate a system. For
example, in systems analysis, the first concern is to determine the user‟s requirements of a
proposed computer system – that is, specification of the output that the computer is expected to
provide for meeting user requirements.
2) Processor(s) : The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of
input into output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input
totally or partially, depending on the specifications of the output. This means that as the output
specifications change so does the processing. In some cases, input is also modified to enable the
processor to handle the transformation.
3) Control : The control element guides the system. It is the decision – making subsystem that
controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and output. In an organizational
context, management as a decision – making body controls the inflow, handling and outflow of
activities that affect the welfare of the business. In a computer system, the operating system and
accompanying software influence the behaviour of the system. Output specifications determine
what and how much input is needed to keep the system in balance.
In systems analysis, knowing the attitudes of the individual who controls the area for which a
computer is being considered can make a difference between the success and failure of the
installation. Management support is required for securing control and supporting the objective of
the proposed change.
4 )Feedback: Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback measures output
against a standard in some form of cybernetic procedure that includes communication and control.
Output information is fed back to the input and / or to management (Controller) for deliberation.
After the output is compared against performance standards, changes can result in the input or
processing and consequently, the output.
Feedback may be positive or negative, routing or informational. Positive feedback reinforces the
performance of the system. It is routine in nature. Negative feedback generally provides the
controller with information for action. In systems analysis, feedback is important in different ways.
During analysis, the user may be told that the problems in a given application verify the initial
concerns and justify the need for change.
Another form of feedback comes after the system is implemented. The user informs the analyst
about the performance of the new installation. This feedback often results in enhancements to meet
the user‟s requirements.
5) Environment
The environment is the “suprasystem” within which an organization operates. It is the source of
external elements that impinge on the system. In fact, it often determines how a system must
function. For example, the organization‟s environment, consisting of vendors, competitors, and
others, may provide constraints and, consequently, influence the actual performance of the business.
6 ) Boundaries and interface
A system should be defined by its boundaries – the limits that identify its components, processes
and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system. For example, a teller system in a
commercial bank is restricted to the deposits, withdrawals and related activities of customers
checking and savings accounts. It may exclude mortgage foreclosures, trust activities, and the like.
Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control. For example, in an
integrated banking – wide computer system design, a customer who has a mortgage and a checking
account with the same bank may write a check through the “teller system” to pay the premium that
is later processed by the “mortgage loan system.” Recently, system design has been successful in
allowing the automatic transfer of funds form a bank account to pay bills and other obligations to
creditors, regardless of distance or location. This means that in systems analysis, knowledge of the
boundaries of a givensystem is crucial in determining the nature of its interface with other systems
for successful design.
1.6 Types of systems
The frame of reference within which one views a system is related to the use of
the systems approach for analysis. Systems have been classified in different ways.
Common classifications are: (1) physical or abstract, (2) open or closed, and (3) “man –
made” information systems.
1.6.1 Physical or abstract systems
Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation.
For example, the physical parts of the computer center are the officers, desks, and chairs
that facilitate operation of the computer. They can be seen and counted; they are static. In
contrast, a programmed computer is a dynamic system. Data, programs, output, and
applications change as the user‟s demands or the priority of the information requested
changes. Abstract systems are conceptual or non-physical entities. They may be as
straightforward as formulas of relationships among sets of variables or models – the
abstract conceptualization of physical situations. A model is a representation of a real or a
planned system. The use of models makes it easier for the analyst to visualize
relationships in the system under study. The objective is to point out the significant
elements and the key interrelationships of a complex system.
1.6.2 Open or Closed Systems
Another classification of systems is based on their degree of independence. An
open system has many interfaces with its environment. It permits interaction across its
boundary; it receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside. An information
system falls into this category, since it must adapt to the changing demands of the user. In
contrast, a closed system is isolated from environmental influences. In reality, a
completely closed system is rare. In systems analysis, organizations, applications and
computers are invariably open, dynamic systems influenced by their environment.
1.4 SYSTEM
LIFE CYCLE:
System life cycle is an organizational process of developing and maintaining systems. It helps in
establishing a system project plan, because it gives overall list of processes and sub-processes
required for developing a system.
System development life cycle means combination of various activities. In other words we can say
that various activities put together are referred as system development life cycle. In the System
Analysis and Design terminology, the system development life cycle also means software
development life cycle.
Following are the different phases of system development life cycle:
1. Preliminary study
2. Feasibility study
3. Detailed system study
4. System analysis
5. System design
6. Coding
7. Testing
8. Implementation
9. Maintenance
The different phases of system development life cycle is shown in Fig.below.
1.5 PHASES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
(1) Preliminary System Study:
Preliminary system study is the first stage of system development life cycle. This is a brief
investigation of the system under consideration and gives a clear picture of what actually the
physical system is? In practice, the initial system study involves the preparation of a „System
Proposal‟ which lists the Problem Definition, Objectives of the Study, Terms of reference for Study,
Constraints, Expected benefits of the new system, etc. in the light of the user requirements. The
system proposal is prepared by the System Analyst (who studies
the system) and places it before the user management. The management may accept the proposal
and the cycle proceeds to the next stage. The management may also reject the proposal or request
some modifications in the proposal. In summary, we would say that system study phase passes
through the following steps:
• problem identification and project initiation
• background analysis
• inference or findings (system proposal)
(2) Feasibility Study:
In case the system proposal is acceptable to the management, thenext phase is to examine the
feasibility of the system. The feasibilitystudy is basically the test of the proposed system in the light
of itsworkability, meeting user‟s requirements, effective use of resourceand of course, the cost
effectiveness. These are categorized as technical,operational, economic and schedule feasibility. The
main goalof feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to achieve thescope. In the process of
feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy to find the Return on
Investment(ROI). This also defines the resources needed to complete the detailed investigation. The
result is a feasibility report submitted tothe management. This may be accepted or accepted with
modificationsor rejected. The system cycle proceeds only if the managementaccepts it.
(3) Detailed System Study:
The detailed investigation of the system is carried out in accordancewith the objectives of the
proposed system. This involves detailedstudy of various operations performed by a system and their
relationshipswithin and outside the system. During this process, dataare collected on the available
files, decision points and transactionshandled by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation
andquestionnaire are the tools used for detailed system study. Usingthe following steps it becomes
easy to draw the exact boundary of the new system under consideration:
• Keeping in view the problems and new requirements
• Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system
All the data and the findings must be documented in the form of detailed data flow diagrams
(DFDs), data dictionary, logical data structures and miniature specification. The main points to be
discussed in this stage are:
• Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the user requirements.
• Functional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the new system and their
relationship with each other.
• Functional network, which are similar to function hierarchy but they highlight the functions
which are common to more than one procedure.
• List of attributes of the entities – these are the data items which need to be held about each
entity (record)
(4) System Analysis:
Systems analysis is a process of collecting factual data, understand the processes involved,
identifying problems and recommending feasible suggestions for improving the system functioning.
This involves studying the business processes, gathering operational data, understand
the information flow, finding out bottlenecks and evolving solutions for overcoming the weaknesses
of the system so as to achieve the organizational goals. System Analysis also includes subdividing
of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store and manual processes.
The major objectives of systems analysis are to find answers for each business process: What is
being done, How is it being done, Who is doing it, When is he doing it, Why is it being done and
How can it be improved? It is more of a thinking process and involves the creative
skills of the System Analyst. It attempts to give birth to a new efficient system that satisfies the
current needs of the user and has scope for future growth within the organizational constraints. The
result of this process is a logical system design. Systems analysis is an iterative process that
continues until a preferred and acceptable solution emerges.
(5) System Design:
Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of the existing system, the new system
must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is the most crucial phase in the
developments of a system. The logical system design arrived at as a result of systems analysis is
converted into physical system design. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages:
• Preliminary or General Design
• Structured or Detailed Design
Preliminary or General Design: In the preliminary or general design, the features of the new
system are specified. The costs of implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are
estimated. If the project is still considered to be feasible, we move to the detailed design stage.
Structured or Detailed Design: In the detailed design stage, computer oriented work begins in
earnest. At this stage, the design of the system becomes more structured. Structure design is a blue
print of a computer system solution to a given problem having the same components and interrelationships among the same components as the original problem. Input, output, databases, forms,
codification schemes and processing specifications are drawn up in detail.
In the design stage, the programming language and the hardware and software platform in which the
new system will run are also decided.
There are several tools and techniques used for describing the system design of the system. These
tools and techniques are:
• Flowchart
• Data flow diagram (DFD)
• Data dictionary
• Structured English
• Decision table
• Decision tree
Each of the above tools for designing will be discussed in detailed in the next lesson. The system
design involves:
i. Defining precisely the required system output
ii. Determining the data requirement for producing the output
iii. Determining the medium and format of files and databases
iv. Devising processing methods and use of software to produce output
v. Determine the methods of data capture and data input
vi. Designing Input forms
vii. Designing Codification Schemes
viii. Detailed manual procedures
ix. Documenting the Design
(6) Coding:
The system design needs to be implemented to make it a workable system. This demands the coding
of design into computer understandable language, i.e., programming language. This is also called
the programming phase in which the programmer converts the program specifications into
computer instructions, which we refer to as programs. It is an important stage where the defined
procedures are transformed into control specifications by the help of a computer language. The
programs coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system. It is generally
felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development, maintenance and
future changes, if required.
(7) Testing:
Before actually implementing the new system into operation, a test run of the system is done for
removing the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful system. After codifying the whole
programs of the system, a test plan should be developed and run on a given set of test data. The
output of the test run should match the expected results. Sometimes, system testing is considered a
part of implementation process. Using the test data following test run are carried out:
• Program test
• System test
Program test: When the programs have been coded, compiled and brought to working conditions,
they must be individually tested with the prepared test data. Any undesirable happening must be
noted and debugged (error corrections)
System Test: After carrying out the program test for each of the programs of the system and errors
removed, then system test is done. At this stage the test is done on actual data. The complete system
is executed on the actual data. At each stage of the execution, the results or output of the system is
analysed.
During the result analysis, it may be found that the outputs are not matching the expected output of
the system. In such case, the errors in the particular programs are identified and are fixed and
further tested for the expected output. When it is ensured that the system is running error-free, the
users are called with their own actual data so that the system could be shown running as per their
requirements.
(8) Implementation:
After having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation phase begins.
Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned into practice. The major steps
involved in this phase are:
• Acquisition and Installation of Hardware and Software
• Conversion
• User Training
• Documentation
The hardware and the relevant software required for running the system must be made fully
operational before implementation. The conversion is also one of the most critical and expensive
activities in the system development life cycle. The data from the old system needs to be converted
to operate in the new format of the new system. The database needs to be setup with security and
recovery procedures fully defined.
During this phase, all the programs of the system are loaded onto the user‟s computer. After loading
the system, training of the user starts. Main topics of such type of training are:
• How to execute the package
• How to enter the data
• How to process the data (processing details)
• How to take out the reports
After the users are trained about the computerized system, working has to shift from manual to
computerized working. The process is called „Changeover‟. The following strategies are followed
for changeover of the system.
(i) Direct Changeover: This is the complete replacement of the old
system by the new system. It is a risky approach and requires
comprehensive system testing and training.
(ii) Parallel run: In parallel run both the systems, i.e., computerized and manual, are executed
simultaneously for certain defined period. The same data is processed by both the systems. This
strategy is less risky but more expensive because of the following:
• Manual results can be compared with the results of the computerized system.
• The operational work is doubled.
• Failure of the computerized system at the early stage does not affect the working of the
organization, because the manual system continues to work, as it used to do.
(iii) Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is run with the data from one or more of the
previous periods for the whole or part of the system. The results are compared with the old
system results. It is less expensive and risky than parallel run approach. This strategy builds the
confidence and the errors are traced easily without affecting the operations.
The documentation of the system is also one of the most important activity in the system
development life cycle. This ensures the continuity of the system. There are generally two types of
documentation prepared for any system. These are:
• User or Operator Documentation
• System Documentation
The user documentation is a complete description of the system from the users point of view
detailing how to use or operate the system. It also includes the major error messages likely to be
encountered by the users. The system documentation contains the details of system design,
programs, their coding, system flow, data dictionary, process description, etc. This helps to
understand the system and permit changes to be made in the existing system to satisfy new user
needs.
(9) Maintenance:
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the
system to any variations in its working environments. It has been seen that there are always some
errors found in the systems that must be noted and corrected. It also means the review of the system
from time to time. The review of the system is done for:
• l knowing the full capabilities of the system
• l knowing the required changes or the additional requirements
• l studying the performance.
If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to carry out the
change. The new project will then proceed through all the above life cycle phases.
Types of System
1. • Physical or Abstract System
• Physical – These are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation.
For example- parts of a computer center are the desks, chairs etc. that facilitate
operation of the computer. They are static and a programmed computer is dynamic.
Continued…
• Abstract System – These are conceptual or non physical entities. For example- the
abstract conceptualization of physical situations. A model is a representation of a
real or planned system. A model is used to visualize relationships.
2. Deterministic or Probabilistic System
• Deterministic System – It operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between
parts is known with certainty. For example: Two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of
oxygen makes water.
• Probabilistic System – It shows probable behavior. The exact output is not known. For
example: weather forecasting, mail delivery.
3. Social, Human Machine, Machine System
• Social System- It is made up of people. For example: social clubs, societies
• Human Machine System- When both human and machines are involved to
perform a particular a particular task to achieve a target. For example:- Computer.
• Machine System- Where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are performed by the
machine. Natural and Manufactured
• Natural System- The system which is natural. For example- Solar system, Seasonal System.
• Manufactured System- System made by man is called manufactured system. For
example- Rockets, Dams, Trains. Permanent or Temporary System
• Permanent System- Which persists for long time. For example- policies of business.
• Temporary System- Made for specified time and after that they are dissolved. For examplesetting up DJ system.
4. Adaptive and Non Adaptive System
• Adaptive System- respond to change in the environment in such a way to improve
performance and to survive. For example- Human beings, animals.
their
• Non Adaptive System-The system which doesn‟t respond to the environment. For exampleMachines Continued…
• Open System – It has many interfaces with its environment. It interacts across its boundaries, it
receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside world. It must adapt to the changing
demands of the user.
• Closed System – It is isolated from the environmental influences. A completely
closed system is rare.
Characteristics of Open Systems
• Input from outside- Open systems are self
adjusting and self regulating. When
functioning properly open system reaches
a steady state or equilibrium.
• Entropy- Dynamic systems run down over time resulting in loss of energy or entropy.
Open systems resist entropy by seeking new input or modifying the processes to
return to a steady state.
• Process, output and cycles- Open system produce useful output and operate in
cycles, following a continuous flow path.
• Differentiation- They have a tendency toward an increasing specialization of
functions and a greater differentiation of their components. For example the role of machines and
people tend toward greater specialization and greater interaction.
• Equifinality- Goals are achieved through differing courses of action and a variety of
paths.
5. Man Made Information Systems
• Information System may be defined as a set of devices, procedures, and
operating systems designed around user based criteria to produce information and
communicate it to the user for planning, control and performance.
Formal Information Systems
• It is based on the organization represented by organization chart.
• The chart is a map of positions and their authority relationships, indicated by boxes
and connected by straight lines.
Categories of Information
• Strategic Information- relates to ling range planning policies that are direct interest to upper
management and for long range goals. For example- population growth, trends in financial
investment, human resources.
• This information is achieved with the aid of DSS.
• Managerial Information- It is of direct use to middle management and department heads for
implementation and control. For example- sales analysis, cash flow projections, and annual
financial statements.
• This information is of use in short and intermediate range planning- i.e. months rather
than years.
• It is maintained with the help of MIS.
• Operational Information- It is short term, daily information used to operate
departments and to enforce the day to day rules and regulations of the business. For example- daily
employee absence sheets, overdue purchase orders, current stock.
• It is established by data processing systems. Informal Information Systems
• It is an employee based system designed to meet personnel and vocational needs and to help solve,
work related problems.
Computer Based Information System
• It relies on computer for handling business applications.