Chapter 10
Motivation relates to the study of the processes involved in goal-directed behaviour
Motivational Theories and Concepts (p. 414)
Motives: The needs, wants, interests and desires that propel people in certain directions - motivation
involves goal-directed behaviour
- Without definable and concrete goals, our lives become focused on the short-term and aimless
Drive theories of motivation
Homeostasis: A state of physiological equilibrium or stability - drives push the body towards this
- The body tries to maintain this homeostasis, so for example you sweat when you're warm and
shiver if you're cool
Drive: An internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce
this tension - these are viewed as disruptions of the preferred equilibrium
- When experiencing a drive, you become motivated to pursue drive reducing activities - putting on
a sweater, taking off your sweater, etc.
- However, drive theories cannot explain all motivation - homeostasis can't explain the thirst for
knowledge, and motivation may exist without drive arousal, as in eating when you aren't hungry
Drive theories, then, propose that internal forces regulate motivational states - these internal states of
tension push people towards behaviours and motivation lies within the organism
Incentive theories of motivation
Incentive: An external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour - incentive theories propose that
external stimuli regulate motivational states
- Some of these incentives may reduce drives such as hunger, others may not (money)
- Incentive theories emphasize how external stimuli pull people in certain directions - motivation
lies outside the organism, emphasizing the environment and downplaying the biological bases
Expectancy-value models: Incentive theories of motivation that take into account that people can't
always obtain the things they desire
- One's motivation to pursue a course of action will depend on their expectancy of their chances of
attaining the incentive, and the value of the incentive
Evolutionary theories of motivation
These theories assert that motives of all organisms are just products of evolution - natural selection
favours behaviours that maximize reproductive success
They describe motives such as achievement and dominance in terms of adaptive value - if they're
exhibited, they must have evolved because they solved a problem for our ancestors, so human males
are more likely to be dominant because it would increase their chances of success
Types of motives
There are biological motives (hunger, thirst, temperature, sleep) as well as social motives (achievement,
dominance, need for social bonds)
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People all share the same biological motives, as they're essential for survival, but social motives are
learned and we can acquire an unlimited number of social motives through learning and socialization
The Motivation of Hunger and Eating (p. 416)
Biological factors in hunger regulation
Older theories of hunger identified the hypothalamus as the control point for hunger - the lateral
hypothalamus could be lesioned to remove the drive for hunger and the ventromedial nucleus of the
hypothalamus could be lesioned to induce excessive eating and weight gain
- However, these aren't the only contributors to hunger, and the paraventricular nucleus has been
shown to play a significant role in the modulation of hunger
Modern theories focus more on neural circuits passing through the brain rather than specific anatomical
centres - ghrelin plays a large role in this, with elevated ghrelin levels being associated with increased
food intake
Glucose: A simple sugar that is an important source of energy - much of the food taken into the body is
converted into glucose
Glucostatic theories of hunger propose that fluctuations in blood glucose are monitored in the brain by
glucostats - neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid
- However, glucose levels don't fluctuate much or very quickly, but they do contribute to the
modulation of eating
Nerves in the stomach send signals to the brain to inhibit further eating when the stomach is full
Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas used to extract glucose from the blood - increased insulin
is associated with increased hunger, and the mere sight of food can stimulate the secretion of insulin
- Insulin levels also appear to be sensitive to fluctuations in the body's fat stores
Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells throughout the body that is released into the bloodstream,
with higher levels of fat generating higher levels of leptin - leptin eventually passes through the
hypothalamus with information about the body's fat stores
- When leptin levels are high, the propensity to feel hungry diminishes
Environmental factors in hunger regulation
Some theories emphasize the incentive value of food and eating - the availability and palatability (taste)
of food are key factors in regulating hunger, with the presence of tasty food leading people to eat when
already full
- Sensory-specific satiety: As you eat a specific food, its incentive value decreases - if only a few
foods are available, the appeal may decline quickly, while many foods can lead to overeating
Eating is also a social action, and social cues based on the behaviour of others may influence food intake
based on social norms of the situation
Preferences for food are acquired through learning - this is why some people like pizza and others like
calves' brains
Humans do have innate preferences for sweet tastes and high-fat foods - on the other hand, youngsters
can be conditioned to like certain foods
Eating habits can also be influenced by observational learning from their parents
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- Eating habits can also be influenced by observational learning from their parents
Stress can also lead to increased eating, especially for chronic dieters - for some, it may be that they
expect treats to make them feel better, but this strategy doesn't seem to have any real effects
Eating and weight: Obesity
Obesity: The condition of being overweight, generally based on the body mass index - an individual's
weight (in kilograms) divided by height (in meters), squared
- A BMI over 30 is considered obese, while 25-29.9 is obese
Having obese parents increases the odds of obesity in children, and once people are overweight they are
more likely than not to put on more weight
- Research suggests that there is a genetic basis for how easily people gain weight - adopted
children more closely resemble their biological parents in weight, and identical twins reared apart
are more similar in BMI than fraternal twins reared together
Over the course of history, most animals and humans have had fierce competition for limited food
resources and so we evolved a tendency to consume more food than necessary whenever possible extra calories are then stored in the body as fat
In today's industrialized societies, most people have too much food rather than too little, and the
tendency to overeat has led to chronically excessive food intake
- Because of genetic factors, metabolism, and other factors only some people become overweight
Also common in industrialized societies is taking in more energy from food than is consumed in physical
activities and by metabolism - increased food intake has been paralleled by declining physical activity
Eating and weight: Trying to lose weight
People who lose weight on a diet often gain back all of the weight they lose - people who have to work
to gain weight also have trouble keeping it on
Set-point theory: Proposes that the body monitors the fat-cell levels to keep them (and thus weight)
fairly stable - when fat stores slip below a crucial set point, the body supposedly compensates for this
change leading to increased hunger and decreased metabolism
- Proposes that an obese person's body will actively defend an excessive weight
Settling-point theory: Proposes that weight tends to drift around the level at which the constellation of
factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieves an equilibrium - weight
tends to remain fairly stable as long as there are no durable changes in any factors that influence it
- This theory attributes weight to more general processes
- Suggests that if an obese person makes long-term changes in eating or exercise, that person's
settling point will drift downward
Chronic dieters, meanwhile, are restrained eaters - they consciously work overtime to control their
eating impulses and feel guilty when they fail
- To lose weight, they go hungry much of the time, but are constantly thinking about food - when
their cognitive control is disrupted, , they become disinhibited and eat to excess
- They assume that they're either on a diet or out of control, and often give up as soon as they feel
they've cheated on their diet
- Restrained eaters also seem to be particularly sensitive to media portrayal of idealized body
types - after viewing such idealized images, restrained eaters tended to report thinner ideal body
size than unrestrained eaters, and disinhibited their restraint to a greater extent
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size than unrestrained eaters, and disinhibited their restraint to a greater extent
Eating disorders
Anorexia nervosa: Mostly affects young women, who starve themselves - sometimes to death
Bulimia nervosa: Again affecting mostly young women, who alternate between binge eating and purging
Eating disorders are more prevalent in women than men
Activity anorexia: A combination of severe dieting and excessive exercise that elicits a biochemical
process resulting in starvation and eventually death - the excessive physical activity actually decreases
appetite and is central to the nature of anorexia
Sexual Motivation and Behaviour (p. 425)
Sex is essential for the survival of a species, but not the survival of an individual - so unlike hunger, it's
driven less by deprivation
Hormones secreted by the ovaries and testes can influence sexual motivation - estrogens in women,
androgens in men - both genders have some of each, but the balances are different
In man animals, females are sexually receptive only prior to ovulation when their hormone levels are
higher
Primates, however, are less affected by hormones - but extreme variations in hormone levels can affect
sexual desire
- Androgen levels seem to have an effect on both genders
- Sexual activity can also increase testosterone levels, so the relationship may not be casual
Evolutionary analyses of human sexual behaviour
Parental investment theory: A species' mating patterns depend on what each sex has to invest in terms
of time, energy, and survival risk to produce and nurture offspring
- The sex that makes the smaller investment will compete for mating opportunities with the sex
that makes the larger investment, and the sex with the larger investment will be more
discriminating in selecting its partners
- Human males are "required" to invest little in the production of offspring, so their reproductive
potential is maximized by mating with as many females as possible
- Meanwhile, human females have to invest nine months in pregnancy, then devote several years to
nourishing offspring - they have little incentive for mating with many males, and would best be
served by picking the best male to mate with
- According to this theory, men will show more interest in sexual activity, have greater desire for
variety in sexual partners, and be more willing to engage in uncommitted sex
Gender differences
Men think about sex more frequently, initiate sex more frequently, and are more interested in sex for its
own sake - they're more motivated to pursue sex with a variety of partners, and more likely to have sex
with someone they had known for only a brief period
Men have also been shown to have more frequent and more intense sexual desires - however, these
sexual disparities may all be exaggerated by reliance of subjects' self-reports due to the double standard
regarding sexuality
There are gender differences in mate preferences as well, with men placing more emphasis on a
youthful partner (better for reproduction) while women place more importance on material resources
and willingness to invest - these aren't conscious strategies, but rather subconscious preferences
hardwired into the brain by evolution
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hardwired into the brain by evolution
Alternatively, these differences may be learned through culture, and enforced by a variety of
socioeconomic factors over generations
Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation: A person's preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the
same sex, the other sex, or either sex - heterosexuals seek relationships with the other sex, bisexuals
with either, and homosexuals with members of the same sex
However, sexual preference is more of a continuum - people who view themselves as heterosexuals
have often had homosexual experiences
- Homosexuality and heterosexuality should instead be viewed as endpoints on the continuum
No one really knows how common homosexuality is, because of extreme prejudice towards it
Environmental theories of sexual orientation
Freudian theorists argue that a male is likely to become gay when raised by a weak, detached,
ineffectual father who is a poor heterosexual role model and an overprotective, close-binding mother
with whom the boy identifies
Behavioural theories have argued that homosexuality is a learned preference acquired when same-sex
stimuli have been paired with sexual arousal
Extensive research, however, has failed to support these theories - however, extremely feminine
behaviour in boys and extremely masculine behaviour in girls has been shown to predict homosexuality,
and most gay men and women report being able to trace their homosexuality back to their childhood
Biological theories of sexual orientation
Twin studies on homosexual twins has shown a strong genetic predisposition for homosexuality: 52% of
gay men had gay twins, while only 22% of their fraternal twins were gay, and 11% of their adoptive
brothers - similar results have been found in women
- However, more recent studies have found smaller estimates
Hormonal secretions during critical periods of prenatal development may shape sexual development,
organizing the brain in a lasting manner that influences subsequent sexual orientation
- Higher rates of homosexuality have been found in women exposed to high levels of androgens in
the womb
Women seem to be more flexible in their sexuality, with more influence from sociocultural factors and
earlier emergence compared to men
Human sexual response cycle
Excitement phase: The level of physical arousal escalates quickly, with muscle tension, respiration rate,
heart rate, and blood pressure increasing quickly
Plateau phase: Physiological arousal continues to build, but at a much slower pace
Orgasm phase: When sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular
contractions - men reach orgasm more reliably, which may be the result of evolution, culture, or sexual
scripts
- Lesbian women reach orgasm more reliably, supporting the theory that it's a matter of sexual
scripts or culture
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scripts or culture
Resolution phase: Physiological changes subside, followed by a refractory period for men - a period
where men are unresponsive to further stimulation which grows longer with age
Achievement: In Search of Excellence (p. 437)
Achievement motive: The need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to met high
standards of excellence
The need for achievement is a fairly stable aspect of personality, and the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT) was designed to measure it
- The TAT is a projective test, where the subjects respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that
may reveal their motives and traits
- However, some people believe the TAT is outdated and uses older standards not relevant to
today's society
The people who score high in the need for achievement tend to work harder, and more persistently,
than people low on the need for achievement - they also handle negative feedback more effectively, are
more future oriented, and more likely to delay gratification for long-term goals
High achievement motivation correlates positively with measures of career success and upward social
mobility
Situational factors can also influence the drive for achievement, with a few factors being singled out:
- The strength of one's motivation to achieve success, and likelihood to approach difficult tasks - a
stable aspect of personality
- One's estimate of the probability of success - varies from task to ask
- The incentive value of success - depends on the rewards for success
- One's fear of failure and likelihood to avoid difficult tasks - a stable aspect of personality
- The negative incentive value of failure - depends on the risk of the failing at the task
As tasks get easier, success becomes less satisfying - as they become harder, success becomes more
satisfying, but at the cost of the probability to succeed
Subjects high in the need for achievement tend to select tasks of intermediate difficulty - these tasks
offer the best incentive value overall
John Atkinson has proposed a theory of achievement motivation centred around the desire to approach
and avoid challenge
The influence of fear on motivation illustrates how motivation and emotions are intertwined - anger can
cause motivation, but it can also be caused by motivation
The Elements of Emotional Experience (p. 440)
Emotion: Has three components - a subjective conscious experience (cognitive component), bodily
arousal (physiological component) and characteristic overt expressions (behavioural component)
Cognitive component
Psychologists generally rely on subjects' verbal reports when studying this - people's cognitive appraisals
of events in their lives are key determinants of the emotions they experience
Emotion has an evaluative aspect, where we characterize our emotions as pleasant or unpleasant though some emotions are a mix of both
Research has mostly focused on negative emotions, but there seem to be fewer positive emotions and
they seem to be harder to differentiate - negative emotions also seem to have more powerful effect
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The events that trigger specific emotions are fairly similar cross-culturally - people also tend to evaluate
situations the same way
Physiological component
Emotions are accompanied by visceral arousal - this mostly occurs through the autonomic nervous
system and activation of the fight-or-flight response
Galvanic skin response (GSR) - An increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when
sweat glands increase their activity - this is a convenient and sensitive measure of autonomic arousal
and emotions
Polygraph (lie detector) - A device that records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned,
such as their GSR - sometimes used when interrogating suspects for a crime
- The assumption is that when subjects lie, they experience anxiety, producing noticeable changes
in physiology
- The examiner first asks a number of nonthreatening questions to establish the subject's baseline
- Then they ask the critical questions related to the crime and observe if their autonomic arousal
changes
- However… people who are telling the truth may become nervous during the test, and pathological
liars can lie without experiencing any anxiety - so these tests aren't very reliable
Affective neuroscience: The examination of the neurobiology of emotions - the neural bases of emotion
are widely distributed throughout the brain
- The limbic system, including the hypothalamus and amygdala, have long been viewed as the seat
of emotion - but many other structures in the brain contribute
- The amygdala does, however, play a key role in the acquisition of conditioned fears
- The prefrontal cortex contributes to voluntary control of emotions, as well as emotions associated
with the pursuit of goals
Behavioural component
Emotions are expressed through body language - nonverbal behaviour that seems fairly constant across
cultures
From facial cues in photographs, people generally identify six basic emotions: happiness, sadness, anger,
fear, surprise, and disgust - other emotions are often identified, but less reliably than the basic six
- This identification seems to occur quickly and automatically
Facial feedback hypothesis: Our facial muscles send signals to our brains, and these signals help the
brain recognize the emotions we are experiencing
- Studies show that if subjects are instructed to mimic facial expressions associated with certain
emotions, they tend to report that they actually experience those emotions to some degree
- Facial expressions seem to be largely innate - even people who have been blind since birth smile
and frown
There's considerable cross-cultural agreement in the identification of the six basic emotions
- This might have something to do with exposure to Western media, but even remote tribes with no
Western contact identify the same basic emotions
Cross-cultural differences
Japanese culture encourages socially engaging emotions (friendly feelings, sympathy, guilt) more than
North American culture
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North American culture
Meanwhile, North American culture encourages socially disengaging emotions (pride, anger) more than
Japanese culture
While natural facial expressions seem to transcend culture, people often learn to control and modify
these expressions according to their cultural rules
Display rules: Norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions - when, how, and to whom
people can show various emotions, which varies from culture to culture
Theories of Emotion (p. 446)
James-Lange Theory
William James proposed a theory of emotion in 1884, around the same time as Carl Lange, proposing
that the conscious experience of emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal
- According to this theory, the perception of visceral arousal (fight or flight response) leads to the
conscious experience of fear - you're fearful because your pulse is racing
- This emphasizes the physiological determinants of emotion - according to this view, different
patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions
- People supposedly distinguish emotions such as fear, joy, and anger on the basis of the
configuration of physical reactions they experience
Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon argued that:
- Physiological arousal can occur without the experience of emotion
- Visceral changes are also too slow to precede conscious experience of emotion
- People experiencing different emotions show almost identical patterns of autonomic arousal
Philip Bard elaborated on his theory, creating the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
In their theory, emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (conscious
experience) and autonomic nervous system (visceral arousal)
Schacter's Two-Factor Theory
Stanley Schacter proposed that people look at situational cues to differentiate among alternative
emotions, and that emotion depends on two factors: autonomic arousal and cognitive interpretation
When you experience visceral arousal, you search your environment for an explanation and label the
emotion appropriately - rather than internal cues such as patterns of arousal
However, emotions aren't completely moulded by the immediate context, which is one limitation to this
theory
Evolutionary Theories of Emotion
Darwinian theories believe that emotions developed because of their adaptive values - fear would help
the organism to avoid danger and aid in survival, for example
Emotions are considered innate reactions to certain stimuli - immediately recognizable under most
situations without much thought, even by primitive organisms
They also assert that emotion evolved before thought, and that thought plays only a small role in
emotion - assumes that emotions originate in subcortical brain structures that evolved before the higher
brain areas
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brain areas
Another part of evolutionary theories is that there are a limited number of emotions with specific
adaptive values - generally, theorists identify eight to ten primary emotions and other emotions are
merely a blend of these primary emotions or a variation in intensity
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