Impression Management: Means of Mitigating The Effects of Sex-Stereotyping In
Organizations
by
Runuka Hodigere
Diana Bilimoria
WP-10-05
Copyright
Department of Organizational Behavior
Weatherhead School of Management
Case Western Reserve University
Cleveland OH 44106-7235
e-mail: ler6@case.edu
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT: MEANS OF MITIGATING THE EFFECTS OF
SEX-STEREOTYPING IN ORGANIZATIONS
Renuka Hodigere
Diana Bilimoria
Department of Organizational Behavior
Case Western Reserve University
Cleveland, OH.
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Impression management: Means of mitigating the effects of sex-stereotyping in
organizations
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Abstract
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Sex-stereotyping is a major barrier to advancement of women in organizations. Since sex-
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stereotypes are based on role attribution, they are less amenable to change through measures
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such as legislation and education. Women need to strategically manage the roles attributed to
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them such that they are reflective of their roles in the organization, rather than that of a
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generalized notion of women. Adoption of such measures, over time will bring about a
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reconfiguration of perceptions about women in organizations and make it easier for women to
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embrace their multiple roles and identities more effectively.
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INTRODUCTION
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The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that in 2008 there were fewer than
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3 million women in managerial positions, of which only 6.5% reached chief executive level.
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These data are disheartening. While this indicates an improvement over the past, it is still a very
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small proportion when compared to the still relatively small total population of less than 16
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million women in management roles. Although there was only a 2% difference in the numbers of
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female and male general managers, there are twice as many male CEOs as female.
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Women’s success in overcoming entry barriers suggests that the threshold requirements
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of education, skills and commitment have been met. Yet, their inability to overcome
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organizational barriers to progress indicates that there are issues that still need to be addressed.
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One of the reasons given for paucity of women in critical roles and higher positions in such roles
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is sex-stereotyping (Davies-Netzley, 1998; Oakley, 2000). Sex-stereotyping is the super-
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imposition of generalized notions about women on to the role-identity of individual women. This
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implies that women, regardless of the roles played by them in the workplace, are perceived
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primarily by a generalized stereotype of women. Such stereotypes could range from that of a
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nurturer to a sex-object. The attributes attendant to these sex-stereotypes have been shown to be
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persistently contrary to the attributes, perceived by the majority, to be required in career
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professionals (Schein, 1973; 1996; 2007), and women continue to be particularly disadvantaged
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by such stereotyping (Ryan & Haslam, 2007; Hopkins O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2006). Consequently,
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it is essential for women to manage the perceptions that are held by pertinent others in the
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organizational context. Such management includes creating the “right” images, and managing
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extant perceptions to resonate with these right images. Impression management is the array of
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behaviors; verbal and non-verbal, by which women can accomplish this objective.
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Much of the literature on gender-discrimination has focused on alleviating the problem
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either at a system level through policy and legislation or at the individual level by focusing on
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educating or penalizing a perpetrator. But, studies of gender discrimination also show that
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discriminating acts can be very subtle and hard to identify as being discriminatory rather than
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benign. It can thus be surmised that while legislation, education and penalty are essential to
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mitigating the problem of gender discrimination, transformation of the stereotype associated with
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the sex is an important element of the change process. As I will draw out in the section on sex-
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stereotyping, it is also an area in which women can take control of the situation and feel
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empowered by playing an active part in the mitigation of discrimination against them. It is my
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contention that impression management is that approach to containing the influence of sex-
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stereotyping.
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Ironically, impression management has largely been constructed as a “falsification” tool
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used to deceive others and protect oneself against unfavorable projection by others (Deluga,
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1991; see Bolino, Kacmar, Turnley & Gilstrap, 2008 for review). However, a study of the roots
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of impression management from social role theory (Hartley & Hartley, 1952)
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presentation (Goffman, 1959) shows that the genesis of impression management was based on
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principles of influence through self-monitoring and strategic presentation. Therefore, at its
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source, impression management is a means of creating images that resonate with the contextual
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roles played by individuals. Much of recent literature on impression management is focused on
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its use in organizational contexts such as interviews, performance reviews, crises, or the
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ubiquitous handling of supervisors (Elsbach & Sutton, 1992; Stevens & Kristof, 1995; Kacmar &
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Carlson, 1999; Singh & Vinnicombe, 2001; Bolino, Varela, Bande & Turnley, 2006). However,
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there have been no studies that explore the application of impression management in mitigating
to self-
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the subtle yet intensely pervasive problem of stereotyping in organizations. Given that
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stereotyping as a construct is too large to be examined in any depth in one study, I have restricted
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this paper to drawing some theoretical conclusions about sex-stereotyping alone, particularly
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with respect to women in organizations.
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The few studies that link women and impression management are about gendered
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differences in the use of impression management in organizations (e.g. Singh, Kumra &
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Vinnicombe, 2002; Guadagno & Cialdini, 2007). Overall, these studies have established that
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women perceive the notion of impression management negatively. Some of the respondents in
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these studies admitted to losing organizational battles to colleagues who managed their image
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perceivably better than the women respondents. Less studied are use of impression management
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by potential victims of sex-stereotyping and the influence of such strategies on their career.
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The present theoretical exploration offers a means by which women can exercise some
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control over their career advancement through strategically amplifying contextually appropriate
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behaviors. Contrary to typical perception, impression management is applied in this study to
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minimize the application and strength of negative stereotypical perceptions; and not for self-
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promotion. I propose that application of negative stereotypes can be minimized by replacing the
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negative stereotypes with positive stereotypes that resonate with the changing realities of women
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in organizations. I refer to this process as stereotype transformation because a stereotype vacuum
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is not a plausible option. Stereotyping is a useful mechanism, necessary for managing complex
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sets of information. The focus of my study is the replacement of an erroneous stereotype with
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one that resonates more accurately with the current reality about women in organizations and the
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implications of such transformation on organizational norms. The female professional in an
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organizational set up should be perceived as professional first as that is her primary role in that
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situation. The outcome corresponding to such a perception is greater equity in recruitment,
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compensation and career advancement. Therefore, the stereotype I seek to create is that of a
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professional characterized by her functional expertise and personal ability supplemented by the
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quality of communality, fairness and fortitude that characterize her as a woman.
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Through this discourse, I hope that the utility of impression management in alleviating
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the effects of stereotyping on women’s career progression in male-dominated professions will
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receive attention. I begin with an elaboration of the concept of sex-stereotyping and a summary
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of the existing literature on the major stereotypes held about women and the ways in which sex-
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stereotyping affects women in organizations. The theoretical foundation of impression
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management and its application in the workplace is the second part of the paper. Finally, I
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develop a theoretical model of the role of impression management in mitigating sex-stereotyping
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in organizations finally resulting in a change in organizational norms.
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SEX-STEREOTYPING AS A BARRIER TO CAREER ADVANCEMENT
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There is universal agreement on the fact that women’s careers generally do not advance
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on par with equivalent men’s careers. One of the causes forwarded to explain this lag is
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discrimination based on sex-stereotyping. Stereotypical assumptions about women, based on
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their sex and corresponding attribution of social role are that they lack the attributes required in
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managers (Heilman, Block & Martell, 1995; Hopkins, O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2006); attributes
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required in managers being those demonstrated by men (Schein, 2007). Just as men who chose to
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be home-makers are likened to women or attributed with feminine characteristics. Hence, it is
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prudent to acknowledge the basis of sex-stereotyping while staying grounded in the mission of
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creating a stereotype of managers that is more gender-neutral and thus inclusive.
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Sex-stereotyping creates strong barriers to the career advancement of women in several
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ways. The first is an entry barrier to certain roles that are argued to be more suitable to men than
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women. Sex-segregation literature reveals that such barricaded positions are typically those that
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are more central to the operations of the organization; involve handling of important resources,
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involving visibility to and perhaps interaction with those who hold power in the organization
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(Oakley, 2000; Furst & Reeves, 2008). Consequently, women get herded into roles that are
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peripheral to the business, have little scope for influence and visibility. Barriers are also erected
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in such a way that it is hard to distinguish discrimination from benevolent sexism (Benokraitis,
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1997).
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Another way in which women are dissuaded from aspiring to penetrate male bastions is
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more insidious and less covert. Women receive lower evaluations on both performance and
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potential (Eagly, Karau & Makhijani, 1995; Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992). Lower
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evaluations are justified by either setting lower standards in goals or misattributing the cause of
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performance. Being devalued in this way consistently can lead to sufficient demotivation among
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women that they either become disengaged with the process of career advancement or seek a
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different environment. This has been shown in studies where career paths of men and women
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have been found to be disparate on advancement processes (O’Neil, Hopkins & Bilimoria, 2008).
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Women tend to ascend the organizational ladder by moving to other organizations at significant
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rungs in the ladder, while men ascend to similar positions with the same organization (Cox &
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Harquail, 1991). To have to move to a different organization at each significant level may result
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in women taking longer to reach the same position as their equivalent male colleagues.
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A third way in which sex-stereotyping contributes to deceleration in women’s careers is
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through misguided assumptions about women’s life-choice preferences. As illustrated by the
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famous investigation at Deloitte and Touche (McCracken, 2000), male supervisors make
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stereotypical assumptions about women employees, which on verification may more often than
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not prove to be erroneous. Women are assumed to have an immutable preference for home and
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family to work aspirations. Changing demographics are evidence that this is not a universal truth.
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Just as there are women who prefer to either build their lives around their families or subordinate
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their careers to the needs of the family; there are women who choose to privilege their career
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ambitions. Such sex-stereotyping prevails even in highly intellectual and sophisticated
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organizations.
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Based on the above discussion, the perceived gaps in the identity of women as
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professionals are most profound in the areas of ability, effectiveness and commitment. It is on
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these three grounds that women are significantly disadvantaged by existing sex-stereotypes.
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Ability
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Masculine jobs in organizations are line jobs, not only due to demographic dominance by
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men but also the associations with greater power, resources and criticality to the organization
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(Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989; Lyness & Heilman, 2006). Women in line positions present a
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higher incongruence than women in staff jobs. Therefore, it is stereotypically assumed that
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women lack the ability required of the job. From the interview stage, women are held at a
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disadvantage as both male and female interviewers tend to rate women lower than men for
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‘masculine’ roles or positions with male subordinates (Rose & Andiappan, 1978). Consequently,
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they receive less support in organizations for opportunities to demonstrate their ability. Studies
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have shown that women in sex-role congruent jobs received higher evaluations than those in sex-
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role incongruent jobs (staff vs. line), women in line jobs had to achieve higher evaluations than
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men to be promoted (Lyness & Heilman, 2006). In situations where women do demonstrate the
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ability to succeed, the counter-stereotypical outcome is distorted through attributions like
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external help, to resonate with the stereotype (Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1993). The tendency
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of women to attribute successes to external factors may allow them to participate in such
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distortions. Evaluations of behavior also lend themselves readily to stereotypical assumptions.
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Studies have shown that in the absence of irrevocable evidence, information will be more readily
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distorted to align with stereotypical assumptions (Nieva & Gutek, 1980). As organizations move
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from mere task evaluation to task and behavioral evaluations, such assumptions have greater
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implications for women employees. Persistent devaluation of performance on the basis of
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subjective evaluation criteria may lead to a loss of valence for the outcomes associated with such
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evaluations.
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Effectiveness
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Women have been shown to manage and lead through a more democratic and communal
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leadership style than men (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). This has been commonly attributed to sex-
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role socialization. As has been discussed, women managers who adopt masculine styles
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successfully are found to be more negatively evaluated than feminine, successful women
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(Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs & Tamkins, 2004). Yet, women are required to display agentic
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qualities in order to be considered suitable for positions of greater responsibility. In order to
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manage this dissonance, women are forced to adopt a conciliatory management style in order to
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maintain harmony in the work group and also a task orientation in order to be considered
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effective (Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989; Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992). Despite this, it was
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found that women in masculine roles were found less effective than their male counterparts
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(Eagly, Karau & Makhijani, 1995; Oakley, 2000). Further, jobs in organizations are becoming
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more inter-dependent, with implications for personal resourcefulness. Women have been found
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to be lacking in networking abilities (Van Emmerik, 2006) which could be inferred as inability to
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perform interdependent tasks effectively. Several studies have shown that women build relational
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networks rather than instrumental (Ibarra, 1992; 1993; Burke, Bristor & Rothstein, 1995). Such
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apparent difficulties of women have been stereotyped as their inability to be resourceful and
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hence effective in the organizational context.
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Commitment
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Given the biological and attending psychological characteristics of women, it is
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inevitable that child-bearing and rearing will form a large part of the life aspirations of a majority
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of women. Or at least that is a popular perception residing at the core of stereotypical
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assumptions about women. Perhaps a more subliminal basis of this assumption is the need for
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men to propagate their race (Sidanius & Veniegas, 2000). The proportion of working women has
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been consistently increasing yet the impending transition to this role is at the root of the
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stereotypical assumption that women do not have a long-term commitment to their careers. A
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corollary to this assumption is that even if commitment to the career is intact, it will still be
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secondary to the commitment to family. This greatly harms the probability of success for those
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women who are both high on potential and commitment to their careers (Jerdee & Rosen, 1976).
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The direction of research thus far has been to describe the systemic shortcomings that
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have constrained women from achieving success in organizations. Systemic shortcomings have
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by definition originated in the ‘other’: males dominating the organization and the systems in
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organization, which are created for the males in the organization. While this perspective has been
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deeply explored and several measures taken to counter it, by way of legislation and activism to
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increase the number of women in organizations; very little has been done to explore the other
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side of the situation, namely the role of women in the situation. Therefore, it is essential to
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recognize that while systemic shortcomings persist, women can also acknowledge their role in
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the creation and propagation of stereotypes. Such acknowledgement will create the space for
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women to participate in transforming the organizational landscape to better suit the changing
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demographics of women.
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Role of women in the perpetuation of sex-stereotyping
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Stereotypes are shared perceptions of characteristics common to a group (Tajfel &
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Forgas, 2000). Inferences about people from behaviors to traits underlie development and
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maintenance of stereotypes (Gawronski, 2003). By definition, stereotypes are perceptions and as
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such the perceived also has a role in the creation of stereotypes (Stangor & Schaller, 2000).
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Therefore, if there are certain stereotypical assumptions made about women, such have a basis in
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observed behavior of women. Women in organizations have been found to be uncomfortable at
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initiating negotiations (Walters, Stulmacher & Meyer, 1998; Small, Gelfand, Babcock &
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Gettman, 2007) and directing action (Eagly, Karau & Makhijani, 1995). Women have been
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found to hesitant to apply their expertise, relying on relational influences to lead and direct
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(Eagly & Johnson, 1990). The inability of women to leverage networks and collegial relations
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has also been a significant contributor to the persistence of the stereotype that women are not
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resourceful (Bierema, 2005). Perhaps the greatest yet rather subtle reason that men have been
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able to penalize counter-stereotypic behavior has been the perception of lack of confidence
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among women in their ability and suitability (Eagly & Johnson, 1990, Hopkins, O’Neil &
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Bilimoria, 2006).
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While such self-effacing qualities may be advantageous to them in other arenas, in
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organizations they lead to self-propagating cycles of low-confidence, lack of progress and
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resignation to status quo (Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989). Women who do have the confidence in
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their ability may be constrained by other factors such as geographical restrictions and economic
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needs. Therefore women operate under two types of constraints: their professional identity and
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social identity. Yet women have managed these dual roles successfully for over four decades at
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least. Despite this, they continue to face barriers on these bases. One of the reasons for this could
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be that they have been successful because they were successful at hiding how they managed the
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dual roles (Singh, Kumra & Vinnicombe, 2002). They have managed to portray the most
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appropriate images at each level and overcome barriers of perception. This absence of
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communication has resulted in the mutation of the organizational woman into the organizational
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man, rather than a celebration of the organizational woman. While this may have been a
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successful strategy for token women, as numbers increase it is becoming imperative that the
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mould of the organizational woman be created. A significant task in this endeavor is a recast of
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stereotypes about women in organizations.
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In order to create a more egalitarian environment, where women do not have to suffer
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negative consequences no matter what they do (Eagly, 2007), they need to take greater control of
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the perceptions projected upon them. Women have to consistently monitor the interaction
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between their professional-role and sex-role identities to avoid perceptual biases. Impression
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management is one such avenue of creating definitions of role-identities and interactions within
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the contextual framework of organizations.
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In the introduction, I advanced the idea that women who seek career advancement may
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be able to reduce the negative effects of sex-stereotyping using impression management. I also
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proposed that while the popular understanding of impression management is falsification; there
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is another aspect to impression management that has hitherto not been explored in the context of
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stereotype management in organizations. The next section presents my perspective on impression
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management, which is both positive and transformative. The last section will elaborate on the
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model of transformation of stereotypes as applied in the context of women seeking career
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advancement in organizations.
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IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
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Impression management is the array of behavior – verbal and non-verbal, used to control
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information, to influence the perception of others about us and their behavior towards us
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(Rosenfeld, Giacalone & Riordan, 1995). As such impression management is a composite of
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both “what” and “how” (Goffman, 1959) e.g. a handshake itself conveys adherence to the social
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norms of greeting and the quality of the handshake is perceived as an indicator of the quality of
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the person.
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and synchronized to convey a consistent image (Tedeschi, Bonoma & Schlenker, 1972;
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Tedeschi, 1981). The process by which one consciously and deliberately manages this interaction
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in order to project the pertinent self is called impression management (Schlenker, 1980).
Communicating an impression requires that both layers of behavior be controlled
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Impression management is composed of two parts: impression motivation and
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construction (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). The motivation to manage the impressions one creates is
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based on the salience of projecting certain impressions of oneself, expectancy of success at
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attaining the desired outcomes, and perceived distance between desired and current image
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(Schlenker, 1980; Leary & Kowalski, 1990; Singh & Vinnicombe, 2001; Roberts, 2005). This is
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particularly relevant for women in organizations as correcting stereotypical assumptions will
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have an impact on outcomes distorted by their application. The impression of a professional is
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not restricted to one incident or audience, it a stable impression across situations and audiences
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in one context, the organization (Tedeschi & Melburg, 1984; Wayne & Liden, 1995; Roberts,
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2005). Therefore, creating and maintaining a professional image is an exercise in projection as
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represented in Figure 1.
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Insert Figure 1 about here
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Strategic self-presentation is a pattern of self-presentation intended to maximize approval
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and minimize disapproval (Doherty & Schlenker, 1991). For women in organizations, this would
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mean enhancing those attributes that contribute to their success. At the same time, it is also
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important that such attribution is not clouded over by the qualities that make them successful
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professionals. This is an important distinction, as this is often used as a basis for sex-stereotyping
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(Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1993). A woman who attains success in a business project, who
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tends to portray her relational qualities in success rather than expertise or effort, is creating space
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for misattribution of the source of her success. Therefore, strategic self-presentation is focusing
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on those professional qualities that contributed to her success. This is different from self-
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enhancement behavior such as praising oneself or boasting about one’s accomplishments.
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Strategic self-presentation is a shift in focus from the attributes that would get attention such as
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being lucky or being able to get help based on relational equations to professional expertise
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applied to the problem at hand. Focusing on the “professional” attributes that contributed to their
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success such as expertise and influence in the organization will enable them to counter the
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barrier of misattribution.
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Particularly for the organizational woman, it is important to manage the perception of her
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actions such that they are attributed to the correct bases ability and expertise in the professional
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function, rather than those directed by stereotypes such as communality and supplication.
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Consequently, it is reasonable to believe that women in organizations who manage the
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impressions they convey, such that the focus is success and not the “woman” behind the success,
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are perceived as more congruent to the stereotype of a successful professional than those who do
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not.
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MEANS OF IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
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Women have been found to be averse to using impression management tactics (Singh &
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Vinnicombe, 2001; Guadagno & Cialdini, 2007), probably based on the characteristics of artifice
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and deviousness associated with it. Taking such aversion into account, I suggest three impression
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management methods that can be considered compliant with the self-concept of women which
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also promote their image as professionals rather than female professionals. The three methods
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are exemplification, ingratiation and demonstration. Exemplification and ingratiation are
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maneuvers defined by Jones and Pittman (1982) and demonstrative impression management was
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discussed by Bolino et. al. (2008) as other-focused impression management tactics. Women tend
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to prefer protective methods of impression management to acquisitive; even the acquisitive
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methods they engage in tend to be defensive rather than directive (See Guadagno & Cialdini,
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2007 for review). Therefore, the methods I have focused on are other-focused but directive so
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that they may be more acceptable than using methods that call for a radical change of mindset.
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Methods as I refer to them are commonly called impression management tactics. Because
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I believe that they are stable and continual processes of impression creation and reinforcement, I
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offer them as positive behavioral methods rather than as Machiavellian attempts to deceive. It is
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also my hope that the examples I provide in the next section will not be taken as prescriptions of
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behavior. My intention is to offer them as illustrations, as methods lend themselves to adaptation.
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Recognizing that it is ridiculous to propose that all women behave alike, I offer a theory of
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behavior and hope that women may adapt it to their own aspirations and self-identities to create
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an image that resonates with what they wish to accomplish. The next section clarifies the
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impression management methods that can work towards reducing negative sex-role stereotypes
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attached to women in organizations.
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Exemplification
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Exemplification is defined by Jones and Pittman (1982) as demonstrating exemplary
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behavior through integrity and self-sacrifice, that is worthy of being emulated by others.
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Volunteering for tough assignments and going beyond the call of duty are some of the behaviors
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associated with exemplification. Exemplification also overlaps with the concept of altruism in
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the literature on organizational citizenship behavior (Bolino, 1999). Altruism and exemplary
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behavior have a gendered construction given their strong correspondence with the idea of
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communality. In OCB literature, altruism is found to not reap as great rewards for women as for
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men due to the expectancy of communality among women (Kidder & Parks, 2001). Similarly,
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unless positioned strategically as befitting the notion of impression management, exemplary
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behavior can be misconstrued as either stereotypical of women or invite backlash for being
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martyr-like behavior (Harris, Kacmar, Zivnuska & Shaw, 2007). Therefore, women need to
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redefine exemplification to meet their needs of highlighting altruistic behavior while ensuring
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that it is not attributed to communality.
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The fact that it was beyond the call of duty or involved sacrifice should be brought into
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focus such that there is some degree of reciprocity attached to it. Women are said to lack
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commitment to their careers because they do not stay in office longer and build network ties with
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their colleagues. While, staying long hours at work and creating social ties with colleagues are
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seen as necessities for career advancement (Moore, 1990), women can take advantage of their
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exemplary behavior to build the same networks by not conceding that such behavior is an
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attribute of their gender. Exemplary behavior should be used to highlight their commitment to
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their career as opposed to building merely relational networks. Women should also ensure that
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exemplary behavior is construed as effort expended towards career progress and not just creating
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impressions of favorability, as they have generally been wont to do (Lewis & Neighbors, 2005).
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Ingratiation
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Doing favors for others to be liked is the definition of ingratiation. According to
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impression management research, ingratiation is a precursor to achievement of a self-serving
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motive (Jones & Pittman, 1982). Therefore, ingratiation in its completeness could be defined as
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doing favors for others, to be liked, in order that such favors can be reciprocated by others. This
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fact, when supplemented by the other fact that almost no organizational function can be
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accomplished by one person in isolation of other members of the organizations, renders
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ingratiation a necessity. Effectiveness is a notion that gains credibility only when shared by a
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supervisor and subordinates, if any. Hence, ingratiation is an integral component of effectiveness
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perceptions (Eagly, Karau & Makhijani, 1995).
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However, as with any other impression management method, ingratiation bears with it
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the risk of misinterpretation if not conveyed strategically. Particularly, in the case of women,
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ingratiation can be easily misconstrued as supplication. In order to avoid such misunderstanding,
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ingratiation can be conveyed by ways other than doing favors. They can take the form of
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genuinely extending a helping hand, without sacrificing self-interest, based on a promise of
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reciprocity. It can take the form of building professional friendship based on mutual professional
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goals. Providing confirmation of a colleague’s output in front of a supervisor when necessary can
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also be conveyed as ingratiation, when such action is conveyed to the colleague in question.
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Building such credits will ensure that examples of one’s effectiveness are supported and
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supplemented. Supervisors tend to rate women who are liked by their colleagues more favorably
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regardless of actual performance. Colleagues support female colleagues who are effective and
377
supportive, rather than just effective. Communality in women can be thus played to their own
378
advantage rather than being a barrier to advancement. This can be achieved by managing the
379
impression of being communal with that of being effective, to project the image of effectiveness
380
to a wider audience.
381
Demonstration
382
Though not a widely studied means of impression management, it is relevant to the
383
problem of mitigating sex-stereotyping, as it refers to a demonstration of knowledge about the
384
organization. Having established their trustworthiness through exemplification and ingratiation
385
methods discussed above, women can create a new image of themselves as holders of
386
information. Research shows men to be strategic and women to be communal (See Eagly and
387
Wood, 1991 for a review). However, the communality of women can be pursued to their
388
advantage, in creating channels of information from disparate sources. Women who are able to
389
tap their social networks both within and outside their organization for information will be able
Page 18 of 34
390
to gain positions of strength. Demonstration of an ability to not just collect information but use it
391
strategically to inform supervisor’s and team’s decisions will improve their professional image
392
and credibility in the team. Such an improvement can lead directly to creating impression of
393
ability that has eluded women thus far (Lyness & Thompson, 1997).
394
Above I have depicted a few scenarios in which impression management can be put to
395
use to create context-appropriate perceptions. As roles change and the resource-available varies
396
correspondingly, more strategies also become available. With the passage of time, I anticipate
397
that a stereotype that is accurate today may become invalid. Neither stereotypes nor society are
398
static entities, therefore it is important to understand the bases of my propositions regarding the
399
role of impression management in social reconfiguration.
400
Having elaborated on a few means of impression management, I feel that it is important
401
to reiterate one of the biggest advantages of impression management: it allows for individualistic
402
application. There is no prototype of the right impression or the right way of managing
403
impressions. It is however possible to engage in circumspection in the manner of self-
404
presentation so that irrelevant information and behaviors do not overshadow relevant
405
contribution. Consequently, women in organizations should see that it is not necessary for them
406
to portray one specific kind of behavior to be perceived as professionals; just as not all successful
407
men in organizations are aggressive or ambitious. One of the significant outcomes of such a
408
realization will be the individual adaptation of impression management methods by women
409
regardless of the level or function they occupy in organizations. It is hoped that by portraying the
410
image of eligibility for success, such women will pave the way for future generations of women
411
to be perceived not from the lens of stereotypes of women in general but that of qualified women
412
capable of success. Therefore, my model is based on the belief that not only can professional
Page 19 of 34
413
women change the stereotypes applied to them individually but through persistence, they can
414
also change the stereotypes about professional women as a collective image in society. Such a
415
transformation of stereotypes should contribute towards supplementing legal measures taken to
416
mitigate the effects of sex-stereotyping in organizations.
417
A MODEL OF STEREOTYPE TRANSFORMATION THROUGH IMPRESSION
418
MANAGEMENT
419
The premise of my model is that individual women practicing impression management to
420
create individual impressions of successful professional will contribute to the creation of the new
421
stereotype of a successful professional. This step of transforming individual impression into a
422
collective perception regarding the collective of women in organizations will be achieved
423
through the process of reflexivity. The theoretical foundation of my model of stereotype
424
transformation and elaboration of the model is presented in the next section.
425
Reflexivity
426
If one considers an organization is a microcosm of society, then the concept of reflexivity
427
as advanced by Giddens (1984) in his theory of structuration provides a means by which
428
individual action, when performed by sufficient numbers of individuals can result in
429
transformation of norms.
430
According to structuration theory there is a recursive relationship between social
431
structures and individuals. This phenomenon is termed reflexivity. Reflexivity is the means
432
through with individuals and groups interact recursively to create norms and structures within the
433
societal framework. In this way “rationalizations of actions [are] chronically involved in the
434
structuration of social practices” (Giddens, 1984: 26), are perpetuating social systems by the
Page 20 of 34
435
production and reproduction of action in the enactment of everyday social life. It was his belief
436
that it is not only social structures that act on individuals but individual actions influence the
437
creation of social structures. Taking social identity enactment and structuration in conjunction, it
438
can be reasonably ventured that the manner in which social identities are enacted can influence
439
the stereotypes that prevail in society. Hence, enacting social identities strategically with the
440
intent of creating a stereotype that is more resonant with reality can be instrumental in the
441
transformation of stereotypes. Hence I advance the proposition that impression management,
442
practiced by a sub-group of sufficient numbers will result in a transformation of the stereotypes
443
attributed to them, through the process of reflexivity.
444
Model of change for mitigating the effects of sex-stereotyping
445
Transformation of stereotypes, even within a smaller structure such as an organization is
446
a function of time and participants. The model of transformation of stereotypes also has certain
447
boundary conditions: consistency, and authenticity. In brief, assuming that individual women
448
approach interactions in the organizations through the framework of impression management,
449
both authentically and consistently; over time, if enough number of women participate, there will
450
be a transformation in the stereotype of women in an organization. The objective towards which
451
this model is geared is a change in organizational norms such that they correspond with systemic
452
efforts like equal opportunity, pay and growth (See Figure 2).
453
Insert Figure 2 about here
454
455
There are four parts to the model: existing sex stereotypes, impression management,
456
effects of impression management on existing stereotypes and expected outcome from
Page 21 of 34
457
impression management. A basic operationalization of the model is that when impression
458
management acts on existing sex stereotypes, it could result in either maintenance or change in
459
stereotype. A change in stereotype should ultimately lead to a change in organizational norms of
460
behavior towards professional women.
461
To begin with, stereotypes may be either strongly or weakly held by individuals.
462
Stereotypes that are more deeply entrenched are naturally correspondingly more resistant to
463
change efforts. On the other hand, stereotypes that are not very strongly believed in are open to
464
transformation upon receiving disconfirming evidence (Stangor & Schaller, 2000). Strong
465
stereotypes however offer a greater challenge in terms of transformation. Greater consistency
466
and persistence will be required to being about a change in strongly held stereotypes as
467
compared to weaker stereotypes.
468
Impression management will provide a direct avenue for weak existing stereotypes to be
469
transformed into a new and more resonant stereotype of professional women. Women who
470
encounter strong stereotypes that are deeply etched in the mental schema of the perceiver will
471
have to exert greater effort in persisting with consistent impression management.
472
The expected effect of impression management is a change in the perceptions of
473
professional capability of individual women who practice impression management. Practiced
474
consistently, impression management should allay the application of stereotypes to such
475
individual women, thereby modifying existing stereotypes to those that are more representative.
476
This is the effect that is expected in individuals through dyadic interactions. At the group level –
477
work group or organization, this model will hold well only if the majority of women in the group
478
project impressions that are contextually appropriate. It is my belief that the advantages
Page 22 of 34
479
perceived by the individual women will create the traction necessary to change the stereotype
480
itself, without the necessity of any concerted action.
481
Outcomes subsequent to transformation of stereotypes are a change on the norms of
482
organizational behavior such as recruitment, evaluation and consequently career advancement.
483
An organization in which women are perceived more as professionals than as women
484
professionals will bring a greater degree of fairness to evaluation of female candidates during
485
recruitment. Stereotypes that are more congruous with the capabilities of professional women
486
will lead to dispassionate appraisal of their performance and outcomes consequent to such
487
processes.
488
The model is relevant to the individual woman in the organization by providing an
489
opportunity to every individual woman to alleviate the application of existing wrongful
490
stereotypes to her through the use of impression management. I also believe that given sufficient
491
number of women practicing impression management, the existing stereotypes of women will
492
undergo a transformation to a stereotype that resonates more accurately with the true image of
493
women in organizations.
494
RELUCTANCE TO USE IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
495
Women, it has been found, are averse to the conscious use of impression management
496
tactics. This is despite knowing that their male counterparts benefit disproportionately by
497
engaging in impression management (Singh, Kumar & Vinnicombe, 2002). In another study,
498
Singh & Vinnicombe (2001) showed that women begin to engage in impression management
499
more as they progress in their careers. It is evidence of the importance of impressions in
500
organizations. But, by waiting too long to engage in it, women have to not only counter the
Page 23 of 34
501
impressions of others but also overcome their own previous experiences. It is an indicator of the
502
importance of embracing the advantage of impression management early in their careers.
503
Reluctance to engage in impression management arises from the socialization, value
504
systems and ironically, its stereotypical association with men (Rudman, 1998). The nomenclature
505
of impression management tactics viz., self-promotion, supplication or intimidation also
506
contributes, probably in an indirect psychological way to the negativity image of impression
507
management. This does not deter from the fact that such behaviors are engaged in unconsciously
508
in the daily business of life: the merchant who promotes himself, the customer who tries
509
ingratiation to get a better deal, claims of entitlement made to relatives and friends and
510
attempting exemplification to influence the behavior of children. The imperative is to understand
511
that in a situation that is unfairly disadvantageous, it is a responsibility and a right to protect
512
one’s self-concept by amplifying the appropriate image against the incorrect stereotype.
513
Impression management behaviors enacted towards those from whom one does not stand
514
to gain materially may be perceived as justifiable because the outcomes are either insubstantial
515
as with bargaining or linked to emotional objectives, which make them less mercenary.
516
Organizational outcomes being directly material or linked to material outcomes make impression
517
management in the organizational context seem mercenary. However, the fact is that impressions
518
are managed in organizations on a daily basis, sub-consciously. Employees project themselves as
519
social, professional, collegial and informed. Sometimes, this is done despite not being so in
520
reality at that particular point in time, in order to project the appropriate image of the self in the
521
eyes of pertinent others. Therefore, women need to appreciate the principle on which impression
522
management is enacted and overcome their reluctance to use it appropriately to balance the
523
disadvantage created by erroneous stereotypes.
Page 24 of 34
524
PITFALLS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
525
Impression management tactics usually fail in two circumstances: when they are not
526
based on authentic information and when they are used prematurely. Information that cannot be
527
confirmed by behavior leads to not only the information being discredited but also the source.
528
Premature build-up can be dangerous as it becomes contingent on actualization of the claim.
529
Therefore authenticity and credibility should be the yardstick by which any impression
530
management strategy is evaluated.
531
Keeping the objective of impression management as a tool to improve one’s image is the
532
key to being successful in creating the right impressions. The ability to control reactions in
533
situations where its effect may not be apparent sometimes also works towards making the right
534
impression. This is especially true for women as it works towards negating the stereotype of
535
‘emotional’ women. Using impression management tactics to claim victories when used by
536
women, especially in period of time before the desired identity has been created, usually brings
537
about negative consequences. Both team members and supervisors will view such behavior as
538
typical of the ‘tyrannical’ woman whose aim is to derogate her male co-workers. It is important
539
to choose one’s battles because discretion is the better part of valor.
540
It is paramount to remember that the position at stake is not that of women as relative to
541
men but of women as an independent social category. The imperative is creating positive
542
associations with the identity group of working women. Therefore, behavior that seems to be
543
about concern for the collective ego of male co-workers is really about diminishing the
544
interference of the said male ego in their perception of female co-workers. Therefore, self-
Page 25 of 34
545
confidence, self-awareness and self-control need to be exercised in order for women to create an
546
environment in which the interference of sex-stereotypes is minimal.
547
CONCLUSION
548
Sex-stereotypes affect women because they are more often than not antithetical to their
549
role as working women. It is in the interest of women to control the behavior of others,
550
particularly in response to their own conduct. This control can be achieved by influencing the
551
definition of the situation by pertinent others. Influencing such definitions means expressing
552
oneself in such a way that the impression they receive will lead them to voluntarily act in
553
consonance with one’s objectives (Goffman, 1959). Impression management is a powerful tool,
554
which if utilized with discretion and skill, can lead to ameliorating the negative consequences of
555
sex-stereotyping in organizations. Though wrongly discredited as deceitful, impression
556
management is merely a strategic representation of the self in its true state, in order to control the
557
communication and consequences of one’s actions. Impression management can be used to great
558
effect in amplifying those behaviors that otherwise get lost in communication due to the strength
559
of stereotypes in the mental framework of the target.
560
Successful impression management has consequences beyond merely alleviating the ill-
561
effects of stereotyping. Like self-fulfilling prophecies, authentic impressions, credibly conveyed
562
can result in enhancing the qualities on which such impressions are based. Therefore, a woman
563
able to successfully convey her competence finds herself exercising such competence in a variety
564
of situations, which she may not otherwise have risked.
565
Stereotypes, though often used indiscriminately, are also important tools of social
566
interaction. It is impossible to conceive of a complex society operating without the use of
Page 26 of 34
567
stereotypes. Therefore, transformation of a stereotype is essentially modifying an existing
568
stereotype to resonate better with existing realities. An existing reality is that women invest a
569
great deal of resources in acquiring and demonstrating professional capabilities and as such
570
deserve commensurate rewards.
Page 27 of 34
Figure 1: Modes of self-presentation
Social context
Social
identity
Organizational
context
Professional
identity
Personal
identity
Personal context
Non-Strategic self-presentation
Strategic self-presentation
Page 28 of 34
Figure 2: Model of change in organizational norms through impression management
Existing
stereotype
Transformed
stereotype
Impression
Management
Change in
organizational
norms
Strength of
stereotype
Page 29 of 34
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