ANIMAL BEHAVIOR CHAPTER 13
LECTURE NOTES (4 APPROACHES TO ANIMAL BEHAVIOR, PROXIMATE AND
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ULTIMATE CAUSES, ANTHROPOMORPHISM, DEVELOPMENT OF
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BEHAVIOR, AND LEARNING)
4 APPROACHES TO ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
1. Comparative psychology - emphasize studies of the genetic, neural, and hormonal
basis of animal behavior/ studies in both labs and in the field that relate to animal
learning and to the development of behavior/ interested in how animals receive
information, and the processes and nature of the behavior patterns constituting the
animals’ responses to their surroundings
2. Ethology (depicting character) - study of animal behavior that focuses on evolution
and the natural environment/ observe the behavior of animals in their natural
environment/ study the behavior of closely related species to consider the evolution
and origin of certain behavior patterns/ interested in animal communication, mating
behavior, and social behavior
3. Behavioral ecology - ecological aspects of animal behavior/ interested in predatorprey interactions, foraging strategies, reproductive strategies, habitat selection,
intraspecific and interspecific competition, and social behavior
4. Sociobiology - study of the evolution of social behavior/ combines ethology and
behavioral ecology/ emphasize the importance of natural selection on individuals
living in groups
PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE CAUSES
Think “why do animals do what they do”
Proximate cause of behavior - (immediate cause of behavior) ecological and
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physiological causes of behavior/ eating !to satisfy hunger
Ultimate cause of behavior - (deeper cause of behavior) occurs on the evolutionary time
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scale/ courtship ritual attracts a mate and also increases the likelihood of passing
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genetic information to the next generation
ANTHROPOMORPHISM
(Anthropos means man, morphe means form)
Application of human characteristics to anything not human
Example of the worm on the hook:
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Does the fishhook hurt the worm (causing pain)?
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Or does the hook stimulate receptors that generate nerve impulses on the neural
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circuit that stimulates the muscles to wriggle (to escape from the hook)?
“feeling” pain or “hurting” are descriptive words based on human experience and
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conscious awareness
When observing animal behavior, you must be objective instead of projecting human
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experience onto the animal itself
DEVELOPMENT OF BEHAVIOR
Normal behavior patterns require the genes that code for the formation of the structures
and organs involved in the behavior
Ex: Normal vertebrate motion will not occur without the development of limbs - also
requires interaction with the environment (proper nutrition and water balance)
-Maturation - performance of the behavior pattern improves as parts of the nervous
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system and other structures complete development/ Ex: tadpole tails moving
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before they hatch (swimming movement improves due to maturation, not
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practicing swimming)
-Instinct/ Learning Interactions - both are very important in animal behavior/ interaction
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of inherited (instinctive) and learned components shape behavior patterns/ Ex 1:
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young bobcats raised in isolation only attacked a white rat placed with them
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when it ran (predator-prey instinct), but rapidly killed it after some experience/
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learning refines inherited components of this behavior/ in the wild, the experience
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comes from playing with litter mates/ Ex: 2: nutcracking behavior of squirrels !
inexperienced squirrels gnaw randomly on nuts, experienced squirrels gnaw a
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furrow on the broad side and crack it open with lower incisors
-Imprinting - young animal develops an attachment toward another animal or object
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during a critical period immediately after birth or hatching/ IRREVERSIBLE/ rapid
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learning process that occurs without reinforcement/ Ex: Lorenz and his geese !
critical period for imprinting is 13-16 hours, imprinting allows young to identify
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with or recognize parents, can be led to nesting or to the water, imprinting relies
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on visual and audial cues
LEARNING
Produces changes in individual behavior that is due to experience/ Adaptive behavior
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that allows an animal to respond quickly to a changing environment/ with
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learning, behavioral choices are increased/ ability to learn may correlate with the
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predictability of characteristics of its environment/ if changes in the habitat occur
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regularly (predictably), animal may respond to a stimulus with an unmodified
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instinctive behavior (learning may not be beneficial)/ if the environment changes
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unpredictably and can’t be anticipated, the animal may modify its behavior
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through learning (experience)/ adaptive because the animal improves its ability to
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respond to similar environmental changes that come later
-Habituation - simplest and most common/ involves a warning or decrease in response
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to repeated or continuous stimulation/ animal learns not to respond to stimuli in
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its environment that are constant and probably unimportant/ animal conserves
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energy and time for more important functions/ Ex 1: scarecrows in a field don’t
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last for long :)/ Ex: 2: city squirrels adjust to human and car movements/ withhold
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the stimulus and the response returns quickly/ does not involve any conditioning/
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habituation is believed to be controlled by the CNS (central nervous system)
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NOT by sensory adaptation (repeated stimulation of receptors until they stop
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responding as seen in olfactory sensed odors)
-Classical Conditioning - documented by Pavlov in his experiment of the salivary reflex
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in dogs/ sound the bell, give food...dogs began to associate food with the sound
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of the bell... hear the bell, start salivating... food was a POSITIVE reinforcement
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for the behavior/ can also be conditioned using NEGATIVE reinforcement... birds
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learn to avoid certain brightly colored caterpillars because they have a noxious
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taste
-Instrumental Conditioning - (trial and error learning) animal learns by carrying out
searching actions like moving or walking about/ animal finds food while wandering, it
reinforces that behavior/ the animal associates the reward with the behavior... repeat
the association several times... the animal learns that the behavior leads to
reinforcement (food)
-Latent Learning
-Insight Learning