The Central Dogma
From Gene to Protein
Overview: The Flow of Genetic Information
 The information content of DNA

◦ Is in the form of specific sequences of nucleotides
along the DNA strands

The DNA inherited by an organism
◦ Leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of
proteins

The process by which DNA directs protein
synthesis, gene expression
◦ Includes two stages, called transcription and
translation

Originally, two scientists (Beadle and Tatum)
developed the “one gene–one enzyme hypothesis”
◦ Which states that the function of a gene is to dictate the
production of a specific enzyme
The Products of Gene Expression: A Developing Story

As researchers learned more about proteins
◦ The made minor revision to the one gene–one
enzyme hypothesis

Genes code for polypeptide chains or for RNA
molecules
Basic Principles of Transcription and
Translation

Transcription
◦ Is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA
◦ Produces messenger RNA (mRNA)

Translation
◦ Is the actual synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs
under the direction of mRNA
◦ Occurs on ribosomes

In prokaryotes
◦ Transcription and translation occur together
TRANSCRIPTION
DNA
mRNA
Ribosome
TRANSLATION
Polypeptide
(a) Prokaryotic cell. In a cell lacking a nucleus, mRNA
produced by transcription is immediately translated
without additional processing.
Figure 17.3a

In eukaryotes
◦ RNA transcripts are modified before becoming true
mRNA
Nuclear
envelope
DNA
TRANSCRIPTION
Pre-mRNA
RNA PROCESSING
mRNA
Ribosome
TRANSLATION
Polypeptide
Figure 17.3b
(b) Eukaryotic cell. The nucleus provides a separate
compartment for transcription. The original RNA
transcript, called pre-mRNA, is processed in various
ways before leaving the nucleus as mRNA.

Cells are governed by a cellular chain of
command
◦ DNA → RNA → protein
The Genetic Code

How many bases correspond to an amino acid?
Codons:Triplets of Bases

Genetic information
◦ Is encoded as a sequence of nonoverlapping base
triplets, or codons

During transcription
◦ The gene determines the sequence of bases along the
length of an mRNA molecule
Gene 2
DNA
molecule
Gene 1
Gene 3
DNA strand 3′
5′
A C C A A A C C G A G T
(template)
TRANSCRIPTION
mRNA
5′
U G G U U U G G C U C A
Codon
TRANSLATION
Protein
Figure 17.4
Trp
Amino acid
Phe
Gly
Ser
3′
Cracking the Code

A codon in messenger RNA
Figure 17.5
Second mRNA base
U
C
A
UAU
UCU
UUU
Tyr
Phe
UAC
UCC
UUC
U
UCA Ser UAA Stop
UUA
UAG Stop
UUG Leu UCG
CUU
CUC
C
CUA
CUG
CCU
CCC
Leu CCA
CCG
Pro
AUU
AUC
A
AUA
AUG
ACU
ACC
ACA
ACG
Thr
GUU
G GUC
GUA
GUG
lle
Met or
start
GCU
GCC
Val
GCA
GCG
Ala
G
U
UGU
Cys
C
UGC
UGA Stop A
UGG Trp G
U
CAU
CGU
His
C
CAC
CGC
Arg
CAA
CGA
A
Gln
CAG
CGG
G
U
AAU
AGU
Asn
AAC
AGC Ser C
A
AGA
AAA
Lys
Arg
G
AGG
AAG
U
GAU
GGU
C
GAC Asp GGC
Gly
A
GAA
GGA
Glu
GAG
GGG
G
Third mRNA base (3′ end)
First mRNA base (5′ end)
◦ Is either translated into an amino acid or serves as a
translational stop signal

Codons must be read in the correct reading
frame
◦ For the specified polypeptide to be produced

Concept 17.2: Transcription is the DNAdirected synthesis of RNA: a closer look
Molecular Components of
Transcription

RNA synthesis
◦ Is catalyzed by RNA polymerase, which pries the
DNA strands apart and hooks together the RNA
nucleotides
◦ Follows the same base-pairing rules as DNA, except
that in RNA, uracil substitutes for thymine
Synthesis of an RNA Transcript

The stages of transcription are
◦ Initiation
◦ Elongation
◦ Termination
Promoter
Transcription unit
5′
3′
3′
5′
Start point
RNA polymerase
DNA
Initiation. After RNA polymerase binds to
the promoter, the DNA strands unwind, and
the polymerase initiates RNA synthesis at the
start point on the template strand.
1
5′
3′
Unwound
DNA
3′
5′
Template strand of
DNA
transcript
2 Elongation. The polymerase moves downstream, unwinding the
DNA and elongating the RNA transcript 5′ → 3 ′. In the wake of
transcription, the DNA strands re-form a double helix.
Rewound
RNA
RNA
5′
3′
3′
5′
3′
5′
RNA
transcript
3 Termination. Eventually, the RNA
transcript is released, and the
polymerase detaches from the DNA.
5′
3′
3′
5′
5′
Figure 17.7
Completed RNA
transcript
3′
RNA Polymerase Binding and Initiation of Transcription
Promoters signal the initiation of RNA synthesis
 Transcription factors

◦ Help eukaryotic RNA polymerase recognize promoter
sequences
1 Eukaryotic promoters
TRANSCRIPTION
DNA
RNA PROCESSING
Pre-mRNA
mRNA
TRANSLATION
Ribosome
Polypeptide
Promoter
5′
3′
3′
5′
T A T A A AA
AT A T T T T
TATA box
Start point
Template
DNA strand
Several transcription
factors
2
Transcription
factors
5′
3′
3 Additional transcription
3′
5′
factors
RNA polymerase II
5′
3′
Transcription factors
3′
5′
5′
RNA transcript
Figure 17.8
Transcription initiation complex
Elongation of the RNA Strand

As RNA polymerase moves along the DNA
◦ It continues to untwist the double helix, exposing
about 10 to 20 DNA bases at a time for pairing with
RNA nucleotides
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA from its
3’ end to its 5’ end thus laying the RNA 5’ to 3’
Termination of Transcription

Termination signals RNA polymerase to detach
and release newly constructed mRNA
Concept 17.3: Eukaryotic cells modify RNA
after transcription
 Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus

◦ Modify pre-mRNA in specific ways before the genetic
messages are dispatched to the cytoplasm
Alteration of mRNA Ends

Each end of a pre-mRNA molecule is modified
in a particular way
◦ The 5′ end receives a modified nucleotide cap
◦ The 3′ end gets a poly-A tail
A modified guanine nucleotide
added to the 5′ end
TRANSCRIPTION
RNA PROCESSING
50 to 250 adenine nucleotides
added to the 3′ end
DNA
Pre-mRNA
5′
mRNA
Protein-coding segment
Polyadenylation signal
3′
G P P P
AAUAAA
AAA…AAA
Ribosome
TRANSLATION
5′ Cap
Polypeptide
Figure 17.9
5′ UTR
Start codon Stop codon
3′ UTR
Poly-A tail
Split Genes and RNA Splicing

RNA splicing
◦ Removes introns and joins exons
TRANSCRIPTION
RNA PROCESSING
DNA
Pre-mRNA
5′ Exon Intron
Pre-mRNA 5′ Cap
30
31
1
Coding
segment
mRNA
Ribosome
Intron
Exon
Exon
3′
Poly-A tail
104
105
146
Introns cut out and
exons spliced together
TRANSLATION
Polypeptide
mRNA 5′ Cap
1
3′ UTR
Figure 17.10
Poly-A tail
146
3′ UTR
The Functional and Evolutionary Importance of Introns

The presence of introns
◦ Allows for alternative RNA splicing
 How do you know where an intron is located?
 snRNP (small nuclear ribonucleoproteins) aka “snurps”
 Short nt sequences at each end of an intron that signal splicing
(splice site)

Is carried out by spliceosomes in some cases
RNA transcript (pre-mRNA)
5′
Intron
Exon 1
Exon 2
Protein
1
Other proteins
snRNA
snRNPs
Spliceosome
2
5′
Spliceosome
components
3
Figure 17.11
5′
mRNA
Exon 1
Exon 2
Cut-out
intron
Ribozymes

Ribozymes
◦ Are catalytic RNA molecules that function as
enzymes and can splice RNA

Proteins often have a modular architecture
◦ Consisting of discrete structural and functional regions
called domains

In many cases
◦ Different exons code for the different domains in a
protein
Gene
DNA
Exon 1 Intron Exon 2
Transcription
RNA processing
Intron Exon 3
Translation
Domain 3
Domain 2
Domain 1
Figure 17.12
Polypeptide

Concept 17.4: Translation is the RNA-directed
synthesis of a polypeptide: a closer look
Molecular Components of
Translation

A cell translates an mRNA message into protein
◦ With the help of transfer RNA (tRNA)

Translation: the basic concept
TRANSCRIPTION
DNA
mRNA
Ribosome
TRANSLATION
Polypeptide
Amino
acids
Polypeptide
tRNA with
amino acid
Ribosome attached
Gly
tRNA
Anticodon
A A A
U G G U U U G G C
Codons
5′
Figure 17.13
mRNA
3′

Molecules of tRNA are not all identical
◦ Each carries a specific amino acid on one end
◦ Each has an anticodon on the other end
The Structure and Function of Transfer
RNA

A tRNA molecule
A
C
C
◦ Consists of a single RNA strand that is only about
3′
80 nucleotides long
A
Amino acid
C
C
attachment site
5′
A
◦ Is roughly L-shaped
C G
G C
C G
U G
U A
A U
A U
U C
UA
C A C AG
*
G
*
G U G U *
C
C
* *
U C
*
* G AG C
(a) Two-dimensional structure. The four base-paired regions and three
G C
U A
loops are characteristic of all tRNAs, as is the base sequence of the
* G
amino acid attachment site at the 3′ end. The anticodon triplet is
A
A*
unique to each tRNA type. (The asterisks mark bases that have been
C
U
*
chemically modified, a characteristic of tRNA.)
A
G
A
Figure 17.14a
Anticodon
C U C
G A G
A G *
*
G
A G G
Hydrogen
bonds

A specific enzyme called an aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase
◦ Joins each amino acid to the correct tRNA
Amino acid
P P
Aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase (enzyme)
1 Active site binds the
amino acid and ATP.
P Adenosine
ATP
2 ATP loses two P groups
and joins amino acid as AMP.
P
Pyrophosphate
Pi
Phosphates
P
Adenosine
Pi
Pi
tRNA
3 Appropriate
tRNA covalently
Bonds to amino
Acid, displacing
AMP.
P Adenosine
AMP
4 Activated amino acid
is released by the enzyme.
Figure 17.15
Aminoacyl tRNA
(an “activated
amino acid”)
Ribosomes

Ribosomes
◦ Facilitate the specific coupling of tRNA anticodons
with mRNA codons during protein synthesis

The ribosomal subunits
◦ Are constructed of proteins and RNA molecules
named ribosomal RNA or rRNA
DNA
TRANSCRIPTION
mRNA
Ribosome
TRANSLATION
Polypeptide
Exit tunnel
Growing
polypeptide
tRNA
molecules
Large
subunit
E
P A
Small
subunit
5′
mRNA
Figure 17.16a
3′
(a) Computer model of functioning ribosome. This is a model of a bacterial
ribosome, showing its overall shape. The eukaryotic ribosome is roughly
similar. A ribosomal subunit is an aggregate of ribosomal RNA molecules
and proteins.

The ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA
◦ The P site
◦ The A site
◦ The E site
P site (Peptidyl-tRNA
binding site)
A site (AminoacyltRNA binding site)
E site
(Exit site)
Large
subunit
E
mRNA
binding site
Figure 17.16b
P
A
Small
subunit
(b) Schematic model showing binding sites. A ribosome has an mRNA
binding site and three tRNA binding sites, known as the A, P, and E sites.
This schematic ribosome will appear in later diagrams.
Amino end
Growing polypeptide
Next amino acid
to be added to
polypeptide chain
tRNA
3′
mRNA
5′
Codons
(c) Schematic model with mRNA and tRNA. A tRNA fits into a binding site when its anticodon
base-pairs with an mRNA codon. The P site holds the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide.
The A site holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the polypeptide chain.
Discharged tRNA leaves via the E site.
Figure 17.16c
Building a Polypeptide

We can divide translation into three stages
◦ Initiation
◦ Elongation
◦ Termination
Ribosome Association and Initiation of
Translation

The initiation stage of translation
◦ Brings together mRNA, tRNA bearing the first amino
acid of the polypeptide, and two subunits of a
ribosome
5′
P site
3′ U A C
5′ A U G 3′
Initiator tRNA
Large
ribosomal
subunit
GTP
GDP
E
A
mRNA
5′
Start codon
mRNA binding site
Figure 17.17
3′
Small
ribosomal
subunit
1 A small ribosomal subunit binds to a molecule of
mRNA. In a prokaryotic cell, the mRNA binding site
on this subunit recognizes a specific nucleotide
sequence on the mRNA just upstream of the start
codon. An initiator tRNA, with the anticodon UAC,
base-pairs with the start codon, AUG. This tRNA
carries the amino acid methionine (Met).
5′
3′
Translation initiation complex
2 The arrival of a large ribosomal subunit completes
the initiation complex. Proteins called initiation
factors (not shown) are required to bring all the
translation components together. GTP provides
the energy for the assembly. The initiator tRNA is
in the P site; the A site is available to the tRNA
bearing the next amino acid.

Elongation of the Polypeptide Chain
In the elongation stage of translation
◦ Amino acids are added one by one to the preceding
amino acid
TRANSCRIPTION
Amino end
of polypeptide
DNA
mRNA
Ribosome
TRANSLATION
Polypeptide
mRNA
Ribosome ready for
next aminoacyl tRNA
E
3′
P A
site site
5′
1 Codon recognition. The anticodon
of an incoming aminoacyl tRNA
base-pairs with the complementary
mRNA codon in the A site. Hydrolysis
of GTP increases the accuracy and
efficiency of this step.
2 GTP
2 GDP
E
E
P
P
A
GDP
Figure 17.18
3 Translocation. The ribosome
translocates the tRNA in the A
site to the P site. The empty tRNA
in the P site is moved to the E site,
where it is released. The mRNA
moves along with its bound tRNAs,
bringing the next codon to be
translated into the A site.
GTP
E
P
A
A
2 Peptide bond formation. An
rRNA molecule of the large
subunit catalyzes the formation
of a peptide bond between the
new amino acid in the A site and
the carboxyl end of the growing
polypeptide in the P site. This step
attaches the polypeptide to the
tRNA in the A site.

Termination of Translation
The final stage of translation is termination
◦ When the ribosome reaches a stop codon in the
mRNA
Release
factor
Free
polypeptide
5′
3′
3′
5′
5′
3′
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA)
1 When a ribosome reaches a stop 2 The release factor hydrolyzes 3 The two ribosomal subunits
codon on mRNA, the A site of the
the bond between the tRNA in and the other components of
ribosome accepts a protein called
the P site and the last amino
the assembly dissociate.
a release factor instead of tRNA.
acid of the polypeptide chain.
The polypeptide is thus freed
from the ribosome.
Figure 17.19
Completing and Targeting the
Functional Protein

Polypeptide chains
◦ Undergo modifications after the translation process
that change their 3-D shape
Primary structure

General amino acid
sequence
Secondary structure
Amino acids are close
together and attract
one another
 A coiled protein
develops

Tertiary structure
Amino acids try even
harder to move away
from areas of water
 Larger proteins will
develop this structure

Quaternary structure

Proteins made of
more than one
polypeptide

A summary of transcription and translation in a
eukaryotic cell
DNA
TRANSCRIPTION
1 RNA is transcribed
from a DNA template.
3′
5′
RNA
transcript
RNA
polymerase
RNA PROCESSING
Exon
2 In eukaryotes, the
RNA transcript (premRNA) is spliced and
modified to produce
mRNA, which moves
from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm.
RNA transcript
(pre-mRNA)
Intron
Aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase
NUCLEUS
Amino
acid
tRNA
FORMATION OF
INITIATION COMPLEX
CYTOPLASM 3 After leaving the
nucleus, mRNA attaches
to the ribosome.
mRNA
AMINO ACID ACTIVATION
4
Each amino acid
attaches to its proper tRNA
with the help of a specific
enzyme and ATP.
Growing
polypeptide
Activated
amino acid
Ribosomal
subunits
5′
TRANSLATION
A succession of tRNAs
add their amino acids to
the polypeptide chain
Anticodon
as the mRNA is moved
through the ribosome
one codon at a time.
(When completed, the
polypeptide is released
from the ribosome.)
5
E
A
AAA
UG GU U U A U G
Codon
Figure 17.26
Ribosome

Types of RNA in a Eukaryotic Cell
Table 17.1