Wither Slumdog Millionaire:
India’s Liberalization and Development Themes in Bollywood Films
Rita Ray1
Abstract
This paper develops an index based on United Nations millennium development goals and examines the impact of
India’s economic liberalization on the emergence of development themes in Bollywood films. Using the index this
paper provides the average yearly rating of Bollywood films between 1980 and 2010. This paper finds India’s
economic liberalization significantly increases the spectrum of development themes and the average yearly ratings
of Bollywood films.
JEL Classification: O10, I30, J12, J16
1. Introduction
‘Bollywood’ films are Hindi language commercial2 films made in Mumbai film industry3, India.
Bollywood is the largest film industry in India as well as in the world in terms of its number of audience
and forth largest in the world in terms of its number of production per annum4. Despite its popularity in
India, South Asia, Arab world, Caribbean and several countries in Africa; Bollywood films were often
criticized by film makers and intellectual audiences in India for their repetitive and unrealistic story line
and melodramatic acting style. With few exceptions5, the majority of the Bollywood films between 19476
and 1991 were based on either of these two themes: love or revenge. This repetitive trend started to
change slowly from 1992 and currently Bollywood is making movies on diverse socio-economic-political
topics.
This paper examines the effect of India’s economic liberalization policy on the emergence of
development themes in Bollywood films. India started its economic liberalization7 process from 1991
and several economic and demographic factors started to change significantly from this period. The
subject matter of plots in Bollywood movies has been started to change slowly but steadily from 1992.
Therefore, it is natural to ask whether the changing characteristic of Bollywood movies is a reflection of
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Gustavus Adolphus College, 800 West College Ave, St Peter, MN
56082, USA. Phone: (507) 779-6450. Email: ritaecon@gmail.com
2
Commercial films in Bollywood follow a specific style. This style includes songs, dances, colorful costumes,
exotic outdoors etc.
3
My paper concentrates only to those films which are directed by Indian Film Directors reside in India and at least
80% of the dialogs are in Hindi. I exclude the movies which are directed by non-resident Indian (NRI) film
directors, like Mira Nayar, Deepa Mehta or non-Indian film directors like Richard Attenborough, Daniel Boyle. I
also exclude English language films have been made in Mumbai film industry, like Delhi Belly. I consider joint
production and joint distribution between India and other country as Bollywood movies. I consider this as joint
venture and the produced commodity as Indian commodity.
4
According to the statistics of UNESCO published in 2009, Indian Film industry (Bollywood plus regional films) is
the largest in the world in terms of total number of films. India made 1091 films in 2006, whereas this number was
485 for USA.
5
Director likes Bimol Roy, Raj Kapoor, Guru Dutt, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Basu Chatterjee, Basu Bhattacharyya,
Sai Parānjpye introduced various socio-political-economic issues in Indian popular Hindi films.
6
15th August, 1947 India became an Independent country from colonial British Raj.
7
I discuss the details of India’s liberalization process in Section 3.
1
changing Indian economic and social life. I use the data on several economic and demographic variables
as well as the themes of Bollywood films between 1980 and 2010 to examine the difference between
different variables in pre and post liberalization period.
Despite of its growing nature in terms of number of production, employment and audience this
industry didn’t get any support from state or central government. Bollywood received its formal industry
status in 1998 by the initiative work of cultural minister Ms. Sushama Swaraj. Until 2000 Bollywood
films were dependent on private money lenders and mafias for their finance. In 2000, the industrial
development bank of India (IDBI) started to provide loan for film production. Over time a diverse group
of industries become interested to invest money in film production8.
Bollywood film industry and its evolution is an interesting topic in media studies, film studies,
sociology and women’s studies. Scholars from these areas examine topics like diasporic identification,
cultural politics, patriarchal social structure, globalization of culture in the context of Bollywood films.
Despite its interesting yet multifaceted industry status and largest culture impact on Indian mass,
Bollywood film industry is still an unexplored topic in economics.
The organization of this paper is as follows. Section 2 provides a review of Bollywood films and
the industry in the pre-liberalization era. Section 3 discusses about liberalization policy and changes on
several economic and demographic variables before and after liberalization. Section 4 form an index on
Bollywood films based on five development goals and provides average yearly rating of movies. Section
5 forms an econometric model and estimates the model. Section 6 concludes.
2. Review of Bollywood Films and the Industry (1913 – 1991)
‘Bollywood’ films are Hindi commercial films made in Mumbai film industry, located in the state
of Maharasta in India. Bollywood gets this name by combing two names; Bombay (the British name of
Mumbai) and Hollywood. Bollywood movie debut started at 1913 by releasing its first silent film ‘Raja
Harishchandra’. Talkies (movies with sound) came in 1931 and the first Bollywood talkie is ‘Alam Ara’.
Between 1931 and 1947 majority of the movies were devotional, romantic comedy and musicals. The
single most important political incidence of this period was Indian independence movement. Bollywood
films in pre-independent period was failed to bring this issue to mass Indian. Only one film was made on
this issue and was not very successful due to the British resistance.
In the post-independence era, Indian central government took three major steps to improve the
environment and quality of Indian film industry. First, the central board of film certification (CBFC) was
founded by Indian central government in1952, to secure the fact that on screen materials and
presentations must reflect the eternal Indian culture. Second, in 1960, the central government of India
established the film and television institute of India in Pune, to provide formal education on different
branches of film studies. Third, central government founded the national film development corporation
(NFDC) in 1975 to enhance the social and political awareness through realistic films. Indian
government’s several attempts to improve the overall environment of Indian film didn’t help Bollywood
film industry economically. Cultural ministry of Indian government was particularly interested in
8
The percentage of formal and organized investment in this sector is still very limited.
2
promoting and producing realistic and serious films and considered Bollywood films were unrealistic and
potential bad influence on Indian mass.
Bollywood films between 1947 and 1991 can be categorized into two separate themes – first the
romantic comedies and the second action films. Romantic comedy was the most popular theme between
50s and mid- seventies. Majority of these romantic comedies followed one particular formula. Common
elements in this formula were –hero and heroine with extreme different financial background fall in love
with each other, five to seven songs and dances, generally happy ending with an approval from family.
Mild violence was also common in these types of films which generally came from the father or a male
relative or from a bad person in the form of disapproval of love between hero and heroine.
Between mid-seventies and early nineties the trend of Bollywood films changed to action films.
Most important element of this type of films was revenge. The degree of violence was significantly higher
in those films compare to the romantic comedies. Romance between hero and heroine was still existed in
those films but the importance was significantly lower. Songs and dances were still important and
majority of those films ended with happy ending. Beside the popularity of action films, several blockbuster hit romantic comedies9 were also made in this period.
Bollywood managed to keep its popularity among Indian mass even with serious criticism from
film makers, educated people and Indian government. The reasons behind the popularity were colorful
costume, excellent music and dance, exotic outdoor but above all the fulfillment of dream. The audience
of Bollywood film was mostly illiterate working class people10. Beside this group, mainstream Bollywood
films were successful to attract a small percentage of middle class educated people. In this period India
was dealing with post partition trauma, significant level of poverty and expanding unemployment. These
unrealistic but dream fulfilling films were one easy escape from every day struggle, frustration and hope
for better future.
Despite its cliché and repetitive theme there were several film directors who addressed several
socio-economic themes in mainstream Bollywood movies. Directors like Bimal Roy, Raj Kapoor, Guru
Dutt, Hrishikesh Mukherjee addressed various rural and urban problems within the framework of
mainstream Bollywood style. For example Bimal Roy’s 1953 film Do Bigha Zamin (Two Acres of Land)
dealt with issues like socio-economic sufferings of small farmers and rural urban migration of unskilled
labors and his 1959 film Sujata (Sujata) argued against the taboo of caste system and untouchablity. Raj
Kapoor’s 1955 film Shree 420 (Mr. 420) was based on unemployment, urban poverty and corruption.
Guru Dutt’s 1957 film Pyaasa (Eternal Thirst) evolved around the love between a poet and a prostitute –
which was a rebellious theme against existing social taboos. His 1959 film Kaagaz Ke Phool (Paper
Flower) introduced the issues like loneliness and social pressure to maintain an unhappy marriage.
Hrishikesh Mukherjee’s Anuradha (Love of Anuradha, 1960) was about the right of women’s economic
independence, Satyakam (Satyakam, 1969) discussed corruption, rape and professional and moral ethics,
Abhimann (Pride, 1973) dealt with issues like career conflict between husband and wife and separation.
3. India’s Liberalization and Socio-Economic Changes
9
For Example, Gol Maal (Hodgepodge, 1979), Ek Duuje Ke Liye (Made for Each Other, 1981), Ram Teri Ganga
Maili (Ram, your Ganges is filthy, 1985), Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (From Disaster to Disaster, 1988), Maine Pyar
Kiya (I Fell in Love, 1989), Dil (Heart, 1990).
10
Literacy rate was 16% in 1951 (United Nation statistics)
3
3.1 India’s Liberalization: Origin and Policy
Post-independence Indian economic policy was based on protectionist economic policy, central
planning and import substitution industrialization. India started to face balance of payment crisis from
1980 and this crisis mounted up in 1991. India’s existing foreign exchange reserve was not enough to pay
her import bills and India requested International Monetary Fund (IMF) for $2.2 billion emergency loan
by providing 67 tons of India’s gold reserve as collateral. India managed to secure her severe balance of
payments crisis with her bailout deal with IMF and the deal required India to start structural changes of
her economy. The structural reform policies include privatization, deregulation and trade liberalization.
3.2 Socio – Economic Changes in Pre and Post Liberalization
India’s liberalization policy brings several positive economic and demographic changes in India.
Probably most significant changes realized in GNI growth and GNI per capita growth, share of export and
import, private domestic and foreign investment and growth of information technology sector. Several
demographic variables have been changed significantly like literacy rate, life expectancy at birth, ratio of
female enrollment in education, labor force participation rate of female have been increased and fertility
rate, life time risk of maternal death, child mortality have been decreased in this period.
Diagram 1 presents the change in GNI growth and GNI per capita growth between 1980 – 1991
and 1992 – 2010. GNI growth increases from little more than 5% to close to 7%, whereas GNI per-capita
growth raises from 3% to 5%. Liberalization policy has significant effect on the growth of export and
import. Diagram 2 shows that both the share of export and import in GDP have been doubled (export
from 6% to 14% and import from 8% to 16%) in this period. Diagram 3 represents the surprising increase
of net inflows of foreign direct investment (FDI). Net inflow of FDI increases by twenty five times
between1980 – 1991 and 1992 – 2010.
Adult literacy rate and literacy rate of adult youth (age between 15and 24) have increased
between 1980 – 1991 and 1992 – 2010. Diagram 4 and diagram 5 present female, male and total literacy
rate of adult and adult youth. One interesting feature of Diagram 5 is that female literacy has been
increased by twenty six percentage point compare to only sixteen percentage point increase of male adult
youth. This shows the acceptance of importance of education of women in society and a sign of women
empowerment. There are several other demographic changes that reflect steady improvement towards
women empowerment, like increase in female-male ratio in primary, secondary and tertiary education
(Diagram 6), decrease in fertility rate and increase in female participation in labor force (Diagram 7).
Growth initiated through liberalization policy brings some positive changes in health. Diagram 8 shows
the change in life expectancy at birth between 1980 – 1991 and 1992 – 2009. One interesting feature over
here is that the increase in female life expectancy is higher than male which is compatible with the rest of
the world.
Liberalization policy probably brings highest opportunities and significant changes in the lifestyle
of middle class educated youth specialized in advanced technology, engineering and management.
Increase in private investment (both domestic and foreign) and deregulation policy lead an increase in
private sector job opportunities in cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Pune, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Chennai,
Mangalore, Indore, NOIDA in one hand and decrease and attractiveness of public sector jobs on the other
hand. For example, direct employment in information technology and information technology enables
4
services (IT and BPO) have been increased from 230,000 to nearly 2 million between 1998-99 and 2007 0811. Large number of educated youth (both male and female) are migrating from their home towns to
these cities and starting to live their life outside their family. This is a very new phenomenon of Indian
family dynamics. Before liberalization most of the people work in their home towns and live with their
parents - even with their extended family. This situation generally didn’t change for male even after
marriage, who lived together with his family and spouse. Female lived with her parents before marriage
and lived with her husband and in-laws after marriage. Living outside family brings changes in food
habit, degree of domestic work, clothing style, acceptance of different culture and above all the definition
on personal and social freedom.
The nature of demand and supply of Bollywood films are also affected by liberalization policy.
Before, liberalization Bollywood made majority of its movies on two repetitive themes and targeted
mainly the audience with no or little education. This scenario started to change slowly but gradually after
liberalization. Steady growth of income, literacy rate, percentage and number of young adult with tertiary
education, acceptance of gender equality, changed dynamics of intra-family relation start to create a
steady demand for diverse socio – political – economic issues in mainstream Bollywood movies. The
middle class educated group has the access of internet and the private television channel like HBO, AXN,
Star Movies, which provide them the opportunity of watching Hollywood movies. The competition with
Hollywood movies added with the steady demand for diverse topic creates a new challenge for
Bollywood film makers. On the other hand, there were several new directors, producers and actors start
their career in Bollywood, who are educated, socially aware and eager to bring new ideas in mainstream
Bollywood movies. Changed demand added with new ideas from supply side start to make changes in the
nature of Bollywood films.
4. Index and Yearly Ranking of Bollywood Movies
4.1 Index of Bollywood Movies
To examine the extent of development goals have been discussed in Bollywood movies, I form an
index based on five elements. The first element is poverty and inequality. I take poverty and inequality for
two reasons. First, ‘End poverty and hunger’ is the first goal of United Nation Millennium Development
Goal. Second, it is very important to know how many movies are addressing this important issue for a
country where 42% people live at abject poverty. The second element is gender equality. Gender equality
is the third millennium goal. In this issue India has two clear division – women from high and high
middle income educated family has access to tertiary education and leadership and face less sex related
discrimination, whereas women from low and low middle income family face sex related discrimination
in education, health care, property ownership. The third element of the index is democracy and freedom.
Freedom of speech, right to protest non-violent, existence of free and fair media are important for the
efficient functioning of the government on one hand. On the other hand, economic, political, social and
individual freedom are interlinked and extremely important for the process of development. The forth
element is education and health and major development goals of United Nation. The fifth and last one is
global partnership. Here I consider two issues. India is an extremely diverse country with respect of
religion, ethnicity and language. Therefore, it is important to know the relationship between various
religious and ethnic group within India, which is crucial of India’s unity and development. The second
11
‘Report of the High level Group on Services Sector’, Planning Commission of India, March 2008.
5
issue is India’s relationship with her neighbor countries – specially Pakistan because of her long dispute
on Kashmir issue.
Poverty and class discrimination was a popular subtopic in Bollywood film for long period of
time. Class difference came into two forms in Indian movie. First, in the romantic comedies the romance
between hero and heroine with extreme financial difference and family disapproval (specially from high
income class) towards their romance. Second, in action movie the discrimination towards lower income
class by higher income class and the hero seeks revenge against this discrimination. Though 42 % people
in India live under $1.25 a day very few movies have been made on poverty in post liberalization era.
Anusha Rizvi’s 2010 movie Peepli Live (Live from Peepli) documents the issues like poverty, political
corruption and media’s strategy to extract the advantage from the news of farmer’s suicide.
India elected her first female prime minister Indira Gandhi as early as 1966, Indian Nation
Congress in elected female president in 1939, women leadership in India’s freedom fighting movement
was higher than Russia and China’s revolutionary movement12, however majority of the Indian women
did not get the opportunity of education, health service and decision making power . Most of the
Bollywood movies in pre liberalization portray women as submissive and in a receiving end. Common
features were - women might be educated but not participating in labor force and women’s decision
making power in family was almost zero. The importance of women empowerment was not considered an
important issue until recently. Bollywood quickly adapt the issue of gender equality and several important
movies have been made on women’s empowerment. Damini (Lightning, 1993) is one of most important
movie in post liberalization era which documents an ordinary woman’s protest against her family and
husband to bring justice to a rape victim. Mrityudand (Death Penalty, 1997) is another movie which deals
with women cooperation and protest against social corruption. Agni Sakshi (, 1996) and Daman: A
Victim of Marital Violence (Suppression, 2001) both deal with domestic violence towards women.
Probably the most revolutionary movie on women freedom is Astitva (Identity, 2000) that asks the
question of women’s sexual right. Matrubhoomi: A Nation Without Women (Motherland, 2003) is based
on the issue of sex selective abortion or ‘missing women’13 and its destructive consequences on society.
Chak De! India (Come On! India, 2007) is a sport movie but considerable part of this movie argues
against the gender discrimination in work place. Ayan Mukerji’s 2009 Wake Up Sid is the portrayal of
thousand Indian young educated woman who leaves their hometown and family to start a career and
independent life in other cities.
India is the largest democracy in the world; however corruptions, lack of law enforcement, police
brutality are violating the right of people in a democratic country. Corruption was an old theme in
Bollywood movies and most of the times it was associated with one underworld mafia and his gang in pre
liberalization Bollywood movies. The portrayal of corruption has been changed in current Bollywood
movies and recent movies bring issues like political corruption, judicial corruption, police corruption.
Shool (, 1999) is based on the political corruption in the state of Bihar, India. Gangaajal (Holy Water,
2003) is based on real life incidence of Bhagalpur, Bihar where between 1979 and 1980 police blinded
thirty one people under trail by pouring acid on their eyes. This movie shows the political and police
corruption and police brutality. Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra’s film Rang De Basanti (Color of Sacrifice,
2006) is a beautiful blend of Sahid (Martyr) Bhagat Singh and his associates protest and sacrifice for
12
13
This information is taken from ‘The Argumentative Indian’ by Amartya Sen.
Natality inequality exists in several Asian countries due to the bias in favor of male child.
6
India’s freedom from British rule and five Delhi University’s students’ protest on corruption related to
MIG aircraft. This movie shows the similarity between police torture and violation of democratic rights in
pre and post independent India.
The forth element in my index is education and health. Education became a subject in Bollywood
movies in Satyen Bose’s 1954 film Jagriti (The Awakening) that emphasized on teacher student
relationship and unorthodox curriculum. In the post liberalization period there are several movies have
been made on education and student’s disability. Black a 2005 Bollywood movie deals with the problem
of deaf and blind student. Aamir Khan’s film Taare Zameen Par (Stars on Earth, 2007) introduces the
issues like dyslexia, child depression, social and family taboo towards disable student, constitutional right
of disable students and teacher student relationship. 2010 block buster hit movie 3 Idiots strongly argues
against student suicide, family and institutional pressure on students, lack of encouragement to develop
innovative ideas. Munna Bhai M.B.B.S (Brother Munna M.B.B.S, 2003) is a Bollywood comedy which
appeals for compassionate behavior towards patients and criticizes the lengthy bureaucratic system in
health care industry. My Brother … Nikhil (2005) is a movie on AIDS/HIV awareness. This movie deals
with the social and professional discrimination towards AIDS/HIV patients.
The first movie in the post liberalization period that brings the subject of global partnership is
Mani Ratnam’s Roja (Roja, 1992)14. This movie deals with terrorism in Kashmir, the demand for
independent Kashmir and the threat to the unity of India. Mani Ratnam’s 1995 movie Bombay is based
the fact of destruction Babri Masjid15 by the leader ship of Lal Krishna Adbani of BJP16 in 1992 and
BJP’s new Hindutva17 movement which leads to communal riots between Hindu-Muslim in various parts
of India. Mani Ratnam’s Dil Se (From Heart, 1998) deals with the issues like torture by Indian military
toward innocent Kashmiri people, suicide bombing. There are several movies have been made on the
issue of terrorism in India, like Sarfarosh (Martyr, 1999), Mission Kashmir (Mission Kashmir, 2000).
Bollywood movies extend the issue of terrorism towards ever growing fear and discrimination towards
Islamic people in all over the worlds. New York (New York, 2009) is shoot in USA and is based on after
math of 9/1. Kurbaan (Sacrifice, 2009) deals with the issue of terrorism in US. My Name is Khan (My
Name is Khan, 2010) is the most popular among Bollywood movies that deals with the issue of 9/11. My
Name is Khan is the journey of an ordinary Muslim man to US president and conveys the message that all
Muslims are not terrorists.
4.2 Yearly Rating of Bollywood Movies
Table 1 shows the five elements, the sub groups of each element and questions ask in each
subgroup. Table 1 also presents the answers of each question and the point associates with each answer.
Each Bollywood movies between 1980 and 2010 has been rated on the basis of each question and point
associated with its answer. Generally a single movie does not consider all of the questions. If a particular
movie addresses only ten questions, the movie is be rated based on the points of the answers of these
14
This a remake of Tamil movie with the same name.
Babri Mosque was a mosque in Ayodhay, India. It was destroyed by Hindu extremist in 1992. This incidence
created several communal riots in different parts of India.
16
Bharatiya Janata Party (Indian People's Party) is a political party in India. This party with coalition of parties was
in power in India between 1998 and 2004.
17
Hindutva movement is a recent development in Indian politics. The believers of Hindutva movement want India
as a Hindu country and argue against her secular belief.
15
7
questions. The movie earns zero point for the rest of the question it does not address. Yearly rating of
movies is the summation of ratings of all available movies for a particular year. Table 2 shows the yearly
rating of movies. Yearly rating of movies has a steady increase over time which indicates that increasing
number of movies is discussing on various development goals. Diagram 9 shows the yearly rating of
Bollywood movies and its trend between 1980 and 2010. Diagram 8 indicates a steep positive trend on
the yearly ratings of Bollywood movies.
5. The Model
I get the available yearly list of Bollywood movies from Wikipedia and the pot summary of each
movie from The Internet Movie Database (IMDb). data is based on the list posted in Wikipedia and that
may not cover the information on every single movie made in each year18. There is no public and private
institution in India that collects data on the list of movies, the cost and earning of each movie. I collect the
data per capita gross nation income (GNI, PPP), GNI per capita growth, female – male ratio in primary,
secondary and tertiary enrollment, literacy rate of adult and adult youth, labor participation rate of female
and fertility rate from World Bank.
I examine the effect of various economic and demographic variables on the yearly rating of
Bollywood movies between 1980 and 2010. Precisely, I study the effect of GNI per-capita, GNI percapita growth, ratio of female enrollment in tertiary education, literacy rate of adult young male and
young female (age between 15 and 24), fertility rate and female participation in labor force on the yearly
ratings of movies. Table 3 shows the correlation coefficients between seven variables described above.
The correlation between these seven variables is extremely high and sometimes it demonstrates perfect
correlation (for example, between fertility rate and literacy rate of adult young male and between literacy
rate of adult young female and literacy rate of adult young male). To avoid the problem of
multicolinearity, I estimate seven regressions separately to examine the effect of each seven variables on
the yearly ratings of movies. I consider the following empirical model:
Where
described before and
is the yearly rating of movies at period t,
is one the seven variables at each time
.
Table 4 shows the summary of estimation results using the empirical model in the form of
equation 1. GNI per-capita and GNI per-capita growth both has significant positive effect on yearly rating
of movies. However, the size of coefficient of GNI per-capita growth is significantly higher compare to
GNI per-capita. This indicates the predominant effect of growth compare to the level of income.
Increased ratio of female enrollment in tertiary education and increase of literary rate of young female
male demands more development issues in Bollywood movies. Decrease in fertility rate increases the
yearly ratings of movies dramatically. Decrease in fertility rate depends on male and female literacy rate,
ratio of female enrollment in education and female participation in labor force. Decrease in fertility rate
indicates increased women participation in family decision and reduced work load related to child care.
This provides more time to a mother for herself to know and participate in various social and political
18
UNESCO’s Information Sheet 1 (2009) provides data on total production regional decomposition of Indian film in
the year of 2006.
8
issues. Increased knowledge about the world demands movies which discuss various social, political and
developmental issues. Similarly, increased labor participation increases the knowledge of contemporary
global issues and creates an increase demand for movies those exhibit these issues.
6. Conclusion
This paper investigates the effect of India’s liberalization policy and its effect on choice of
development issues have been on Bollywood movies. This paper develops an index to measure the
spectrum of developments issues have been documented in Bollywood movies between 1980 and 2010.
Using the points associated with the answers of each question describes in the index, this paper calculates
the ranking of yearly movies. Lastly, this paper studies the effect of India’s liberalization on the choice of
topics and the yearly rankings of Bollywood films.
India took her liberalization policy in the year of 1991 and started to initiate several structural
changes in favor of privatization of industries, deregulation from license policy, encouragement of private
domestic and foreign investment and increased participation in international trade. In the postliberalization period several economic and demographic variables started to change rapidly. For example,
income and growth of income, literacy rate, ratio of female enrollment in education, female participation
in labor force, life expectancy and mortality rate started to increase steadily in this period. These positive
changes demands movies those consider a diverse range of social-political-economic issues. Changed
industry status and investment of various industries in Bollywood film production added with changed
demand encourage Bollywood to make movies with diverse topics. The changed dynamics of demand and
supply leads to a significant increase in the choice of topics and the yearly ranking of Bollywood films.
References
Bose Derek (2006), ‘Brand Bollywood: A New Global Entertainment Order’, Sage Publications.
Desai Jigna (2004). ‘Beyond Bollywood: The Cultural Politics of South Asian Diasporic Film’,
Routledge.
Gopal Sangita and Moorti Sujata (eds.) (2008). ‘Global Bollywood: Travels of Hindi Song and Dance’,
University of Minnesota Press.
Govil Nitin (2007), ‘Bollywood and the Frictions of Global Mobility’ published in ‘Media on the Move:
Global Flow and Contra-Flow’ edited by Thussu K. Daya, Routledge.
Kavoori P. Anadam and Punathambekar Aswin (eds)(2008). ‘Global Bollywood’, New York University
Press.
Sen Amartya (1999). ‘Development As Freedom’, Anchor Books.
Sen Amartya (2005). ‘The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian Culture, History and Identity’,
Penguin Books.
9
Diagram 1
Diagram 2
10
Diagram 3
Diagram 4
11
Diagram 5
Diagram 6
12
Diagram 7
Diagram 8
13
Diagram 9
Table 1: Index19
1. Poverty and income inequality
1A. Poverty, hunger and government policies
1 - Individual is dead due to hunger and malnourishment. Society and government are indifferent.
2 - Individual is dead due to the absence of free or affordable medical care. Society and government are
indifferent.
3 - Individual is dead due to hunger and malnourishment. Either society or government is trying to help.
4 - Individual is dead due to the absence of free or affordable medical care. Either society or government
is trying to help.
5 - Individual is begging and/or stealing food. Society is against of it. Government is indifferent.
6 - Individual is begging and/or stealing food. Society understands the circumstances and is sympathetic
about it. Government is indifferent.
7 - Individual is begging and/or stealing food. Government is taking policies to prevent it.
19
Number on the left hand side represents the points a movie get on each of the subtopic. These points are used to
calculate the yearly ranking of movies.
14
8 - Individual or family has money to buy food for survival but no money for health and education.
Government has no health and education policy for the poor.
9 - Individual or family has money to buy food for survival but no money for health and education.
Government has only health or education policy for the poor.
10 - Individual or family has money to buy food for survival but no money for health and education.
Government has both health and education policies for the poor.
11 - Quantity and quality of food is deterioration due to inflation. Individual or family can afford only
subsidized health care and education.
12 - Individual or family can afford food, non-subsidized health care and education. Individual or family
can’t afford any high priced technical good (e.g, computer, television, refrigerator, car etc.). Overall
standard of living is deteriorating due to high inflation.
13 - Individual or family can afford food, non-subsidized health care and education. Individual or family
can afford some high priced technical good (e.g, computer, television, refrigerator, car etc.) but not all.
Overall standard of living is deteriorating due to high inflation.
14 - Individual or family can afford food, non-subsidized health care and education. Individual or family
can afford some high priced technical good (e.g, computer, television, refrigerator, car etc.) but not all.
Overall standard of living is unchanged.
15 - Individual or family can afford food, non-subsidized health care and education. Individual or family
can afford all high priced technical good (e.g, computer, television, refrigerator, car etc.).
1B. Economic class difference
1 - Economic class difference exists. Social and political institutions favor economic class difference. No
individual tries to improve his/her social and economic condition.
2 - Economic class difference exists. Either social or political institution favors economic class difference
but not both. No individual tries to improve his/her social and economic condition.
3 - Economic class difference exists. Both social and political institutions don’t favor economic class
difference but don’t take any action to reduce the economic class difference.
4 - Economic class difference exists. Both social and political institutions don’t favor economic class
difference. Either social or political institution takes actions to reduce the economic class difference.
5 - Economic class difference exists. Both social and political institutions don’t favor economic class
difference. Both social and political institutions take actions to reduce the economic class difference.
2. Gender equality and Individual freedom in the family
2A. Access to Education for women and social acceptance
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1 - Woman has no access of basic and tertiary education. Social institutions are against women’s basic
and tertiary education.
2 - Woman has the access of basic but not tertiary education. Social institutions are against women’s basic
and tertiary education.
3 - Woman has the access of basic and tertiary education. Social institutions are against women’s basic
and tertiary education.
4 - Woman has the access of basic and tertiary education. Social institutions are in favor of women’s
basic education but against tertiary education.
5 - Woman has the access of basic and tertiary education. Social institutions are in favor of women’s
basic and tertiary education.
2B. Labor force participation and degree of equal opportunity in professional world
1 - Woman has no participation in labor force.
2 - Woman has participation in only unskilled labor force and women face gender discrimination in labor
force.
3 - Woman has participation in only unskilled labor force and women face no gender discrimination in
labor force.
4 - Woman has participation in either or both unskilled and skilled labor force and women face no gender
discrimination in unskilled labor force but face gender discrimination in skilled labor force.
5 - Woman has participation in either or both unskilled and skilled labor force and women face no gender
discrimination in work place.
2C. Natality Inequality
1 - Male child is preferred than female child. Female child is aborted.
2 - Male child is preferred than female child. Female child is not aborted. Female child gets severe
unequal treatment in the family with respect to the access of healthcare, education and family wealth.
3 - Male child is preferred than female child. Female child is not aborted. Female child gets somewhat
unequal treatment in the family with respect to the access of healthcare, education and family wealth.
4 - Male child is preferred than female child before birth. Female child is not aborted. Once female child
is born she gets equal treatment in the family with respect to the access of healthcare, education and
family wealth.
5 - Male and female child are equally preferred.
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2D. Domestic and Social Violence towards Women
1 - Women face severe physical (rape, molestation, marital rape, battering) and emotional violence.
Women get no support from social, legal and family institutions.
2 - Women face physical and emotional violence. Women get support from legal system but no support
society and family.
3 - Women face emotional violence. Women get support from legal system but no support society and
family.
4 - Women face emotional violence. Women get support from legal system and support from either
society or family, but not both.
5 - Women face emotional violence. Women get support from society, law and family.
2E. Freedom of marriage, divorce and right to work
1 - Family (father or male relative) selects martial match for woman. Woman has no right to divorce.
Woman has no right to work before and after marriage.
2 - Woman selects marital match for herself. Woman has no right to divorce. Woman has no right to
work before and after marriage.
3 - Woman selects marital match for herself. Woman has no right to divorce. Woman has right to work
before but not after marriage.
4 - Woman selects marital match for herself. Woman has no right to divorce. Woman has right to work
before and after marriage.
5 - Woman selects marital match for herself. Woman has right to divorce. Woman has right to work
before and after marriage.
2F. Pregnancy of unmarried female
1 - Pregnancy of unmarried female is strictly prohibited by family and society. Pregnant unmarried female
is expelled from family and outcast in the society.
2 - Pregnancy of unmarried female is prohibited by family and society. Pregnant unmarried female is
expelled from family initially but accepted later. She is still outcast in the society.
3 - Pregnancy of unmarried female is prohibited by family and society. Pregnant unmarried female is
expelled from family initially but accepted later. She is initially outcast but accepted later in the society.
4 - Pregnancy of unmarried female is not welcome by family and society but both family and society are
helpful towards the incidence.
5 - There is no social or family taboo against the pregnancy of unmarried female.
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2G. Decision making power in the family
1 - Woman has no power of decision making in the family. Woman has no right to participate in the
discussion regarding family matters.
2 - Woman has no power of decision making in the family. Woman can present in the discussion
regarding family matters. However, she has no right to demonstrate her preference.
3 - Woman has no power of decision making in the family. Woman can participate in the discussion
regarding family matters. Woman can demonstrate her preference but her preference is never accepted
due to gender bias.
4 - Woman can participate in the discussion regarding family matters. Woman can demonstrate her
preference. Woman’s preference is viewed in skepticism at first and can be accepted after long argument
and discussions.
5 - Any decision in the family is taken with mutual discussion and agreement.
2H. Individual freedom in the family
1 - Family (father or male relative) selects professional career. Child has no freedom to choose his/her
professional career. Child has no right to present in the discussion of his/her choice of career path.
2 - Family (father or male relative) selects professional career. Child has no freedom to choose his/her
professional career. Child can present in the discussion of his/her choice of career path but has no right to
demonstrate his/her preference.
3 - Family (father or male relative) selects professional career. Child could demonstrate his/her choice of
career path but family’s preference has been implemented over child’s preference.
4 - Family (father or male relative) selects professional career. Child could demonstrate his/her choice of
career path and could pursue the family to accept child’s preference.
5 - Child selects his/her professional career.
2I. Freedom of female related to the choice of work place
1 – Women can work but has to work in a town or city where her parents and/or close family live. Better
job opportunity can’t be taken if it is outside of the town or city where her parents and/or family live.
2 – Women are expected to work a town or city where her parents and/or close family live. Women
accept the situation without argument.
3 - Woman is expected to work a town or city where her parents and/or close family live. Woman doesn’t
accept the situation and try to pursue but fail to convince her parents and/or family.
4 - Woman is expected to work a town or city where her parents and/or close family live. Woman doesn’t
accept the situation and can pursue her parents and/or family and win to convince her parents and/or
family.
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5 - Woman has freedom of choice of workplace and freedom to live out of town or state or country.
2J. Individual freedom in the academic institution
1 - Academic freedom or flexibility in the institution is nonexistent. Extreme pressure leads to student’s
suicide.
2 - Academic freedom or flexibility in the institution is nonexistent. Extreme pressure leads to student’s
attempt to suicide.
3 - Academic freedom or flexibility in the institution is very little. Extreme pressure, but no incidence of
suicide.
4 - Academic freedom or flexibility in the institution is moderate. Moderate pressure and no incidence of
suicide.
5 - Academic freedom or flexibility in the institution is high.
2K. Individual freedom in the work place
1 - Professional freedom or flexibility in the work place is nonexistent. Extreme pressure leads to
employee’s suicide.
2 - Professional freedom or flexibility in the work place is nonexistent. Extreme pressure leads to
employee’s attempt to suicide.
3 - Professional freedom or flexibility in the work place is very little. Extreme pressure, but no incidence
of suicide.
4 - Professional freedom or flexibility in the work place is moderate. Moderate pressure and no incidence
of suicide.
5 - Professional freedom or flexibility in the work place is high.
3. Democracy and Freedom
3A. Democratic Government: Legal system and Media
1 - Government is corrupted. Legal system is influenced by the government. Media’s freedom is severely
restricted by the government.
2 - Government is corrupted. Legal system is influenced by the government. Media is free and fair. Media
brings the story of corruption to the public.
3 - Government is corrupted. Legal system is influenced by the government but doesn’t take any step
against the government. Media is fair and brings the news of corruption to the public.
4 - Government is corrupted. Media is fair and brings the news of corruption to the public and pursues
legal system to take steps against the government.
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5 - Government is corrupted. Media is fair and brings the news of corruption to the public and pursues
legal system to take steps against the government. Corrupted government falls.
3B. Democratic Government: Freedom of speech
1 - Government is corrupted. Freedom of speech is non-existent due to government oppression.
2 - Government is corrupted. Freedom of speech is severely restricted due to government oppression.
3 - Government is corrupted. People can demonstrate their freedom of speech but could be subjected to
government oppression or police brutality sometimes.
4 - Government is corrupted. People can demonstrate their freedom of speech freely but without result.
Government manages to stay in power.
5 - Government is corrupted. People can demonstrate their freedom of speech freely and gather public
support. Government falls.
3C. Democratic Government: Minority and Gender
1 - Discrimination exists against both minorities (religious or racial) and women. Constitution is against
the discrimination but legal measure against discrimination is never implemented.
2 - Discrimination exists against both minorities (religious or racial) and women. Constitution is against
the discrimination but legal measure against discrimination is weakly implemented.
3 - Discrimination exists against either minorities (religious or racial) or women. Constitution is against
the discrimination but legal measure against discrimination is weakly implemented.
4 - Discrimination exists against either minorities (religious or racial) or women. Constitution is against
the discrimination but legal measure against discrimination is strongly implemented.
5 - No discrimination exists against either minorities (religious or racial) or women.
3D. Child Labor
1 – Existence of child labor. Child labors don’t have any opportunity for education. Child labors are
harshly treated by their employer.
2 - Existence of child labor. Child labors don’t have any opportunity for education. Child labors are
treated sympathetically by their employer.
3 - Existence of child labor. Child labors don’t have any opportunity for education. Child labors are
working independently (like selling goods, singing – dancing etc.).
4 - Existence of child labor. Child labors are attending school as well. Child labors are working
independently (like selling goods, singing – dancing etc.).
5 - No existence of child labor. Children are attending schools.
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3E. Corruption
1 – There is corruption in police, society and individual. Nobody takes any effort to prevent corruption.
2 - There is corruption in police, society and individual. Either police or individual or society tries to
prevent it.
3 - There is corruption in two out of three. Either police or individual or society tries to prevent it.
4 - There is corruption in either police or individual or society. Two out of three work together to prevent
it.
5 - There is corruption in either police or individual or society. All work together to prevent it.
Table 2
Year
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Yearly Rating
of Movies
7
10
16
14
8
12
12
9
6
4
6
Yearly Rating
of Movies
10
18
18
22
30
18
26
32
51
54
50
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
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Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Yearly Rating
of Movies
56
66
77
101
99
106
85
117
124
Table 3
GNI
PerCapita
GNI
PerCapita
Growth
Ratio
of
Female in
Tertiary
Enrollment
Literacy
Rate of
Youth
Adult
-Female
Literacy
Rate of
Youth
Adult
-Male
Fertility
Rate
GNI
Per-Capita
1.00
GNI
Per-Capita
Growth
0.62
1.00
0.85
0.47
1.00
0.93
0.55
0.97
1.00
0.92
0.54
0.98
1.00
1.00
-0.91
-0.52
-0.99
-0.99
-1.00
1.00
0.58
0.25
0.76
0.67
0.70
-0.75
Ratio
of
Female in
Tertiary
Enrollment
Literacy
Rate of
Youth
Adult
-Female
Literacy
Rate of
Youth
Adult
-Male
Fertility
Rate
Participation
of Female in
Labor Force
22
Participation
of Female in
Labor Force
1.00
Table 4
Constant
GNI
Per-Capita
-18.31
(3.101)
0.042
(0.002)
Constant
Ratio of
Female in
Tertiary
Enrollment
-122.09
(19.953)
Constant
-291.22
(32.551)
Constant
-662.48
(191.969)
2.83
(0.369)
Literacy
Rate of
Youth
Adult
-Male
4.26
(0.426)
Participation
of Female in
Labor Force
25.99
(7.265)
R2 = 0.9328
R2 = 0.6701
R2 = 0.8105
R2 = 0.1947
Obs = 31
Obs = 31
Obs = 31
Obs = 31
Constant
GNI
Per-Capita
Growth
-6.93
(10.450)
Constant
-116.51
(13.685)
Constant
219.82
(21.777)
10.76
(2.531)
Literacy
Rate of
Youth
Adult
-Female
2.73
(0.251)
Fertility
Rate
-50.38
(5.855)
R2 = 0.4378
R2 = 0.8331
R2 = 0.7609
Obs = 31
Obs = 31
Obs = 31
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