ERD
Global Studies
Welcome
Welcome to the Global Study Program to China, which aims
to provide students the ability to acquire exclusive
knowledge of businesses in a comprehensive fashion within
China’s market, providing insight into the hottest economy in
the world by lectures from Chinese professionals and
experts and interns to different organizations so as to build,
expand their international competencies and increase
exposure and expertise in doing business with China.
The cornerstone of the program revolves around students'
performance in a required international experiences related
to their field of expertise. Students will take a user-oriented
approach to the study of their majors, using ratio analysis,
have opportunity to learn about the competitive strategies of
Chinese multinational institutions and companies, equip
students with an in-depth knowledge and conceptual
frameworks of the global contexts, to improve their analytical
abilities for understanding the behavior of individuals,
groups, and organizations in international competitive
situations; and to develop confidence in skills and leadership
in cross-cultural settings.
It is a great opportunity to meet one of the most fascinating
cultures and travel around an extraordinary nation while
gaining valuable career experience.
China
Student Handbook
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ERD
Easton Resource Development, Inc. (ERD), a
Houston-based educational consulting firm, was
founded in 1997. It has been working with the
governmental, academic and industrial
organizations both from China and USA for
global exchange programs to promote
educational and economic global visions and
cooperation. During the last decade, ERD has
been offering courses, seminars, workshops and
internships designed to provide students with a
better understanding of international business.
These have been offered together with study
trips to China that provide all students and
faculties first hand study of Asian business
practices, leadership, world economy’s, and the
business strategies of leading firms operating
across the globe. The Global study trips are a
component of globalization strategy. These trips
help students keep abreast of the rapidly
changing market conditions in the global
economy in which they will work.
Our mission is to nurture a new generation of
conscientious business leaders capable of
meeting the challenges of today’s global
business. We provide cutting-edge knowledge
and international experience to help
students build confidence and develop their own
visions as leaders over the world.
Table of Contents
Who Is ERD .………………………………….................... 2
Snapshot of China.………………...…..……………...3- 4
Important info numbers …………...…..………………… 4
About China: Comparative Timeline ..……………………5
China Classical Civilization Outline……..………..……6-10
Chinese Cultural Studies …… ……..…… ………… 11-42
China Economy …… ……..………………………….43-51
Chinese Zodiac ………. …… ……..…………………51-57
Chinese Lunar New Year………………………….….58-59
US-China Relations…………………………………. 59-63
China Travel ..…………………………………..………. 63
US Passports Application …..……………………… 64-67
China Visa Application …..………………………… 67-68
Travel Facts…..……………………………………… 68-74
Annotated Bibliography……….………………........75-105
‘People hold the key’ reflects the value of our
school. We pay close attention to the needs of
each student and believe that successful
business also comes from putting people first!
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Snapshot of China
Full Name: The People’s Republic of China
Special administrative regions(2, Hong Kong &
Macao), Total: 34
China National Flag & China National Emblem
Chinese Name: 中国 (zhongguo ), which means
central country or central Kingdom
Location:
In the east of the Asian continent, on the western
shore of the Pacific Ocean
National Anthem:
March of the Volunteers
Government Constitution
Communist party-led state, Political parties: Chinese
Communist Party, 73.1 million members; 8 minor
parties under Communist Party supervision.
Population:
(July 2009 est.): 1,338,612,968.
Landmass:
9.6 million square km, 3rd in the world
Terrain: Plains, deltas, and hills in east; mountains,
high plateaus, deserts in west.
China Administrative Regions
Provinces (23, Taiwan is one province of China)
Autonomous regions (5, Tibet, Xinjiang, Inner
Mongolia, Ningxia & Guangxi); Municipalities
(4,Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin & Chongqing)
China Major Cities:
Capital--Beijing. Other major cities--Shanghai,
Tianjin, Shenyang, Wuhan, Guangzhou, Chongqing,
Harbin, Chengdu.
Ethnic People:
56 ethnic peoples, in which Han people makes up
92% of the total population
China Official Language:
Mandarin (Putonghua), plus many local dialects.
China Religion
Officially atheist; Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Christian
3%-4%, Muslim 1%-2%
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China Currency: Renminbi (RMB in short), symbol: ￥.
Important Info to Know
Official Language: Putonghua (Mandarin)
Economy
GDP (2008): $4.222 trillion (exchange rate-based).
GDP real growth rate (2008): 9.8%.
Climate
China has a continental and seasonal climate. Most
parts are in the temperate zone but southern areas
are in the tropical or subtropical zone while northern
areas are in the frigid zone. Climates in different
areas are complicated.
Education:
Years compulsory--9. Literacy--90.9%
National Day:
October 1 in honor of the founding of the People’s
Republic of China on October 1, 1949
United States Embassy of Beijing, China
No. 55 An Jia Lou Lu , Beijing 100600
Tel: (86-10) 8531-3000
American Citizen Services
Kathryn L. Gelner
Fax: (86-10) 8531-3300
Emergency Contact Number: 8531-4000
E-mail: AmCitBeijing@state.gov
US Consulate General of Shanghai, China
1469 Central Huaihai Road (Huaihai Zhong Lu),
Shanghai, China 200031.
American citizen services
Tel: (86-21) 3217-4650
Fax:(86-21) 6217-2071
E-mail address: ShanghaiACS@state.gov
ERD China Emergency Number
• 011.86.137 2888 4280; 011.86.130 8411 5511
Head of State: President Hu Jintao
National Animal: Giant panda
National Bird: Red ibis
National Flower: Tree peony (unofficially)
Weights & Measures: Metric
Major Trade Partners:
United States, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea,
Taiwan, Germany, United Kingdom
ERD US Emergency Number
• 713 502 6686; 281 236 2087
Travelex Premium Insurance ( Location # 43-0065)
• www.travelexinsurance.com
• PO Box 641070, Omaha, NE 68164-7070
• If you are traveling and need emergency
assistance or advice and currently hold a policy
on one of the above mentioned protection plans,
please call the following numbers for assistance:
•
U.S./Canada (toll-free):
1-866-930-9806
Outside U.S./Canada (collect):
1-603-328-1965
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About China
Chinese Dynasties
Neolithic Period c. 8000-1500 BC
Xia c.2000 - c.1500 BC
Shang 1500-1050 BC
Zhou 1050-221 BC
Western Zhou 1027-771 BC
Eastern Zhou c.770-221 BC
Spring & Autumn Period 770 – 476 BC
Warring States 475-221 BC
Qin 221 – 206 BC
Han 206 BC – AD 220
Period of Disunity AD 220 - 581
Three Kingdoms AD 220 – 280
Western Jin AD 265 – 316
Eastern Jin AD 317 – 420
Northern Dynasties AD 386 – 581
Southern Dynasties AD 420 – 589
Sui AD 581-618
Tang AD 618-907
Period of Disunity
Five Dynasties AD 907-960
Ten Kingdoms AD 907-979
Liao (Khitan) AD 907-1125
Song AD 960-1279
Northern Song (960-1127)
Southern Song (1127-1279)
Western Xia 1038 – 1227
Jin (Jurchen) 1115-1234
Yuan (Mongol) 1271-1368
Ming 1368-1644
Qing (Manchu) 1644-1911
Chinese Republic of China
in Mainland China – 1911-1949
in Taiwan – 1949-Present
People’s Republic of China (PRC) – 1949-Present
Worldwide Events
- Site of Babylon settled by the Sumerians (4000 BC)
- Old Kingdom in Egypt (3100-2160 BC)
- Minoan culture developed in Crete (c.2500 BC)
- Tutankhamen ruled Egypt (c.1348-1340 BC)
- Moses led Jews from Egypt (c.1250 BC)
- Trojan War (1200 BC)
- Rome founded (753 BC)
- The Buddha lived in India (c.563-483 BC)
- The Golden Age of Athens (c.500-350 BC)
- Height of the Roman Empire (100 BC-200 AD)
- Origin of culture in Teotihuacan in Mexico (c.100 BC)
- Jesus Christ lived (c.8-2 BC to 29-36 AD)
- Classical period of the Maya Culture (250-900 AD)
- Gupta dynasty united northern India (c.320 AD)
- Fall of Rome (410 AD)
- Sassanid Empire in Persia (226-651 AD)
- Mohammed, founder of Islam (c.579-632)
- Umayyad Arabs conquered Spain (715)
- The Great Eastern Temple, Todaiji built in Japan (752)
- Baghdad became Abbasid Capital (762)
- Peak of Viking invasions in Europe (c.1000)
- Norman Conquest of England (1066)
- Ottoman Empire begins in Turkey (1071)
- Khmer capital of Angkor Thom built (1181-95)
- Emergence of the Inca culture of Peru (1197)
- Muslim Mamluks conquered Acre (1291)
- Aztecs founded capital Tenochtitlán (1325)
- 100 Years War between England & France (1337)
- The Black Death in Europe (1348-51)
- Constantinople fell to the Ottomans (1553)
- Leonardo da Vinci painted The Last Supper (1495-98)
- Europeans discovered America (1492)
- Hernando Cortés conquered the Aztecs (1519-21)
- American Declaration of Independence (1776)
- Industrial Revolution (late 18th - early 19th century)
- Irish potato famine (1846-47)
- Slavery abolished and Lincoln assassinated (1865)
- World War I began (1914)
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China Classical Civilization Outline:
I. Introduction – longest-lived civilization in history
A. Isolated
• Couldn’t learn from other cultures
• Rare invasions
• Distinctive identity
• Relatively little internal chaos w/ decline of Shang
dynasty
a. Greatest links to classical society
B. Intellectual theory
• Harmony of nature – yin and yang – balance
• Seek Dao – the way
a. Avoid excess
b. Appreciate balance of opposites
c. Humans part of world, not on outside – like
Mediterranean
Thesis: China emerged with an unusually wellintegrated system in which government, philosophy,
economic incentives, the family, and the individual
were intended to blend into a harmonious whole.
II. Patterns in Classical China
A. Pattern of rule
•
Dynasty, family of kings – create strong politics,
economy
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•
•
•
Dynasty grew weak, taxes declined
Social divisions increased
Invasion or internal rebellion
5. Another dynasty emerged – general, invader, peasant
rebel
B. Zhou Dynasty – 1029-258 BCE
• Started decline in 700 BCE
• Ruled w/ local princes – alliance system
o Successful in agricultural communities – i.e.
manor system Europe
o Princes received land for troops/tax
• Eventually local leaders ignored central government
• Contributions
o Extended territory to “Middle Kingdom” –
wheat north, rice south
o Transportation/communication difficult – hard
to govern
o Mandate of Heaven – Sons of Heaven –
emperors live affluent life
o Greater cultural unity
o Banned human sacrifice
o Standardized language – Mandarin – most
people speaking same
o d. Confucius – wrote on political ethics
• 402-201 BCE Era of the Warring States
C. Qin Dynasty – China’s namesake
•
Xin Shi Huangdi – first emperor – brutal leader
o Undid power of regional leaders
o Nobles brought to emperor’s home
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•
•
o Officials selected from non-aristocratic groups –
allegiance
o Extended territory south
o Built Great Wall – 3000 miles
o Burned books, attacked culture – hurts his
autocratic rule
Innovations
o National census – tax and labor service
o Standardized coins, weights, measures
o Uniform written language
o Irrigation projects
o Promoted manufacturing – silk
Downfall – unpopular
o high taxes, attacks on intellectuals
o killed men, punished brutally
o Died in 210 BCE – revolts broke out
D. Han Dynasty – 202 BCE-220 CE
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Kept centralized power of Qin, but reduced repression
Extended borders – opened trade to India,
Mediterranean
Wu Ti – period of peace – like Pax Romana
Advancements
o Formal training
o Supported Confucianism
Shrines built to worship Confucius as god
Invasions – Huns – led to decline
220 – 589 CE China in chaos
III. Political Institutions
A. Strong central government
•
•
Qin stressed unquestioned central authority
Han – expanded bureaucracy
B. Political framework
• Strong local units remained, but power diminished
o Relied on patriarchal families
o Ancestor worship linked families
o Village leaders helped coordinate
farming/harvesting
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Single law code
Universal tax system
Central authority appointments – not based on local
government nominations
Delegation done to emperor’s ministers
C. Huge bureaucracy – 130,000 bureaucrats
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Civil Service tests
Scholar bureaucrat
Not exclusively upper class rule - occasionally lower
class recruited
Rulers often could be controlled by bureaucrats – didn’t
do crazy stuff of Rome
D. Most tightly governed people
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Rules administered by trained scholars
Father unquestioned power – passed down from
ancestors
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•
o Ancestor ceremonies
o Special meals
o Politeness at meals – tea ceremonies/chopsticks
Harsh punishments to put down rebellion
E. Government traditions
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Not heavily militaristic – not huge need
Promoted intellectual life – not Qin
Active in economy
o Organized production of iron/salt
o Han tried storing grain for bad harvests
o Sponsored public works – canals/irrigation
B. Confucius - Analects
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F. Technology made it difficult to control, but…
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Torture and execution used to keep obedience
Taxed
Annual labor
G. Invaders – Huns – couldn’t create better system for
governing – kept bureaucrats
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Political virtue and good government
o Secular views, not religious
Respect for superiors- even if bad
Respect for tradition
Leaders should behave modestly without excess
o Work hard as a leader and lesser people will
serve superiors
o b. “When the ruler does right, all men will
imitate his self-control”
o c. Rulers not just punish – be humble and
sincere
Satisfied upper class distaste for mystery, and interest
in learning/manners
Government used to maintain order
Careful socialization of children
Lacks spiritual side
C. Legalism – pragmatism
IV. Religion and Culture – people not united by religion – no
political threat
A. Religion – relation to politics
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•
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Earthly life/obedience more important than speculating
about God
Harmonious earthly life – prevent excess
Traditions
•
•
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Better government is one that rules by force
Human nature evil – needs restraint
Confucian façade + legalist strong arm tactics
D. Polytheistic beliefs – appealed to peasants
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Spirits of nature
Ancestors
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•
Dragons – fear plus playful respect
E. Daoism – first to upper class who wanted spirituality
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Nature has divine impulse that directs life
Understanding comes from withdrawing and thinking
of “way of nature”
Espoused humility and frugal living
F. Intellectual
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•
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Five Classics – speeches, songs, poems, etiquette,
political materials
o Poetry mark of an educated person
Art form
o Calligraphy
o Chinese artists, pottery, carved jade
o No monumental buildings – except
palaces/Great Wall
No singular religion
Confucianism against temples soaring to heaven
Science – practical work – not imaginative theorizing
o Calculated motion of planets 1500 years before
Copernicus
o Medicine – anatomical research – proper
hygiene for longer life
•
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B. Trade
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•
•
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Ox-drawn plow/collar for animals
Iron mining – pulleys and winding gear
Production methods advanced – water powered mills
Paper invented – needed for bureaucracy
D. Family life – father unquestioned leader
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A. Class – social status passed from one generation to the next
•
Upper class literate, wealth, culture denied peasants
Luxury items – silk, jewelry, leather goods, furniture –
Silk Road
o Carried by merchants
Merchants not important – Confucius prioritized
learning/political service
C. Technological Advance – practical usage – remained
agricultural
V. Economy and Society
•
o Mandarins – educated bureaucrats + landowning
aristocracy
Land owners 2%, peasantry the rest
o “Mean” people – lowest status – like India’s
untouchables
Property owned communally
•
“There are no wrongdoing parents”
o Law courts don’t punish parents
Strict control of emotions
o Home training ground for personality
Women gained power through sons/mother-in-laws to
women brought in
Power to oldest son, boys over girls
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VI. How Chinese Civilization Fits Together – Chinese
wholeness – not a divided society
A. China’s politics and culture meshed readily, especially
around the emergence of a Confucian bureaucracy.”
B. Theme of isolation – surrounded by barbarians – can’t
learn anything from outsiders
• Buddhism – rare foreign concept embraced by
population
F. Precarious balance – sometimes violent
VII. Global connections – Heavy influence on the world
A. 1/5 of population supported by peasants
B. Created technologies shared w/ world
Power – water mill, porcelain (China), paper, compass
C. Common culture provided unity
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Elaborate bureaucracy
Confucianism – trained group w/ common ideals
Appreciation of distinctive art, poetry and literature
Relative political stability
Stable family – clear hierarchy
Private and public not separated – extensions
Views on etiquette
Language
C. Views affected region “Middle Kingdom” basis for most
of Asia
• 2000 year reign
D. Daoists and Confucianists tolerated
•
•
But…Confucianists saw Daoists as superstitious
Sometimes divine attacks on government
E. Justice – tight control - Arrested – presumed guilty –
tortured
•
Mixed torture w/ benevolence – good cop/bad coop
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Chinese
Cultural
Studies:
Concise Political
History of China
after a long civil war, the People's Republic of China, with a
Communist government, was proclaimed. This government
and the ruling Communist party have controlled China ever
since. Although the dynastic system has disappeared, the
People's Republic occupies essentially the same territory and
governs the same people. If anything, the culture and power of
China seem stronger in the late 20th century than at almost
any other period in history. Under the People's Republic,
China's role in world economic and political affairs has grown
increasingly more important.
2. BEGINNINGS AND EARLY HISTORY
Compiled from Compton's Living Encyclopedia on America
Online (August 1995)
1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTINUITY
A significant aspect of China is its long cultural and national
history. The Chinese people have shared a common culture
longer than any other group on Earth. The Chinese writing
system, for example, dates back almost 4,000 years. The
imperial dynastic system of government, which continued for
centuries, was established as early as 221 BC. Although
specific dynasties were overturned, the dynastic system
survived. China was even ruled at times by foreign invaders,
such as the Mongols during the Yuan Dynasty, from AD 1279
to 1368, and the Manchus during the Ch'ing Dynasty, from AD
1644 to 1911, but the foreigners were largely absorbed into
the culture they governed. It is as if the Roman Empire had
lasted from the time of the Caesars to the 20th century, and
during that time had evolved a cultural system and written
language shared by all the peoples of Europe.
The dynastic system was overturned in 1911, and a weak
republican form of government existed until 1949. In that year,
Archaeological evidence suggests that China is one of the
cradles of the human race. The earliest known human in
China, whose fossilized skull was unearthed in Shanxi
Province in 1963, is believed to date back to 600,000 BC. The
remains of Sinanthropus pekinensis, known as Peking Man
and dating back to 400,000 BC, were excavated in 1923 at
Zhoukoudianzhen near Peking. Peking Man was closely
related to Pithecanthropus of Java and lived during the Old
Stone Age. In the upper caves of Zhoukoudianzhen are found
artifacts of a late Old Stone Age man (50,000-35,000 BC), who
ranks in age with the Cro-Magnon of Europe. This was an
early form of Homo sapiens, or modern man, who made tools
out of bones as well as stones, made clothes out of animal
hides, and knew how to make fire.
Around the 4th or 3rd millennium BC, in the New Stone Age,
great changes occurred in the lives of the ancient Chinese.
Larger numbers of people began living together at settled
places, cultivating land, and domesticating animals. These
people made polished stone tools and built shelters in pit
dwellings and beehive huts that were covered with reed roofs.
Such villages were found mostly in the area of the great bend
of the Huang He on the North China Plain. Despite its severe
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winters, this area was well suited to agriculture. In fact, it
closely resembled the other cradles of ancient civilizations,
such as the valley of the Nile in Egypt.
The people of this period (3000-2000 BC) also developed the
art of making pottery for storing food and drink. Two distinct
types have been discovered: red clay pots with swirling black
designs in the northwest near Yangshao village, and smooth
black pottery in northeast China near Lungshan, a site in
Shandong Province.
3. SHANG DYNASTY
The Chinese had settled in the Huang He, or Yellow River,
valley of northern China by 3000 BC. By then they had pottery,
wheels, farms, and silk, but they had not yet discovered writing
or the uses of metals.
The Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BC) is the first documented
era of ancient China. The highly developed hierarchy
consisted of a king, nobles, commoners, and slaves. The
capital city was Anyang, in north Henan Province. Some
scholars have suggested that travelers from Mesopotamia and
from Southeast Asia brought agricultural methods to China,
which stimulated the growth of ancient Chinese civilization.
The Shang peoples were known for their use of jade, bronze,
horse-drawn chariots, ancestor worship, and highly organized
armies.
Like other ancient peoples, the Chinese developed unique
attributes. Their form of writing, developed by 2000 BC, was a
complex system of picture writing using forms called
ideograms, pictograms, and phonograms. Such early forms of
Chinese became known through the discovery by
archaeologists of oracle bones, which were bones with
writings inscribed on them. They were used for fortune-telling
and record keeping in ancient China.
Bone libraries and others: ancient times. The earliest known
libraries were connected with palaces and temples. In China,
records of the Shang dynasty (1767?-1123? BC) were written
on animal bones and tortoise shells. Among the most
important libraries in the ancient Near East was the palace
library of Ashurbanipal (668?-627? BC) at Nineveh in Assyria.
This early type of national library, collected "for the sake of
distant days," consisted of over 30,000 clay tablets. Early
librarians were usually priests, teachers, or scholars. The first
known Chinese librarian was the philosopher Lao Tse, who
was appointed keeper of the royal historical records for the
Chou rulers about 550 BC.
4. CHOU DYNASTY (1122-221 BC)
The Chou Dynasty (1122-221 BC) saw the full flowering of
ancient civilization in China. During this period the empire was
unified, a middle class arose, and iron was introduced. The
sage Confucius (551-479 BC) developed the code of ethics
that dominated Chinese thought and culture for the next 25
centuries (See Confucius).
The Chou conquest of the Shang was given an important
meaning by later moralistic interpretations of the event. The
Chou kings, whose chief deity was heaven, called themselves
"Sons of Heaven," and their success in overcoming the Shang
was seen as the "mandate of heaven." From this time on,
Chinese rulers were called "Sons of Heaven" and the Chinese
Empire, the "Celestial Empire." The transfer of power from one
dynasty to the next was based on the mandate of heaven.
Chou rule in China continued for nearly nine centuries. During
that time great advances were made. The long period of the
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Chou Dynasty is divided into two sub-periods: Western (Early)
and Eastern (Later) Chou, named for the locations of the
capitals.
Western (Early) Chou (1122-771 BC).
Western Chou territory covered most of the North China Plain.
It was divided into about 200 princely domains. The Chou
political system was similar to the feudal system of medieval
Europe. The Chou people combined hunting and agriculture
for a living. Associating the success or failure of crops with the
disposition of nature, the people prayed to numerous nature
gods for good harvests. One of the ruler's duties was to
placate heaven and Earth for all people. Failure to do so
deprived him of the right to rule. Such beliefs are still widely
held today among the Chinese people. Ancestor worship also
developed during the Chou period and has been important in
East Asia for the last 2,000 years.
The Chou were invaded in 771 BC by a less cultured, more
militaristic people from the northwest. The capital was moved
east to Luoyang. From this point on, the dates are considered
reliable. The manner in which the Western Chou fell followed a
pattern that was repeated throughout Chinese history. People
who led a nomadic, or wandering, life in the northern steppe
land would invade settled agricultural communities to solve
periodic food shortages.
Eastern (Later) Chou (771-221 BC).
The Eastern Chou is also two periods. The first is Ch'un Ch'iu,
the Spring and Autumn period (771-481 BC), named for a
book credited to Confucius. The second is Chan-Kuo, the
Warring States period (481-221 BC).
In the Spring and Autumn period, iron replaced bronze for
tools and weapons. The use of iron led to an increase in
agricultural output, growth of the population, and warfare
among the states. By the 4th century BC the number of states
had shrunk to seven. In 256 BC the princes of those states
assumed the title of king, stopped paying homage to the Chou
king, and continued to fight for supremacy. The strongest of
the seven states was Ch'in.
The disruption caused by this prolonged warfare had a number
of long-range consequences. One was the rise of a new social
group, the scholars (shi). They were forerunners of the
scholar-officials of the Chinese Empire, who became the most
influential group in China. In the Later Chou period, however,
they were a relatively small group of learned people. Often
wandering from state to state in search of permanent
employment, the shi worked as tutors to the children of feudal
princes and as advisers to various state governments. The
most famous of these scholarly shi was Confucius.
5. CH'IN EMPIRE (221-206 BC)
The conflict between the nomads and settled farmers was a
continuing feature of Chinese history. Settled Chinese called
the nomads "barbarians," a term applied to all peoples of nonChinese culture up to the 20th century. The idea developed
that China was the center of the civilized world, hence the
traditional name "Middle Kingdom/Country," referring to China.
After nearly 900 years, the Chou Dynasty came to an end
when the state of Ch'in, the strongest of the seven surviving
states, unified China and established the first empire in 221
BC. The Ch'in empire did not last long, but it left two enduring
legacies: the name China and the idea and structure of the
empire. This heritage outlasted the Ch'in Dynasty itself by
more than 2,000 years. (See Ch'in Dynasty)
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The first Ch'in emperor was called Ch'in Shih Huang Ti. The
title of emperor was used for the first time in Chinese history to
set the Ch'in ruler apart--as the ruler of the unified land--from
the kings, the heads of the earlier, smaller states. The
construction of massive palaces and the ceremony of the court
further enhanced the power of the emperor by inspiring awe in
the people.
A centralized bureaucracy replaced the old feudal system. The
empire was divided into provinces and counties, which were
governed by centrally appointed governors and magistrates.
The former ruling families who had inherited their places in the
aristocracy were uprooted and forced to live in the capital of
Xianyang. Other centralizing policies included census taking
and standardization of the writing system and weights and
measures.
The Ch'in army conducted massive military campaigns to
complete the unification of the empire and expand its territory.
The Ch'in empire stretched from the Mongolian plateau in the
north to Vietnam in the south. As with rulers before and after
him, the first emperor was preoccupied with defending his
territory against northern nomads. After waging several
successful campaigns, the emperor ordered the building of the
wall of "ten thousand li" (a li is a Chinese unit of distance) to
protect the empire. This task involved connecting the separate
walls that were built by former northern states to form the
famous Great Wall. The Ten Thousand Li Wall, as it is known
in China, is 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) long, from 15 to 50
feet (5 to 15 meters) high, and from 15 to 25 feet (5 to 8
meters) wide. Although closely linked with the first ruler of the
Ch'in Empire, the wall as it stands today dates mainly from the
later Ming Dynasty.
Ch'in Shih Huang Ti's harsh rule provoked much opposition.
The emperor feared the scholars most. He had them rounded
up and put them to death or sent them into exile. Many went
into hiding. Moreover, all books, except technical ones, were
confiscated and burned. In the last years of his life, Ch'in Shih
Huang Ti became fearful of threats on his life and lived in
complete secrecy. He also became obsessed with obtaining
immortality. He died in 210 BC in Shandong Province, far from
the capital of Xianyang, during one of his long quests to find
the elixir of life.
The Ch'in empire disintegrated rapidly after the death of the
first emperor. The legitimate heir was killed in a palace
intrigue, and a less able prince was put on the throne.
Conditions worsened throughout the empire. In 209 BC,
rebellions erupted all over China. Two men had the largest
following. Hsiang Yu was a general of aristocratic background;
Liu Pang was a minor official from a peasant family. By 206
BC rebels had subdued the Ch'in army and destroyed the
capital. The struggle between Hsiang Yu and Liu Pang
continued for the next four years, however, until Liu Pang
emerged as the victor in 202 BC. Taking the title of Kao Tsu,
High Progenitor, he established the Han Dynasty.
6. THE HAN EMPIRE (202 BC-AD 220)
The four-century-long Han rule is divided into two periods: the
Earlier or Western Han and the Later or Eastern Han. In
between these two was the short-lived Hsin Dynasty (AD 923).
Earlier (Western) Han (202 BC-AD 9).
The Han Kao Tsu preserved many features of the Ch'in
imperial system, such as the administrative division of the
country and the central bureaucracy. But the Han rulers lifted
the Ch'in ban on philosophical and historical writings. Han Kao
Tsu called for the services of men of talent, not only to restore
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the destroyed classics but to serve as officials in the
government. From that time, the Chinese Empire was
governed by a body of officials theoretically selected on merit.
Such a practice has few parallels elsewhere at this early date
in human history.
rose in rebellion. In AD 17 a rebel group in Shandong painted
their faces red (hence their name, Red Eyebrows) and
adopted religious symbols, a practice later repeated by
peasants who rebelled in times of extreme difficulty. Wang
Mang's force was defeated, and he was killed in AD 23.
In 124 BC, during the reign of Wu Ti (140-87, the Martial
Emperor), an imperial university was set up for the study of
Confucian classics. The university recruited talented students,
and the state supported them. Starting with 50 when the
university first opened, the number of government-supported
students reached 30,000 by the end of the Han Dynasty.
Emperor Wu also established Confucianism as the official
doctrine of the state. This designation lasted until the end of
the Chinese Empire.
Later (Eastern) Han (AD 23-220).
The Early Han faced two major difficulties: invasions by the
barbarian Huns and the influence of the imperial consort
families. In the Han Dynasty, the Huns (known as Hsiung-nu
by the Chinese) threatened the expanding Chinese Empire
from the north. Starting in Wu Ti's reign, costly, almost
century-long campaigns had to be carried out to establish
Chinese sovereignty along the northern and northwestern
borders. Wu Ti also waged aggressive campaigns to
incorporate northern Korea in 108 BC and northern Annam in
111 BC into the Han empire. The Early Han's other difficulty
started soon after the first emperor's death. The widowed
Empress Lu dominated politics and almost succeeded in
taking the throne for her family. Thereafter, families of the
empresses exerted great political influence. In AD 9 Wang
Mang, a nephew of the empress, seized the throne and
founded a new dynasty of Hsin.
Wang Mang's overambitious reform program alienated him
from the landlords. At the same time the peasants,
disappointed with Wang's inability to push through the reform,
The new ruler who restored peace and order was a member of
the house of Han, the original Liu family. His title was Kuang
Wu Ti, "Shining Martial Emperor," from AD 25 to 57. During
the Later Han, which lasted another 200 years, a concerted
but unsuccessful effort was made to restore the glory of the
former Han. The Later Han scored considerable success in
recovering lost territories. Sent to befriend the tribes on the
northwestern frontier in AD 73, a great diplomat-general, Pan
Ch'ao, eventually led an army of 70,000 almost to the borders
of eastern Europe. Pan Ch'ao returned to China in 101 and
brought back information about the Roman Empire. The
Romans also knew about China, but they thought of it only as
the land where silk was produced.
The Later Han period was particularly plagued with evils
caused by eunuchs, castrated males recruited from the lower
classes to serve as bodyguards for the imperial harem.
Coming from uneducated and poor backgrounds, they were
ruthlessly ambitious once they were placed within reach of
power. Toward the end of the Later Han, power struggles
between the eunuchs and the landlord-officials were prolonged
and destructive. Peasant rebellions of the Taoist-leaning
Yellow Turbans in 184 and the Five Pecks of Rice in 190 led to
the rise of generals who massacred over 2,000 eunuchs,
destroyed the capital, and one after another became dictators.
By 207 General Ts'ao emerged as dictator in the north. When
he died in 220 his son removed the powerless emperor and
established the kingdom of Wei. The Eastern Han came to an
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end, and the empire was divided into the three kingdoms of
Wei, Shu Han, and Wu. The pattern of the rise and fall of Han
was to be repeated in later periods. This characteristic came to
be known as the dynastic cycle.
Han culture.
The Chinese show their pride in Han accomplishments by
calling themselves the Han people. Philosophies and
institutions that began in the Chou and Ch'in periods reached
maturity under the Han. During Han times, the Chinese
distinguished themselves in making scientific discoveries,
many of which were not known to Westerners until centuries
later. The Chinese were most advanced in astronomy. They
invented sundials and water clocks, divided the day equally
into ten and then into 12 periods, devised the lunar calendar
that continued to be used until 1912, and recorded sunspots
regularly. In mathematics, the Chinese were the first to use the
place value system, whereby the value of a component of a
number is indicated by its placement. Other innovations were
of a more practical nature: wheelbarrows, locks to control
water levels in streams and canals, and compasses.
The Han Chinese were especially distinguished in the field of
art. The famous sculpture of the "Han flying horse" and the
carving of the jade burial suit found in Han period tombs are
only two superb examples. The technique of making lacquer
ware was also highly developed. The Chinese are proudest of
the tradition of historical writing that began in the Han period.
Ssu-ma Ch'ien (145?-85? BC) was grand historian (an office
that combined the duties of court recorder and astronomer)
during the time of Wu Ti. His `Historical Records', which took
ten years to complete, established the pattern and style
followed by subsequent histories. In the Later Han, the
historical tradition was continued by the Pan family. Pan Piao,
the father, started to bring Ssu-ma Ch'ien's `Records' up to
date. The work was continued by his son Pan Ku (twin brother
of the general Pan Ch'ao) and was completed by his daughter
Pan Chao, China's earliest and most famous woman scholar.
Unlike Ssu-ma Ch'ien, the Pan family limited their work to 230
years of the Early Han. This was the first of the dynastic
histories, subsequently written for every dynasty. Pan Chao
also wrote a highly influential work on the education of women,
`Lessons for Women'. `Lessons' emphasized the "virtues" of
women, which restricted women's activities. The Confucianism
that the Han Dynasty restored differed from the original
teachings of Confucius. The leading Han philosophers, Tung
Chung-shu and others, used principles derived from the early
Chinese philosophy of nature to interpret the ancient texts.
The Chinese philosophy of nature explained the workings of
the universe by the alternating forces of yin and yang--dark
and light--and the five elements: earth, wood, metal, fire, and
water. The Han period was marked by a broad eclecticism.
Many Han emperors favored Taoism, especially the idea of
immortality.
7. THE PERIOD OF DISUNITY (220-581)
After the fall of the Later Han, the Chinese Empire remained
divided for three and a half centuries. The first half-century
began with the domination of the Three Kingdoms: Wei under
the Ts'ao family in the north, Shu Han under Liu Pei in the
southwest, and Wu under Sun Ch'uan in the southeast.
Invaders from the north soon overran the kingdoms and set up
their own states, but the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534),
established by one of the barbarian tribes, the Toba, was the
only one to last. Four dynasties established by the Chinese
ruled in the south during the 4th and 5th centuries. The Three
Kingdoms period was made famous by the novel `Romance of
the Three Kingdoms', which glamorized the period as an age
of chivalry.
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8. THE SUI DYNASTY (581-618).
9. THE T'ANG DYNASTY (618-907).
The prolonged period of disunity finally ended when a general
from the northwest united China by establishing the new
dynasty of Sui. A second great period of imperial unity was
begun. The relationship of the Sui to the succeeding T'ang
Dynasty was much like that of the Ch'in to the Han. It served
as the unifying foundation on which its successor could build.
The first Sui emperor, Wen Ti, introduced a series of economic
reforms, such as reduction of the peasants' taxes, a careful
census for equitable tax collection, and restoration of the equal
allocation system used in the Northern Wei. Every taxable
male received a grant of land, part of which was returnable
when he ceased to be a taxpayer at age 60 and part of which
he could pass on to his heirs. He also revived the Han system
of examinations based on Confucian classics.
The T'ang emperors set up a political system in which the
emperor was supreme and government officials were selected
on the bases of merit and education. The early T'ang rulers
applied the equal allocation system rigorously to bring about a
greater equity in taxation and to insure the flow of taxes to the
government. A census was taken every three years to enforce
the system, which also involved drafting people to do labor.
These measures led to an agricultural surplus and the
development of units of uniform value for the principal
commodities, two of the most important prerequisites for the
growth of commerce and cities.
Sui Wen Ti's premature death might have been caused by his
ambitious son Yang Ti, whose grandiose projects and military
campaigns ultimately led to the Sui's downfall. Some of his
projects were productive, especially the construction of the
Grand Canal, which linked up the Huang, Huai, and Yangtze
rivers and connected north and south China.
Yang Ti's overly ambitious scheme of expanding his empire
led to disastrous wars against Korea. After a series of futile
expeditions, the Chinese army of over a million was defeated
and forced to flee. In 618, Yang Ti was assassinated in an
army coup; one of the coup leaders, Li Shih-min, installed his
father as emperor, founding the T'ang Dynasty. After about a
decade, he was able to secure his father's abdication, and
took the throne himself in 626 as the emperor T'ai Tsung.
The T'ang capital of Chang'an was one of the greatest
commercial and cosmopolitan cities in the world at that time.
Like most capitals of China, Chang'an was composed of three
parts: the palace, the imperial city, and the outer city,
separated from each other by mighty walls.
The T'ang was a period of great imperial expansion, which
reached its greatest height in the first half of the 8th century. At
that time, Chinese control was recognized by people from
Tibet and Central Asia in the west to Mongolia, Manchuria
(now the Northeast region of China), and Korea in the north
and Annam in the south.
The An Lu-shan rebellion.
Most of the T'ang accomplishments were attained during the
first century of the dynasty's rule, through the early part of
Emperor Hsuan Tsung's long reign from 712 to 756. However,
late in his reign he neglected government affairs to indulge in
his love of art and study. This led to the rise of viceroys,
commanders responsible for military and civil affairs in the
regions. An Lu-shan was a powerful viceroy commanding the
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northwest border area. He had both connections at the
imperial court and hidden imperial ambitions. In 755 he rose in
rebellion.
The emperor fled the capital with an ill-equipped army. These
troops soon rebelled and forced the emperor to abdicate in
favor of his son.
The new emperor raised a new army to fight the rebels. An Lushan was assassinated in 757, but the war dragged on until
763. Afterward, the Chinese Empire virtually disintegrated
once again. The provinces remained under the control of
various regional commanders. The dynasty continued to linger
on for another century, but the T'ang empire never fully
recovered the central authority, prosperity, and peace of its
first century.
The most serious problem of the last century of T'ang was the
rise of great landlords who were exempt from taxation. Unable
to pay the exorbitant taxes collected twice a year after the An
Lu-shan rebellion, peasants would place themselves under the
protection of a landlord or become bandits. Peasant uprisings,
beginning with the revolt under the leadership of Huang Ch'ao
in the 870s, left much of central China in ruins.
In 881 Huang Ch'ao's rebels, now numbering over 600,000
people, destroyed the capital, forcing the imperial court to
move east to Luoyang. Another rebel leader founded a new
dynasty, called Later Liang, at Kaifeng in Henan Province in
907, but he was unable to unify all China under his rule. This
second period of disunity lasted only half a century. Once
again, however, China was divided between north and south,
with five dynasties in the north and ten kingdoms in the south.
T'ang culture. Buddhist influence in art, especially in
sculpture, was strong during the T'ang period. Fine examples
of Buddhist sculpture are preserved in rock temples, such as
those at Yongang and Longmen in northwest China. The
invention of printing and improvements in papermaking led to
the printing of a whole set of Buddhist sutras (discourses of
the Buddha) by 868. By the beginning of the 11th century all of
the Confucian classics and the Taoist canon had been printed.
In secular literature, the T'ang is especially well known for
poetry. The great T'ang poets such as Li Po and Tu Fu were
nearly all disillusioned officials.
The T'ang period marked the beginnings of China's early
technological advancement over other civilizations in the fields
of shipbuilding and firearms development. Both reached new
heights in the succeeding dynasty of Sung.
Papermaking; Firearms By the 13th century papermaking
spread throughout Europe. Paper was a Chinese invention. It
had been adopted by the Persians and then by the Arabs, who
brought the art to Europe.
Powder (not gunpowder, because guns were not yet known)
and fireworks rockets were introduced into Europe in the
1200s. They had been invented in China some years earlier.
The earliest mention of firearms is in a Dutch chronicle dated
1313. It states that firearms were invented in Germany. The
first picture of a primitive cannon can be found in an English
manuscript dated 1326.
10. THE SUNG DYNASTY (960-1279)
Over 300 years of Sung history is divided into the two periods
of Northern and Southern Sung. Because of the barbarian
occupation of northern China the second half of the Sung rule
was confined to the area south of the Huai River.
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Northern Sung (960-1126). General Chao K'uang-yin, later
known as Sung T'ai Tsu, was said to have been coerced to
become emperor in order to unify China. Wary of powerhungry commanders, Sung T'ai Tsu made the military into a
national army under his direct control. Under his less capable
successors, however, the military increasingly lost prestige.
Unfortunately for China, the weakening of the military
coincided with the rise of successive strong nomad nations on
the borders.
"new laws" were actually revivals of earlier policies, but
officials and landlords opposed his reforms. When the emperor
and Wang died within a year of each other, the new laws were
withdrawn. For the next several decades, until the fall of the
Northern Sung in 1126, the reformers and anti-reformers
alternated in power, creating havoc and turmoil in government.
In contrast to the military's loss of prestige, the civil service
rose in dignity. The examination system that had been
restored in the Sui and T'ang was elaborated and regularized.
Selection examinations were held every three years at the
district, provincial, and metropolitan levels.
In an effort to regain territory lost to the Khitans, the Sung
sought an alliance with the newly powerful Juchens from
Manchuria. Once the alliance had expelled the Khitans,
however, the Juchens turned on the Sung and occupied the
capital of Kaifeng. The Juchens established the dynasty of
Chin, a name meaning "gold," which lasted from 1115 to 1234,
in the north. They took the emperor and his son prisoner,
along with 3,000 others, and them held in Manchuria.
Only 200 out of thousands of applicants were granted the
jinshi degree, the highest degree, and appointed to
government posts. From this time on, civil servants became
China's most envied elite, replacing the hereditary nobles and
landlords.
Southern Sung (1126-1279). Another imperial son fled south
and settled in 1127 at Hangzhou, where he resumed the Sung
rule as the emperor Kao Tsung. The Sung retained control
south of the Huai River, where they ruled for another one and
a half centuries.
Sung dominion extended over only part of the territories of
earlier Chinese empires. The Khitans controlled the
northeastern territories, and Hsi Hsia (Western Hsia)
controlled the northwestern territories. Unable to recover these
lands, the Sung emperors were compelled to make peace with
the Khitans in 1004 and with the Hsi Hsia in 1044. Massive
payments to the barbarians under the peace terms depleted
the state treasury, caused hardship to taxpaying peasants,
and gave rise to a conflict in the court among advocates of
war, those who favored peace, and reformers.
Although militarily weak and limited in area, the Southern Sung
represented one of China's most brilliant periods of cultural,
commercial, maritime, and technological development. Despite
the loss of the north, trade continued to expand, enabling a
commercial revolution to take place in the 13th century. Cut off
from the traditional overland trade routes, Sung merchants
turned to the ocean with the aid of such improvements as
compasses and huge oceangoing ships called junks. The
development of a paper money economy stimulated
commercial growth and kept it going.
In 1069 Emperor Shen Tsung appointed Wang An-shih as
chief minister. Wang proposed a number of sweeping reforms
based on the classical text of the `Rites of Chou'. Many of his
End of the Southern Sung. While the Sung ruling class and
the imperial court indulged themselves in art and luxurious
living in the urban centers, the latest nomad empire arose in
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the north. The formidable Mongol armies, conquerors of
Eurasia as far west as eastern Europe and of Korea in the
east, descended on the Southern Sung.
Culture in the Sung period.
The Sung period was noted for landscape painting, which in
time came to be considered the highest form of classical art.
The city-dwelling people of the Sung period romanticized
nature. This romanticism, combined with a mystical, Taoist
approach to nature and a Buddhist-inspired contemplative
mood, was reflected in landscape paintings showing people
dwarfed by nature.
In philosophy, the trend away from Buddhism and back to
Confucianism, which had begun in the late T'ang, continued.
Pure and simple restoration of ancient teaching was
impossible, however, because Confucianism had been
challenged by Buddhism and Taoism. Confucianism needed to
explain humanity and the universe as well as regulate human
relations within society. In the late T'ang and early Sung,
several strands of Confucianism emerged. The great scholar
Chu Hsi synthesized elements of Confucianism, Buddhism,
and Taoism. This reconstituted philosophy became known as
Neo-Confucianism, and was the orthodox state doctrine until
the end of the imperial system. Chu Hsi's philosophy stressed
dualism, the goodness of human nature, and self-cultivation by
education through the continuing "investigation of things."
The Sung scholars and historians also attempted to synthesize
history. Ssu-ma Kuang made the first effort at producing a
comprehensive history since Ssu-ma Ch'ien of the Han. In 294
chapters, he wrote a chronological account of the period from
403 BC to AD 959, which was abridged by Chu Hsi in the 12th
century. Another first in Sung scholarship was the creation of
encyclopedias. `Assembled Essentials on the T'ang', a
collection completed in 961, became the example for the
various types of encyclopedic literature that followed.
The Sung period is famous for porcelain with a celadon glaze,
which was one of the most desired items in foreign trade (See
Pottery and Porcelain). The development of gunpowder led to
the invention of a type of hand grenade. In shipbuilding, the
great seagoing junks were admired and imitated by Arab and
Western sailors. By far the largest ships in the world at the
time, they had watertight compartments and could carry up to
1,000 passengers.
The Sung cities. Oceanic and coastal trade was concentrated
in large ports such as Canton, Hangzhou, and Chuanzhou
(Marco Polo's Zayton), where large foreign trading
communities developed. Koreans dominated the trade with the
eastern islands, while Persians and Arabs controlled
commerce across the western seas. Along with commercial
expansion came the urbanization, or increasing importance of
cities, in Sung society. Hangzhou, the Southern Sung capital,
had a population of more than 2 million. Commercialization
and urbanization had a number of effects on Chinese society.
People in the countryside faced the problems of absentee
landlordism. Although many city residents enjoyed luxury, with
a great variety of goods and services, poverty was
widespread.
A change associated with urbanization was the decline in the
status of women of the upper classes. With the concentration
of the upper classes in the cities, where the work of women
became less essential, women were treated as servants and
playthings. This was reflected in the practices of concubinage
and of binding girls' feet to make them smaller. Neither
practice was banned until the 20th century.
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11. THE YUAN (Mongol) DYNASTY (1279-1368)
The Mongols were the first of the northern barbarians to rule
all of China. After creating an empire that stretched across
Eurasia and occupying northern China and Korea in the first
half of the 13th century, the Mongols continued their assault
on the Southern Sung. By 1276 the Southern Sung capital of
Hangzhou had fallen, and in 1279 the last of the Sung loyalists
died.
Before this, Kublai Khan, the fifth "great khan" and grandson of
Genghis Khan, had moved the Mongol capital from Karakorum
to Peking. In 1271 he declared himself emperor of China and
named the dynasty Yuan, meaning "beginning," to signify that
this was the beginning of a long era of Mongol rule.
In Asia, Kublai Khan continued his grandfather's dream of
world conquest. Two unsuccessful naval expeditions were
launched against Japan in 1274 and 1281. Four land
expeditions were sent against Annam and five against Burma.
However, the Mongol conquests overseas and in Southeast
Asia were neither spectacular nor were they long enduring.
Mongol rule in China lasted less than a century. The Mongols
became the most hated of the barbarian rulers because they
did not allow the Chinese ruling class to govern. Instead, they
gave the task of governing to foreigners. Distrusting the
Chinese, the Mongol rulers placed the southern Chinese at the
lowest level of the four classes they created. The extent of this
distrust was reflected in their provincial administration. As
conquerors, they followed the Ch'in example and made the
provincial governments into direct extensions of the central
chancellery. This practice was continued by succeeding
dynasties, resulting in a further concentration of power in the
central imperial government.
The Chinese despised the Mongols for refusing to adapt to
Chinese culture. The Mongols kept their own language and
customs. The Mongol rulers were tolerant about religions,
however. Kublai Khan reportedly dabbled in many religions.
The Mongols and the West. The Mongols were regarded with
mixed feelings in the West. Although Westerners dreaded the
Mongols, the Crusaders hoped to use them in their fight
against the Muslims and attempted to negotiate an alliance
with them for this purpose. Friar John of Carpini and William of
Rubruck were two of the better known Christian missionaries
sent to establish these negotiations with the Mongol ruler.
The best account of the Mongols was left by a Venetian
merchant, Marco Polo, in his `Marco Polo's Travels'. It is an
account of Polo's travels over the long and perilous land route
to China, his experience as a trusted official of Kublai Khan,
and his description of China under the Mongols. Dictated in
the early 14th century, the book was translated into many
languages. Although much of medieval Europe did not believe
Polo's tales, some, like Christopher Columbus, were
influenced by Polo's description of the riches of the Orient.
(See Kublai Khan; Mongol Empire; Polo, Marco)
After the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, successive weak and
incompetent khans made the already hated Mongol rule
intolerable. Secret societies became increasingly active, and a
movement known as the Red Turbans spread throughout the
north during the 1350s. In 1356 a rebel leader named Chu
Yuan-chang and his peasant army captured the old capital of
Nanjing. Within a decade he had won control of the
economically important middle and lower reaches of the
Yangtze River, driving the Mongols to the north. In 1368 he
declared himself the emperor Hung-wu and established his
capital at Nanjing on the lower Yangtze. Later the same year
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he captured the Yuan capital of Peking. (See Kublai Khan;
Mongol Empire)
Indies. Even Columbus, nearly 200 years later, often consulted
his copy of `The Book of Ser Marco Polo'.
Kublai Khan (1215-94). The founder of China's Yuan
(Mongol) Dynasty was a brilliant general and statesman
named Kublai Khan. He was the grandson of the great Mongol
conqueror, Genghis Khan, and he was overlord of the vast
Mongol Empire. The achievements of Kublai Khan were first
brought to the attention of Western society in the writings of
Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler who lived at the Chinese
court for nearly 20 years (See Polo, Marco).
In Marco's day the book was translated and copied by hand in
several languages. After printing was introduced in the 1440s,
the book was circulated even more widely. Many people
thought that the book was a fable or a gross exaggeration. A
few learned men believed that Marco wrote truly, however,
and they spread Marco's stories of faraway places and
unknown peoples. Today geographers agree that Marco's
book is amazingly accurate.
Kublai Khan was born in 1215, the fourth son of Genghis
Khan's fourth son. He began to play a major role in the
consolidation of Mongol power in 1251, when his brother, the
emperor Mongke, resolved to complete the conquest of China.
He therefore vested Kublai with responsibility for keeping order
in conquered territory. After Mongke's death in 1259, Kublai
had himself proclaimed khan. During the next 20 years he
completed the unification of China. He made his capital in
what is now Beijing.
Marco Polo was born in the city-republic of Venice in 1254. His
father and uncles were merchants who traveled distant lands
to trade. In 1269 Marco's father, Nicolo, and his uncle Maffeo
returned to Venice from a trading expedition they had traveled
overland as far as Cathay (China). Kublai Khan, the great
Mongol emperor of China, asked them to return with teachers
and missionaries for his people. So they set out again in 1271,
and this time they took Marco.
Kublai's major achievement was to reconcile China to rule by a
foreign people, the Mongols, who had shown little ability at
governing. His failures were a series of costly wars, including
two disastrous attempts to invade Japan; they brought little
benefit to China. Although he was a magnanimous ruler,
Kublai's extravagant administration slowly impoverished
China; and in the 14th century the ineptitude of his successors
provoked rebellions that eventually destroyed the Mongol
dynasty. (See Genghis Khan; Mongol Empire)
From Venice the Polos sailed to Acre, in Palestine. There two
monks, missionaries to China, joined them. Fearing the hard
journey ahead, however, the monks soon turned back. The
Polos crossed the deserts of Persia (Iran) and Afghanistan.
They mounted the heights of the Pamirs, the "roof of the
world," descending to the trading cities of Kashgar (Shufu) and
Yarkand (Soche). They crossed the dry stretches of The Gobi.
Early in 1275 they arrived at Kublai Khan's court at Cambaluc
(Peking). At that time Marco was 21 years old.
Polo at the Court of the Great Khan
Polo, Marco (1254-1323?). In 1298 a Venetian adventurer
named Marco Polo wrote a fascinating book about his travels
in the Far East. Men read his accounts of Oriental riches and
became eager to find sea routes to China, Japan, and the East
Marco quickly became a favorite of Kublai Khan. For three
years he governed busy Yangchow, a city of more than
250,000 people. He was sent on missions to far places in the
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empire: to Indochina, Tibet, Yunnan, and Burma. From these
lands Marco brought back stories of the people and their lives.
The Polos became wealthy in Cathay. But they began to fear
that jealous men in the court would destroy them when the
khan died. They asked to return to Venice. Kublai Khan
refused. Then an envoy came from the khan of Persia. He
asked Kublai Khan for a young Mongol princess for a bride.
The Polos said that the princess' journey should be guarded
by men of experience and rank. They added that the mission
would enable them to make the long-desired visit to Venice.
The khan reluctantly agreed.
Since there was danger from robbers and enemies of the khan
along the overland trade routes, a great fleet of ships was built
for a journey by sea. In 1292 the fleet sailed, bearing the
Polos, the princess, and 600 noblemen of Cathay. They
traveled southward along Indochina and the Malay Peninsula
to Sumatra. Here the voyage was delayed many months.
The ships then turned westward and visited Ceylon and India.
They touched the East African coast. The voyage was
hazardous, and of the 600 noblemen only 18 lived to reach
Persia. The Polos and the princess were safe. When the Polos
landed in Venice, they had been gone 24 years. The precious
stones they brought from Cathay amazed all Venice.
Later Marco served as gentleman-captain of a ship. It was
captured by forces of the rival trading city of Genoa, and he
was thrown into a Genoese prison. There he wrote his book
with help from another prisoner. Marco was released by the
Genoese in 1299. He returned to Venice and engaged in
trade. His name appears in the court records of his time in
many lawsuits over property and money. He married and had
three daughters. He died about 1323.
12. THE MING DYNASTY (1368-1644)
Having restored Chinese rule to China, the first Ming emperor
tried to model his rule after that of the Han, but the Ming fell far
short of the Han's accomplishments. The land under Ming
domination was less than under either the Han or the T'ang.
The Ming dominion changed little after the first two decades. It
was confined mostly to what is known as China proper, south
of the Great Wall and east of Xinjiang and Tibet.
In culture, as well, the Ming lacked the Han's creativity and
brilliance. Coming after almost a century of foreign domination,
the Ming was a period of restoration and reorganization rather
than a time of new discovery. In a sense, the Ming followed a
typical dynastic cycle: initial rehabilitation of the economy and
restoration of efficient government, followed by a time of
stability and then a gradual decline and fall.
The emperor Hung-wu modeled his government on the T'ang
system, restoring the doctrine and practices of Confucianism
and continuing the trend toward concentration of power in the
imperial government, especially in the hands of the emperor
himself. He tried to conduct state affairs single-handedly, but
the work load proved overwhelming. To assist him, he
gathered around him several loyal middle-level officials, thus
creating an extra-governmental organization, the Grand
Secretariat. The central bureaucracy was restored and filled by
officials selected by the examination system. That system was
further formalized by the introduction of a special essay style
called the eight-legged essay, to be used in writing the
examination. In addition, the subject matter of the
examinations was restricted to the Five Classics, said to have
been compiled, edited, or written by Confucius, and the Four
Books, published by Chu Hsi.
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In the field of provincial government, the emperor Hung-wu
continued the Yuan practice of limiting the power of provincial
governors and subjecting them directly to the central
government. The empire was divided into 15 provinces. The
first capital at Nanjing was in the economic heartland of China,
but in 1421 the emperor Yung-Lo, who took the throne after a
civil war, moved the capital to Peking, where he began a
massive construction project. The imperial palace, which is
also known as the Forbidden City, was built at this time.
The Ming produced two unique contributions: the maritime
expeditions of the early 15th century and the philosophy of
Wang Yang-Ming. Between 1405 and 1433, seven major
maritime expeditions were launched under the leadership of a
Muslim eunuch, Cheng Ho. Each expedition was provided with
several seagoing vessels, which were 400 feet (122 meters)
high, weighed 700 tons (635 metric tons), had multiple decks
and 50 or 60 cabins, and carried several hundred people.
During these expeditions, the Chinese sailed the South
Pacific, the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf.
They traveled as far west as eastern Africa and as far south as
Java and Sumatra. But these missions ended just as suddenly
as they had begun.
In philosophy, Wang Yang-Ming developed a system of
thought that ran counter to the orthodox teaching of Chu Hsi.
While Chu Hsi believed in learning based on reason and the
"investigation of things," Wang Yang-Ming believed in the
"learning of the mind," an intuitive process.
During the second half of the Ming Dynasty, European
expansion began. Early in the 16th century Portuguese traders
arrived and leased the island of Macao as their trading post. In
1582 Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit missionary, arrived in
Macao. Because of his knowledge of science, mathematics,
and astronomy and his willingness to learn the Chinese
language and adapt to Chinese life, he was accepted by the
Chinese and became the first foreigner allowed to live in
Peking permanently. Jesuits followed him and served the Ming
emperors as mapmakers, calendar reformers, and
astronomers.
Unlike earlier brief contacts with the West or the later Western
incursions into China, the 16th-century Sino-Western
relationship was culturally oriented and mutually respectful.
Both the Chinese and the Jesuits tried to find common ground
in their thoughts. The Jesuits' activities produced 300,000
converts in 200 years, not a great number among a population
of more than 100 million. Among them, however, were noted
scholars such as Hsu Kuang-ch'i and Li Chih-tsao, who
translated many of the works that Jesuits brought to China.
The Jesuits wrote over 300 Chinese works.
In the last century of its existence, the Ming Dynasty faced
numerous internal and external problems. The internal
problem was tied to official corruption and taxation. Because
the Ming bureaucracy was relatively small, tax collection was
entrusted to locally powerful people who evaded paying taxes
by passing the burden on to the poor. A succession of weak
and inattentive emperors encouraged the spread of corruption
and the greed of eunuchs. In the 1620s a struggle between the
inner group of eunuchs and the outer circle of scholar-officials
led to the execution of about 700 scholars.
Externally, the security of the Ming empire was threatened
from all directions. The Mongols returned and seized Peking in
1550, and their control of Turkestan and Tibet was recognized
by the Ming in a peace treaty of 1570. Pirates preyed on the
east coast, and Japanese pirates penetrated as far inland as
Hangzhou and Nanjing. In the 1590s the Ming had to send
expeditionary forces to rescue Korea from invading Japanese
soldiers under Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The Ming drove back the
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Japanese forces, but not without depleting the treasury and
weakening their defensive network against neighboring
Manchuria to the northeast.
peace and prosperity, a period that came to be called Pax
Sinica (Peace in China). By the end of that period the dynasty
had reached the height of its power.
In Manchuria the Manchus (Pinyin: Manzhous) organized a
Chinese-style state and strengthened their forces under a
unique form of military organization called the banner system.
However, it was not the Manchus who overthrew the Ming but
a Chinese rebel, Li Tzu-cheng, who became a leader among
the bandits who had become desperate because of a famine
in the northwest in 1628. By 1642 Li had become master of
north China and in 1644 he captured Peking.
Two strong emperors who were considered models of all
Confucian ideals ruled for much of this period: the emperors
K'ang-hsi (1661-1722) and Ch'ien-lung (1735-96). By
recruiting the well-educated in government and promoting
Confucian scholarship, these two Manchu rulers firmly
established themselves as Confucian rulers in China. Outside
China, both were successful conquerors. All of the Ch'ing
empire's vast territories, including Mongolia in the north,
Xinjiang in the northwest, and Tibet in the southwest, were
incorporated into the expanding Chinese Empire during this
period.
There he found that the last Ming emperor had hanged
himself, ending the "Brilliant" dynasty. Li, however, was not
destined to rule. The rule was to pass once again into the
hands of a people from beyond the Great Wall, the Manchus.
They were invited into China by the Ming general Wu San-kuei
to eliminate the rebels. After driving the rebels from the capital,
the Manchus stayed and established a new dynasty, the
Ch'ing.
13. THE CHING DYNASTY (1644-1911)
Like the Mongols in the 13th century, the Manchus (formerly
the Juchen) were barbarians who succeeded in ruling the
whole of China, but, unlike the 13th-century conquerors, the
sinicized Manchus made their rule more acceptable to the
Chinese. As a result, Ch'ing rule lasted 267 years, compared
with 89 years for the Yuan.
The Pax Sinica 1683-1795
The Manchus took Peking with relative ease in 1644, but they
did not gain control of the whole of China until 1683.
Thereafter, the Manchus enjoyed more than a century of
The Ch'ing adopted the Ming system of government with two
exceptions: the insertion of Manchu power at the head of the
Chinese state, and the creation of the Grand Council in the
emperor Yung-cheng's reign. The Grand Council superseded
the Grand Secretariat and became the most powerful body in
the government. In provincial government, the Ch'ing created
18 provinces from the 15 Ming provinces. A governor, usually
Chinese, headed each province, and a governor-general,
usually a Manchu before the 19th century, headed every two
provinces. Local landlords and administrators were generally
left alone if they submitted to the new rule.
The K'ang-hsi era marked the height of Jesuit success in
China, with more than 200,000 converts. Thereafter, Jesuit
influence waned rapidly because of the rivalry between the
Jesuits and other Catholic missionaries and the so-called Rites
Controversy, which concerned the Jesuits' willingness to
tolerate the converts' performance of ceremonies honoring
Confucius. The pope denounced the Jesuit view and
prohibited the ceremonies.
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The long period of peace and prosperity had some adverse
effects on Chinese society. There was a shortage of land,
resulting from an increase in the population from 100 million to
300 million at the end of the 18th century. Decadence and
corruption spread in the imperial court. There was a decline of
the Manchu military spirit, and the Ch'ing military organization
deteriorated. The long and illustrious reign of the emperor
Ch'ien-lung was marred by the first of many serious rebellions
in the Ch'ing era, the White Lotus Rebellion from 1796 to
1804. It was not put down for ten years, and China entered the
19th century rocked by revolt. More devastating were the
incursions of Western powers, which shook the foundation of
the empire. (See Ch'ien-lung)
19th Century Invasions and rebellions.
The first of many Sino-Western conflicts in the 19th century
was the first Opium War, fought from 1839 to 1842. It was
more than a dispute over the opium trade in China; it was a
contest between China as the representative of ancient
Eastern civilization and Britain as the forerunner of the modern
West. Free trade advocates in the West had protested against
the restrictive trading system in force at Canton. They
demanded free trade in China, the opening of more ports to
Westerners, and the establishment of treaty relations. The
Treaty of Nanjing, which ended the first Opium War, opened
five ports to the British--the first of the "treaty ports" where
Western nations were granted various privileges. A second
Opium War, also known as the Arrow War, fought from 1856
to 1860, pitted China against Great Britain and France.
The Opium Wars disrupted the old life and economy of
southern China. A number of peasant revolts occurred in the
1840s, coming to a head in the Taiping Rebellion, the biggest
rebellion in Chinese history. The leader of the Taipings was
Hung Hsiu-ch'uan, from a village near Canton. Believing that
God had chosen him to save the world, he adopted a confused
version of Christianity as his guiding doctrine and set out to
overthrow the Manchus and change society. The combination
of religious fervor and anti-Manchu sentiment attracted a
following that rose to over 30,000 within a short time. In 1852
the T'ai-p'ing T'ienkuo (Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace)
was proclaimed. In 1853 the rebels took the city of Nanjing
and made it their capital.
Other revolts erupted at about the same time: the Nien
Rebellion in the northeast and Muslim rebellions in the
southwest and the northwest. Fearing a linkup among the
rebels that would engulf all of China, the Ch'ing government
created regional armies manned entirely by Chinese and
commanded by Chinese of the scholar-gentry class. The
commanders of the new forces, all loyal supporters of the
dynasty--Tseng Kuo-fan, Tso Tsung-t'ang, and Li Hung-chang-suppressed the rebels with the help of Western weapons and
leadership. They annihilated the Taipings in 1864, the Niens
by 1868, and the Muslims by 1873.
The internal rebellions were suppressed, but external threats
continued. After a brief period of "cooperation" in the 1860s,
foreign powers renewed their assault on China, reacting to
widespread antiforeign violence. Again, China became
embroiled in a series of conflicts: the Tianjin Massacre with
France in 1870, the Ili crisis with Russia in 1879, the SinoFrench War from 1884 to 1885, and the Sino-Japanese War
from 1894 to 1895. Each brought further humiliation and
greater impairment of sovereignty. In the last two incidents
territory was lost, and an indemnity had to be paid to the victor
in the Sino-Japanese War.
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Opium Wars
China in the 19th century was beset by internal turmoil. It was
easy prey to more powerful nations that wanted to exploit
every advantage to profit from trade. Chief among these
advantages was the opium trade. Official Chinese resistance
to opium resulted in two trade wars in which Great Britain,
France, the United States, and Russia gained significant
commercial privileges. These conflicts were the first Opium
War from 1839 to 1842 between China and Britain and the
second Opium War (1856-60) fought by China against Britain
and France.
Opium had been introduced into China in the 7th century. By
the early 18th century opium addiction had become such a
severe problem that the government tried to prohibit trade in it.
The prohibition was a failure. When the British discovered the
value of the opium trade in 1773, they determined to benefit.
The Chinese paid the British for the opium, and the British in
turn used the money as part payment for goods bought from
the Chinese.
In 1839 the Chinese government made a concerted effort to
suppress the opium trade. All the opium warehouses in
Canton were confiscated. This serious effort, followed by a
minor military incident, led to hostilities. In February 1840 the
British sent an expedition against Canton.
The conflict, in which the more powerful British were
victorious, was ended by the Treaty of Nanjing, which was
signed on Aug. 29, 1842, and a supplemental treaty of Oct. 8,
1843. These treaties provided for payment of an indemnity of
21 million dollars by the Chinese, cession of five ports for
British trade and residence, and the right of British citizens in
China to be tried in British courts. It was at this time that Britain
gained control of Hong Kong.
In October 1856 the Canton police boarded a Britishregistered ship, the Arrow, and charged its crew with
smuggling. This led to the second war as the British were
joined by the French, and an Anglo-French force occupied
Canton late in 1857. The Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 temporarily
halted the fighting, opened new trading ports, allowed Peking
residence for foreign emissaries, gave freedom of movement
to Christian missionaries, and permitted travel to the interior.
The Chinese refusal to ratify the treaty led to an Anglo-French
attack on Peking and the burning of the Summer Palace. In
1860 the Chinese signed the Convention of Peking by which
they promised to observe the 1858 treaty.
Taiping Rebellion
In terms of casualties, it was one of the worst civil wars in
history. More than 20 million--possibly more than 30 million-died, and 17 provinces were ravaged by the Taiping Rebellion.
This was the most serious of several internal disturbances that
took place in China between 1850 and 1873 and that seriously
weakened the Ch'ing Dynasty and helped prepare the way for
the revolutions of the 20th century.
The leader of the rebellion was Hung Hsiu-ch'uan, an
unsuccessful civil-service candidate who came under the
influence of fundamentalist Christianity. Thinking of himself as
a son of God sent to reform China, he helped found the
Association of God Worshipers in about 1846. Preaching that
all property should be held by the people, he attracted many
followers in Guangxi Province. By January 1851, when the
rebellion began, Hung's ranks had swelled from several
thousand ragged peasants to more than 1 million disciplined
and eager soldiers. They took the city of Nanjing in March
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1853 and made it their capital. For several years the rebel
armies dominated the Yangtze River valley. They failed,
however, to take Shanghai, where the defenders were
commanded by an American named Frederick Townsend
Ward and the British general known as Chinese Gordon . By
1862 the movement was losing steam, weakened by internal
strife and defections. Nanjing fell in July 1864 to the army of
Gen. Tseng Kuo-fan, and Hung committed suicide. Sporadic
resistance continued for four more years.
Late 19th Century Revolutionary ideas and organizations.
The reforms that were sponsored by the imperial government
were too little and too late. A drastic change was necessary.
The idea of overthrowing the Manchus was suggested by
Liang Ch'i-ch'ao in his concept of hsin min (new people).
Publishing a magazine in Japan, where he had fled after the
Hundred Days, Liang called for the Chinese people to renew
themselves and also indicated that the Chinese nation was
distinct and separate from the ruling dynasty of the Manchus.
Although he did not advocate overthrowing the dynasty, the
message was quickly picked up by the more radical leaders
who were already leaning toward revolution.
One such leader was Sun Yat-sen, who is now revered as the
father of modern China by Nationalists and Communists alike.
Born into a peasant family near Canton, the traditional
stronghold of anti-Manchu rebels, Sun followed a traditional
Chinese path during his early years. He was educated in
Hawaii, converted to Christianity, and had a short-lived
medical career before switching to politics and attempting to
propose a reform program to Li Hung-chang in 1894. After
forming a secret revolutionary society and plotting an
unsuccessful uprising in Canton in 1894, Sun began a long
period of exile outside China. He gained wide recognition as a
revolutionary leader in 1896, when his arrest in the Chinese
legation in London and subsequent rescue were reported
sensationally in newspaper articles.
In 1905, in Japan, he brought together several revolutionary
groups and formed the Revolutionary Alliance Society. Its
program consisted of the now famous Three People's
Principles: nationalism, freeing all China from foreign control;
democracy, overthrowing the Manchus and introducing a
democratic political system; and people's livelihood. Although
Sun himself could not live in China, members of the alliance
infiltrated many social organizations there. The revolutionary
spirit that had been developed by Sun became especially high
among students' and soldiers' groups.
The Empress Dowager
TZ'U-HSI (1835-1908). Known in the West as the empress
dowager, Tz'u-hsi dominated the political life of China for
nearly 50 years. As ruler acting for child emperors, she and
her cohorts brought a measure of stability to their nation. But,
under her, the government was dishonest and did not make
changes that were needed to benefit the people. This
eventually led to the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty, which ruled
from 1644 to 1911, and a revolution.
Tz'u-hsi was born in Peking on Nov. 29, 1835. She became a
consort of the emperor Hsien-feng (ruled 1850-61) and mother
of the emperor T'ung-chih. When T'ung-chih became emperor
in 1861, he was only 6. She and another consort became coregents along with a brother of the former emperor. Under this
three-way rule the Taiping Rebellion was ended. Other
disturbances were put down, and some modernization was
brought to China.
Tz'u-hsi gradually increased her power within the ruling
coalition, even as the emperor matured she continued to
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control the government. After the young emperor's untimely
death, she saw to it that her 3-year-old nephew was named as
heir, though this violated succession law. Thus the two
dowagers continued acting as regents. The other dowager
died--presumably murdered--in 1881, and Tz'u-hsi ruled alone.
From 1889 to 1898 she lived in apparent retirement in the
summer palace. The new emperor's attempts at reform after
losing the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), however, brought
her back into action--determined to stave off any changes. In
1899 she backed the officials promoting the Boxer Rebellion.
After China's defeat at the hand of foreign troops, she fled the
capital and accepted humiliating peace terms. She returned in
1902 and belatedly tried to install reforms she had once
opposed. Before her death, on Nov. 15, 1908, she had the
emperor poisoned. His successor was a 2-year old who was
forced from the throne four years later.
Foreigners had entered China during an era of imperialism. In
the late 1800s Great Britain and other European nations, the
United States, Russia, and Japan scrambled for spheres of
influence there. In some cases they seized Chinese territories,
but usually they only sought the riches of trade and
commercial enterprise. At the same time, Roman Catholic and
Protestant missionaries tried to convert the Chinese to
Christianity. These outsiders were resented and feared by the
Chinese, who saw Western religion and business practices as
a threat to their traditional ways.
By May of 1900, Boxers were wandering the countryside and
attacking Western missionaries and Chinese converts to
Christianity. In June an expeditionary force, made up of
Russian, British, German, French, American, and Japanese
troops, was organized to proceed to Peking (now Beijing), put
down the rebellion, and protect Western nationals.
Boxer Rebellion
In the summer of 1900 members of a secret society roamed
northeastern China in bands, killing Europeans and Americans
and destroying buildings owned by foreigners. They called
themselves I-ho ch'uan, or "Righteous and Harmonious Fists."
They practiced boxing skills that they believed made them
impervious to bullets. To Westerners they became known as
the Boxers, and their uprising was called the Boxer Rebellion.
Most Boxers were peasants or urban thugs from northern
China who resented the growing influence of Westerners in
their land. They organized themselves in 1898, and in the
same year the Chinese government--then ruled by the Ch'ing
Dynasty--secretly allied with the Boxers to oppose such
outsiders as Christian missionaries and European
businessmen. The Boxers failed to drive foreigners out of
China, but they set the stage for the successful Chinese
revolutionary movement of the early 20th century.
The Chinese dowager empress Tz'u-hsi, the aunt of Emperor
Kuang-hsu, ordered her troops to block the advance of this
expedition. The foreigners were turned back. Meanwhile,
Boxers were rampaging in Peking, burning down churches and
the houses of Westerners, and killing Chinese Christians.
Foreign troops then seized Chinese coastal forts to insure
access to Peking. Enraged, the dowager empress ordered the
death of all foreigners in China. The German minister to China
was assassinated, and Boxer rebels began an eight-week
attack on the walled foreign compound in Peking.
In response, the allied foreign governments sent some 19,000
soldiers to Peking, capturing the city on Aug. 14, 1900. The
invaders looted the city and routed the Boxers, while the
empress and her court fled to the north. By the time the
rebellion ended, at least 250 foreigners had been killed. It took
a year for the parties to the conflict to agree on a settlement,
which was entitled the Peace of Peking. This protocol, which
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was signed in September 1901, was dictated by the Western
powers and Japan in such a way as to humiliate China. Heavy
fines were levied against the Chinese government, and
existing commercial treaties were amended in favor of the
Western powers. The foreign coastal defenses were
dismantled.
for the safety of the imperial family. On Feb. 12, 1912, the
regent of the 6-year-old emperor formally announced the
abdication. The Manchu rule in China ended after 267 years,
and with it the 2,000-year-old imperial system.
The failure of the Boxer Rebellion to eject the West and the
humiliation of the Chinese by the terms of the Peace of Peking
generated more support for nationalist revolutionaries. In 1911
the Ch'ing Dynasty collapsed. Revolutionaries led by Dr. Sun
Yat-sen then took over the Chinese government, ending more
than 2,000 years of monarchy.
Early in March 1912, Sun Yat-sen resigned from the
presidency and, as promised, Yuan Shih-kai was elected his
successor at Nanjing. Inaugurated in March 1912 in Beijing,
the base of his power, Yuan established a republican system
of government with a premier, a cabinet, a draft constitution,
and a plan for parliamentary elections early in 1913. The
Kuomintang (KMT, National People's party), the successor to
Sun Yat-sen's organization, was formed in order to prepare for
the election.
14. THE CHINESE REVOLUTION I: NATIONALIST
THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA (1912-1949)
The Revolution of 1911.
In the industrial city of Wuhan, a soldiers' group with only a
loose connection to Sun's alliance rose in rebellion in the early
morning of Oct. 10, 1911 (since celebrated as Double Ten, the
tenth day of the tenth month). The Manchu governor and his
commander fled, and a Chinese Commander, Li Yuan-hung,
was pressured into taking over the leadership. By early
December all of the central, southern, and northwestern
provinces had declared independence. Sun Yat-sen, who was
in the United States during the revolution, returned and was
chosen head of the provisional government of the Republic of
China in Nanjing.
The Manchu court quickly summoned Yuan Shih-kai, the
former commander of the reformed Northern Army. Personally
ambitious and politically shrewd, Yuan carried out negotiations
with both the Manchu court and the revolutionaries. Yuan was
able to persuade the Manchus to abdicate peacefully in return
Despite his earlier pledges to support the republic, Yuan
schemed to assassinate his opponents and weaken the
constitution and the parliament. By the end of 1914 he had
made himself president for life and even planned to establish
an imperial dynasty with himself as the first emperor. His
dream was thwarted by the serious crisis of the Twenty-one
Demands for special privileges presented by the Japanese in
January 1915 and by vociferous opposition from many sectors
of Chinese society. He died in June 1916 a broken man. After
Yuan's death, a number of his protégés took positions of
power in the Beijing government or ruled as warlords in
outlying regions. In August 1917 the Beijing government joined
the Allies and declared war on Germany. At the peace
conference in Versailles, France, the Chinese demand to end
foreign concessions in China was ignored.
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Sun-Yat Sen (1866-1925). Known as
the father of modern China, Sun Yatsen worked to achieve his lofty goals
for modern China. These included the
overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty, the
unification of China, and the
establishment of a republic.
Sun Yat-sen was born on Nov. 12,
1866, in Guangdong Province and
attended several schools, including one in Honolulu, Hawaii,
before transferring to a college of medicine in Hong Kong.
Graduating in 1892, Sun almost immediately abandoned
medicine for politics. His role in an unsuccessful uprising in
Canton in 1895 prompted Sun to begin an exile that lasted for
16 years. Sun used this time to travel widely in Japan, Europe,
and the United States, enlisting sympathy and raising money
for his republican cause. Sun returned to China in 1911 after a
successful rebellion in Wuhan inspired uprisings in other
provinces. As leader of the Kuomintang, or Nationalist party,
Sun was elected provisional president of the newly declared
republic but was forced to resign in 1912.
of cancer in Peking on March 12, 1925. Sun's tomb in Nanking
is now a national shrine.
The May Fourth Movement.
After World War I The Chinese felt betrayed. Anger and
frustration erupted in demonstrations on May 4, 1919, in
Beijing. Joined by workers and merchants, the movement
spread to major cities. The Chinese representative at
Versailles refused to endorse the peace treaty, but its
provisions remained unchanged. Disillusioned with the West,
many Chinese looked elsewhere for help.
In 1913 his disagreements with government policies led Sun to
organize a second revolution. Failing to regain power, Sun left
once again for Japan, where he organized a separate
government. Sun returned to China and attempted to set up a
new government in 1917 and 1921 before successfully
installing himself as generalissimo of a new regime in 1923.
The May Fourth Movement, which grew out of the student
uprising, attacked Confucianism, initiated a vernacular style of
writing, and promoted science. Scholars of international
stature, such as John Dewey and Bertrand Russell, were
invited to lecture. Numerous magazines were published to
stimulate new thoughts. Toward the end of the movement's
existence, a split occurred among its leaders. Some, like Ch'en
Tu-hsiu and Li Ta-chao, were beginning to be influenced by
the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which
contrasted sharply with the failure of the 1911 Revolution in
China to change the social order and improve conditions. By
1920, people associated with the Comintern (Communist
International) were disseminating literature in China and
helping to start Communist groups, including one led by Mao
Zedong. A meeting at Shanghai in 1921 was actually the first
party congress of the Communist Party of China (CCP).
Sun increasingly relied on aid from the Soviet Union, and in
1924 he reorganized the Kuomintang on the model of the
Soviet Communist party. Sun also founded the Whampoa
Military Academy and appointed Chiang Kai-shek as its
president. Sun summarized his policies in the Three Principles
of the People--nationalism, democracy, and socialism. He died
The CCP was so small that the Soviet Union looked elsewhere
for a viable political ally. A Comintern agent, Adolph Joffe, was
sent to China to approach Sun Yat-sen, who had failed to
obtain assistance from Great Britain or the United States. The
period of Sino-Soviet collaboration began with the Sun-Joffe
Declaration of Jan. 26, 1923. The KMT was recognized by the
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Soviet Union, and the Communists were admitted as
members. With Soviet aid, the KMT army was built up. A
young officer, Chiang Kai-shek, was sent to Moscow for
training. Upon returning, he was put in charge of the
Whampoa Military Academy, established to train soldiers to
fight the warlords, who controlled much of China S(See
Chiang Kai-shek). Zhou Enlai (also Chou En-lai) of the CCP
was deputy director of the academy's political department.
Sun Yat-sen, whose power base was in the south, had
planned to send an expedition against the northern warlords,
but he died before it could get under way. Chiang Kai-shek,
who succeeded him in the KMT leadership, began the
northern expedition in July 1926. The Nationalist army met
little resistance and by April 1927 had reached the lower
Yangtze. Meanwhile, Chiang, claiming to be a sincere follower
of Sun Yat-sen, had broken with the left-wing elements of the
KMT. After the Nationalist forces had taken Shanghai, a
Communist-led general strike was suppressed with bloodshed.
Following suppressions in other cities, Chiang set up his own
government at Nanjing on April 18, 1927. He professed
friendship with the Soviet Union, but by July 1927 he was
expelling Communists from the KMT. Some left-wingers left for
the Soviet Union.
The northern expedition was resumed, and in 1928 Chiang
took Peking. China was formally unified. Nationalist China was
recognized by the Western powers and supported by loans
from foreign banks.
The Nationalist Era (1928-1937).
The Nationalist period began with high hopes and much
promise. More could have been accomplished had it not been
for the problems of Comintern corruption and Japanese
aggression. In his efforts to combat them both, Chiang
neglected the land reform needed to improve the lives of the
peasants. Driven from the cities, the Communists
concentrated on organizing the peasants in the countryside.
On Nov. 1, 1931, they proclaimed the establishment of the
Chinese Soviet Republic in the southeastern province of
Jiangxi, with Mao Zedong as chairman. Here the first units of
the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army were formed.
While conducting guerrilla warfare in these regions, the
soldiers carried out an agrarian revolution that was based on
Mao's premise that the best way to win the conflict was to
isolate the cities by gaining control of the countryside and the
food supply.
A military man by temperament and training, Chiang sought to
eliminate the Communists by force. He defined his antiCommunist drive as "internal pacification before resistance to
external attack," and he gave it more importance than
opposition to the increasingly aggressive Japanese. With arms
and military advisers from Nazi Germany, Chiang carried out a
series of "extermination campaigns" that killed about a million
people between 1930 to 1934. Chiang's fifth campaign,
involving over half a million troops, almost annihilated the
Communists. Faced with the dilemma of being totally
destroyed in Jiangxi or attempting an almost impossible
escape, the Communists decided to risk the escape. On Oct.
15, 1934, they broke through the tight KMT siege. Over
100,000 men and women set out on the Long March of about
6,000 miles (9,600 kilometers) through China's most rugged
terrain to find a new base in the northwest.
In the meantime, the Japanese had made steady inroads into
China. The Mukden Incident of 1931, through which Mukden
was occupied by the Japanese, was initiated by Japanese
officers stationed along the South Manchurian Railway. This
was followed by the occupation of Manchuria and the creation
of the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. By the mid-1930s
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the Japanese had seized Inner Mongolia and parts of
northeastern China and had created the North China
Autonomous Region with no resistance from the Nationalists.
Anti-Japanese sentiment mounted in China, but Chiang
ignored it and in 1936 launched yet another extermination
campaign against the Communists in Shaanxi. Chiang was
forced to give up the anti-Communist drive when his troops
mutinied and arrested him as he arrived in Xi'an in December
1936 to plan strategy. He was released after he agreed to form
a united front with the CCP against the Japanese, who were
making steady inroads into China.
In China, World War II broke out on July 7, 1937, with a
seemingly insignificant little battle between Chinese and
Japanese troops near Peking, called the Marco Polo Bridge
Incident. Within a few days, the Japanese had occupied
Peking, and the fighting spread rapidly. The war in China fell
into three stages. The first (1937-1939) was characterized by
the phenomenally rapid Japanese occupation of most of
China's east coast, including such major cities as Shanghai,
Nanjing, and Canton. The Nationalist government moved to
the interior, ultimately to Chongqing in Sichuan, and the
Japanese established puppet governments in Peking in 1937
and in Nanjing in 1940. The second stage (1939-1943) was a
period of waiting, as Chiang blockaded the Communists in the
northwest (despite the united front) and waited for help from
the United States, which had declared war on Japan in 1941.
In the final stage (1944-1945), the United States provided
massive assistance to Nationalist China, but the Chongqing
government, weakened by inflation, impoverishment of the
middle class, and low troop morale was unable to take full
advantage of it. Feuds among the KMT generals and between
Chiang and his United States military adviser, General Joseph
Stilwell, further hampered the KMT.
When Japanese defeat became a certainty in the spring of
1945, the Communists seemed in a better position to take over
from the Japanese garrisons than the KMT, which was far
away in the rear of the formation. A United States airlift of KMT
troops enabled them to occupy many cities, but the
countryside stayed with the Communists.
After the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945, the Allied
war effort moved to the east. The Soviet Union joined the war
against Japan at the end of July. On August 6 and 9 the
United States dropped the world's first atomic bombs on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On Aug. 14,
1945, the Japanese surrendered. In China, however, civil war
raged over who should take charge of the Japanese arms and
equipment. At the end of August an agreement was reached in
Chongqing between a CCP delegation and the KMT, but the
truce was brief.
In January 1946 a cease-fire was negotiated by United States
General George C. Marshall. The Nationalist government
returned to Nanjing, and China was recognized by the new
United Nations as one of the five great powers. The United
States supplied the Chiang government with an additional $2
billion ($1.5 billion had been spent for the war). Although the
KMT's dominance in weapons and supplies was enormous, it
was kept under guard in the cities, while the Communists held
the surrounding countryside. As inflation soared, both civilians
and the military became demoralized. The CCP, sensing the
national mood, proposed a coalition government. The KMT
refused, and fighting erupted again.
The short and decisive civil war that followed was resolved in
two main places: Manchuria and the Huai River area. Despite
a massive airlift of KMT forces by the United States,
Manchuria was lost in October 1948 after 300,000 KMT forces
surrendered to the CCP. By the end of 1948 the KMT had lost
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over half a million men, more than two thirds of whom had
defected. In April 1949 the Communists moved south of the
Yangtze.
After the fall of Nanjing and Shanghai, KMT resistance
evaporated. By the autumn, the Communists had taken all
mainland territories except Tibet. Chiang Kai-shek and a
number of his associates fled to the island of Taiwan, where
they set up what they claimed was the rightful government of
China.
15. THE CHINESE REVOLUTION II: COMMUNIST
The Communist Party
The Chinese Communist party is the primary political force in
China. Unlike parties in Western democracies, it is a tightly
organized movement that controls and leads society at all
levels. The party sets policy and controls its execution through
government officials who are also party members. The effect is
to make the government an organ of the party.
At the time of its founding in 1921, the Chinese Communist
party focused on organizing urban workers, but it achieved
only limited success in this effort. Orthodox Marxism expected
the Communist Revolution to begin among industrial workers.
However, Karl Marx had developed his theories based upon
highly industrialized economies, and the industrial sector in
China was small and relatively primitive. It was Mao Zedong
who adapted Marxist theory to the conditions of an
underdeveloped, primarily agricultural society . Although Mao's
successors downgraded some of his more radical ideas,
Marxism-Leninism-Mao Thought--Marxism as it was
interpreted by Mao--is still officially designated as the guiding
philosophy that is behind both the party and the government.
The Chinese Communist party is organized as a hierarchy,
with power concentrated at the top. Above the local units, or
cells, is a pyramid-like structure of party congresses and
committees at various levels, culminating in the National Party
Congress. The national congress is supposed to meet every
five years, though this has not always been the case. When it
is not in session, direction of the party is in the hands of a
Central Committee of about 200 members, which is elected by
the congress. The Central Committee, in turn, elects the
Political Bureau, which in 1982 consisted of 25 full members
and three alternates. It is within the Political Bureau and its
elite Standing Committee that power is concentrated and the
highest level decisions of state are made. There is also a
secretariat that carries on the day-to-day business of the party.
Prior to 1982, the highest party office was that of chairman,
held for more than 25 years, by Mao Zedong. In an effort to
ensure that the power Mao had enjoyed was never again
concentrated in one person, a new party constitution adopted
in 1982 abolished the chairmanship and replaced it with the
administrative position of general secretary to the Secretariat.
The constitution also established a body called the Central
Advisory Commission to assist and advise the Central
Committee. One of the objects of the commission was to
encourage elderly party leaders to continue to be active in
various functions of the Communist party. The commission
became an obstacle to reform and was abolished in 1992.
Theoretically, party membership is open to anyone over 18
who accepts the party program and is willing to work actively
in one of its organizations. Members are expected to abide by
the party's discipline and to serve as model workers. The
backbone of the party consists of full-time paid workers known
as cadres (Chinese, ganbu). The term cadre is also used for
public officials holding responsible positions who may or may
not be members of the party.
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THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
On Oct. 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of
the People's Republic of China. The CCP hailed its takeover of
China as a people's victory over and liberation from imperial
domination (especially that of the United States) and the
oppressive KMT regime. The Red Army was renamed the
People's Liberation Army. During the early days of the
People's Republic, the troops were restrained, foreigneducated Chinese returned to help the country, and most local
administrators remained in office.
The first Communist government, the People's Consultative
Council, included non-Communists among its 662 members.
However, in the top committee, 31 out of 56 seats were
occupied by Communists, and the constitution of 1954
drastically curtailed the role of non-Communists. After 1954,
more authority was concentrated in the central government
under the State Council. Real power, however, lay with the
Communist party, especially the Central Committee, then
composed of 94 members. This committee held together the
triad of power--army, government, and party. The inner circle
of the Central Committee was the 19-member Political Bureau
and its seven-member Standing Committee.
Land reform. One of the first tasks of the Communist
government was land reform, redistributing land from landlords
to the peasants. The Agrarian Law of 1950 began the
nationwide land reform, which was almost completed by the
beginning of 1953.
Social reform. Land reform erased the social distinction
between landlord and peasant. The new marriage law of 1950
and the campaigns of the early 1950s removed distinctions
within the family. Women were given full equality with men in
matters of marriage, divorce, and property ownership. Children
were encouraged to denounce parents if they failed to support
the Communist line.
Thought reform. Believing that the revolution could not be
carried on without reform of people, the CCP launched a
massive campaign to change China's entire psychology. The
Four Olds campaign was launched to eradicate old ideas,
habits, customs, and culture. The Three Anti's movement was
directed at officials, with the aim of eliminating corruption,
waste, and "bureaucratism." The Five Anti's campaign,
directed at the remaining businessmen and bourgeoisie,
opposed bribery, tax fraud, cheating, and stealing state
property and economic information. For Chinese Christians,
The Three Selfs movement stressed self-government, selfsupport, and self-propagation, the object being to separate the
churches in China from their parent denominations abroad.
Leading churchmen were forced into denouncing religion as
cultural imperialism. The idea of cultural imperialism was
extended to art and literature, which henceforth were to serve
the people, the class struggle, and the revolution.
Economic planning. Along with the reforms of land tenure,
society, family, and even thought, the CCP announced the first
five-year plan in 1953 to speed up the socialization of China
through a planned economy. The plan's aim was to produce
maximum returns from agriculture in order to pay for
industrialization and Soviet aid. The means chosen was the
collectivization of agriculture. Land and farm implements were
pooled into cooperatives and later into collective farms, which
controlled the production, price, and distribution of products.
By May 1956, 90 percent of the farmers were members of
cooperatives.
Similarly, 80 percent of heavy industry and 40 percent of light
industry were in government hands by October 1952. The
government also controlled all the railways and most
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steamship operations. To speed China's development even
more, Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, and others, after overcoming
some opposition within the leadership, launched the Great
Leap Forward in 1958.
The Great Leap Forward
The Great Leap Forward was designed to overcome the
backwardness of China's economy, industry, and technology.
It was to be achieved through use of the vast manpower and
indomitable spirit of the Chinese. Steel production was to be
increased by setting up small-scale "backyard furnaces," and
agricultural output was to be raised by combining the collective
farms into communes. About 26,000 communes were created
by the Communist government, each composed of
approximately 5,000 households.
After a year, the leaders admitted that the success of the
program had been exaggerated. The steel produced by the
backyard furnaces was of low quality, and the quantity fell
short of the projected goal. The people's reluctance to join
communes was stronger than expected, and the size of the
communes had to be reduced. Domestic life in homes, as well
as private plots for family use, had to be restored. The effect of
the Great Leap Forward on the people and the economy was
devastating. Coupled with three straight years of poor
harvests, it resulted in a severe food shortage and industrial
decline. For the next several years, while lip service was paid
to Mao's thought and to Great Leap-type activism, the real
power was in more conservative hands.
The Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was a radical
movement that closed schools, slowed production, and
virtually severed China's relations with the outside world. It
was proletarian because it was a revolution of the workers
against party officials. It was cultural because it meant to alter
the values of society in the Communist sense. It was great,
because it was on a mammoth scale. It lasted for two years in
its intense form, lingered on for another year and a half, and
was not officially declared over until 1977.
The Cultural Revolution had its roots in a power struggle
between Mao and his supporters, including his wife, Jiang
Qing, and Lin Biao--who believed that the initial fervor of the
revolution was being lost--and more conservative, bureaucratic
elements within the leadership. One point at issue was the
educational system, and particularly the fact that urban youth
(especially the children of privileged officials) appeared to
have a better chance of getting a university education than the
children of rural peasants. Mao feared that Chinese society
was becoming rigid, and to prevent this he relied for support
on the military and on youth.
In the summer of 1966, a group of Beijing high school girls
protested against the system of college entrance
examinations. The Central Committee acceded to the
students' demand by promising reform and postponing the
1966 enrollment for half a year. Freed from their studies,
students demonstrated in Beijing in August, touching off
demonstrations of young people in general. Obviously inspired
by Mao, youths wearing red armbands and flashing copies of
the "little red book" containing Mao's thought (‘Quotations from
Chairman Mao Zedong'), marched through the streets
shouting the slogan, "To bypass the Communist party
apparatus and force the hierarchy's political foes into
submission." These Red Guards, as they were called, were
given free railway passes, and they poured into Beijing and
other cities in great numbers throughout 1967.
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In early 1967 some of the highest ranking leaders, former
close revolutionary associates of Mao himself, were criticized
and dismissed. Liu Shaoqi, who had been president of the
republic, Zhu De, and Deng Xiaoping were among the better
known victims. Even Confucius was attacked as having been a
hypocritical supporter of the bourgeoisie. Throughout the
country, revolutionary committees sprang up, seized power
from the local government and party authorities, and
harassed--and in some cases attacked--those suspected of
being disloyal to Mao's thought.
The disorders reached a climax in July 1967 in the city of
Wuhan, when the local military commander tried to rally the
people against the radicals and troops had to be sent in to
restore order. From that time on, steps were taken to quiet the
more disruptive portions of the Cultural Revolution, though it
was not until 1968 that society returned to something
resembling normality. In March 1969 the government issued a
directive to open all schools. The situation was so chaotic,
however, that the universities were not reopened until
September 1970.
The Cultural Revolution greatly affected the CCP leadership.
When the long-postponed ninth congress of the CCP was
finally convened in April 1969, two thirds of the old members of
the Central Committee were missing. Mao's attempt to
maintain a state of permanent revolution had been immensely
costly. Years of work and progress were sacrificed: A whole
generation of youth went without education; factories and
farms lay idle. China fell even further behind the industrialized
powers of the world. As the Cultural Revolution died down,
Zhou Enlai, who had been premier since the founding of the
People's Republic, quietly took control. Deng Xiaoping and
other "pragmatic" leaders were reestablished. The party and
government relaxed their control over the people and granted
certain civil rights in a new constitution adopted in 1975.
International Relations of the People's Republic
The People's Republic has undergone several shifts in foreign
policy since 1949. Initially, it was closely tied to the Soviet
Union and firmly identified as a member of the socialist camp.
Within a few years, however, the Sino-Soviet relationship had
begun to deteriorate, the victim, among other factors, of
differing national interests, differing interpretations of Marxism,
and Chinese resentment over heavy-handed Soviet attempts
at control. By the mid-1960s China and the Soviet Union had
become openly hostile toward each other.
China was largely isolated from the rest of the world during the
height of the Cultural Revolution, but when the upheavals
subsided it began to take a more practical foreign policy line.
Trade was opened up with a number of Western countries,
China started to play an active role in international
organizations, and diplomatic relations were established with
countries willing to recognize the People's Republic--rather
than the Nationalist government on Taiwan--as the
government of China. Most dramatically, contacts were begun
with the United States, leading to full diplomatic recognition on
Jan. 1, 1979.
While China's political system changed little by the 1990s, its
economy had become the fastest-growing in the world.
Relations with the United States became unstable on two
fronts. The Chinese government refused to allow the human
rights concerns to become an issue in trade talks. Trade itself
became a major issue, as exports to the United States
exceeded imports. In addition, North Korea's probable
possession of nuclear weapons posed an unsettling problem
for China and the United States in the mid-1990s.
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MAO ZEDONG, or MAO TSE-TUNG (1893-1976) .
In China Mao Zedong is
remembered and revered as the
greatest of revolutionaries. His
achievements as ruler, however,
have been deservedly downgraded
because he was among the worst of
politicians. He knew well how to
make a revolution, but once in
power he could not put his love of
revolution aside for the sake of
governing.
Mao was born on Dec. 26, 1893, in Shaoshan, Hunan
Province. His father was a peasant who had become
successful as a grain dealer. Mao's schooling was intermittent.
During the Revolution of 1911-12 he served in the army for six
months. After that he drifted for a while without goals, but he
managed to graduate from the First Provincial Normal School
in Changsha in 1918. He then sent to Peking University, where
he became embroiled in the revolutionary May Fourth
Movement. This movement marked the decisive turn in
Chinese revolutionary thought in favor of Marxist Communism
as a solution to China's problems.
In 1921 Mao helped found the Chinese Communist party. He
was at that time a school principal in Hunan. Two years later,
when the Communists forged an alliance with Sun Yat-sen's
Nationalist party (the Kuomintang), he left work to become a
full-time revolutionary. It was at this time that Mao discovered
the great potential of the peasant class for making revolution.
This realization led him to the brilliant strategy he used to win
control of China: gain control of the countryside and encircle
the cities.
The Communists and the Nationalists coexisted in an uneasy
relationship until the end of World War II. The Nationalist
leader after 1925 was Chiang Kai-shek, who was determined
to rule China. He never trusted the Communists, and at times
he persecuted them. Mao's first wife was executed by the
Nationalists in 1930.
The Chinese Soviet Republic was founded in November 1931
in Jiangxi Province. In 1934 Mao and his forces were driven
out, and they went northward in what is known as the Long
March. By 1935, however, the Communists and Nationalists
forged a united front against the Japanese. Rivalry persisted,
but the front held until 1945. The revolution that then began
ended in 1949 with the Communists victorious.
In addition to his problems with the Nationalists, Mao's
dealings with the Soviet Union's Joseph Stalin were always
uneasy. Stalin grew wary of a competing Communist power of
China's size on the Soviet borders. Mao eventually came to
regard the Soviets as revisionists and felt they were traitors to
the cause of world revolution.
Mao's title as ruler of China was chairman of the People's
Republic. For the first five years he rarely appeared in public
and seemed to be only a ceremonial figure. He never achieved
the total control in China that Stalin did in the Soviet Union.
Many of his comrades were influential in directing policy, often
in ways with which Mao disagreed. In 1955 he emerged from
isolation determined to play the decisive role in economic
policy and political restructuring.
Failing to gain the allegiance of the intellectuals, he turned to
the masses with a program called the Great Leap Forward.
While not a complete economic disaster, it had severe
consequences. After it disrupted both city and countryside, he
was forced to retreat from his policies in favor of his
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opponents. To counter opposition he launched the Great
Proletarian Cultural Revolution, urged on by his radical wife,
Jiang Qing. This vast upheaval wrecked the Communist party
bureaucracy, paralyzed education and research, and left the
economy almost a shambles.
Only slowly did China begin to recover. By then Mao was old
and ill. Other, more moderate hands guided policy. Zhou Enlai
seemed to emerge as the nation's real leader when relations
were reestablished with the United States.
Mao's personality cult remained strong until his death on Sept.
9, 1976. Shortly afterward, however, a power struggle was
under way. Members of the party who had been purged by the
Cultural Revolution returned to govern China. Chief among
them was Deng Xiaoping (See Deng Xiaoping).
16. POST-MAO CHINA
Passing of the old guard.
The year 1976 marked the end of an era. Zhou Enlai died in
January. Zhu De, who as chairman of the Standing Committee
of the National People's Congress had been serving as
nominal head of state, died in July. Finally, Mao himself, the
chairman of the party and the embodiment of the revolution,
died in September. Although many elderly leaders remained in
positions of power, the old guard veterans of the Long March
and the civil war were clearly passing from the scene.
There were no provisions for automatic succession. At one
time, Lin Biao had been Mao's designated successor, but Lin
had died under mysterious circumstances in 1971. The stage
was set for a power struggle, with the initial advantage going
to the radical faction. Zhou's death left the moderate
pragmatists in a weakened position, and Deng Xiaoping, as
their most visible leader, came under immediate attack.
In April the people staged an unusual demonstration to protest
the removal, by the police, of memorial wreaths honoring Zhou
from Beijing's Tiananmen (the Gate of Heavenly Peace
leading to the old Forbidden City). With this as an excuse, the
radicals blamed Deng for the disorders and dismissed him
from office. But the radicals, in turn, lost their protector when
Mao died. Within a month, the "Gang of Four" radical leaders,
including Jiang Qing, Mao's widow, were arrested, and Deng
was reinstated once again. The Gang of Four were
subsequently tried and convicted of various crimes against the
state. They became a convenient scapegoat for the new
leadership, which did not wish to blame China's ills on Mao
directly.
In the following years, the pragmatists consolidated their
position. Although he did not take any of the main party or
government positions, Deng emerged as the outstanding
figure within the leadership. An elderly man himself, he
brought in younger men who shared his views. The new
policies were confirmed in the party and state constitutions
adopted in 1982. These included accelerating China's
economic development by the best possible means; for
example, by rewarding good work, even if this resulted in
some inequalities in society. Steps were also taken to prevent
the concentration of power that had marked Mao's time. Thus,
the new state constitution limited state leaders to two
consecutive terms.
Nevertheless, the new leadership remained firmly committed
to Communism. The 1982 constitution stated again the Four
Fundamental Principles that should guide society: Leadership
of the Communist party, people's democratic dictatorship,
socialist road, and Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought.
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The new constitution allowed a greater measure of political
freedom and civil rights, and legal safeguards were introduced.
It was evident, however, that there were limits to the new
liberalization. After an early period during which considerable
freedom of speech was allowed, the post-Mao leadership
began to warn against destructive criticism.
The Four Modernizations.
The new regime's goal was the development of China's
economy by means of the Four Modernizations: of agriculture,
industry, national defense, and science and technology. The
Four Modernizations were first announced by Zhou at the
tenth party congress in 1973, when the country was just
starting its slow recovery from the Cultural Revolution. The
new leadership under Deng placed great stress on them, with
the aim of bringing China into the front rank among the world's
nations.
To achieve the ambitious aims of the program, the new
leadership replaced the Maoist dogma of stressing the
revolutionary spirit, the "red," with the practical value of the
"expert." In education, academic achievements were
emphasized, and nationwide college entrance examinations
were reinstated. In industry, the authority of experts was
reasserted. In agriculture, peasants were allowed private plots.
Some overambitious projects were begun, and some
replanning proved necessary. Nevertheless, the Chinese were
cautiously optimistic that they would attain their goals. They
set a reasonable economic growth rate of 7.2 percent per year
and began a rigorous campaign to slow the rate of population
increase. They hoped that these measures would quadruple
industrial and agricultural production by the year 2000. In 1987
Deng retired and was succeeded by Zhao Ziyang as general
secretary and Li Peng as premier.
DENG XIAOPING (1904-1997) .
During the Cultural Revolution of the
1960s, China's Communist government
publicly humiliated Deng Xiaoping by
parading him through the national capital
in a dunce cap. Yet, after the deaths of
Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong in 1976, he
emerged as his country's paramount
leader. Whether in exile or in power,
Deng was long acclaimed as a reformer
who resisted rigid Communist ideology. But his image was
tarnished in mid-1989 when he ordered a military crackdown
on the student pro-democracy movement. At the same time
the government began to build a personality cult around the
aging, ailing survivor of purges who had once belittled the
similar deification of Mao. Deng Xiaoping was born on Aug.
22, 1904, to a wealthy family in Sichuan Province. At age 16
he went to Paris to study. While there he was befriended by
Zhou. After he returned home in 1924, Deng joined the
Communist party and was sent to the Soviet Union for another
year of study. In the political movement led by Mao, he started
out as an underground organizer. He participated in the Long
March of 1934-35.
Deng became a vice-premier in 1952, the party secretary in
1954, and a member of the ruling Politburo in 1955. During the
Cultural Revolution radical Maoists condemned him as a
bourgeois "freak." In 1973 he was rehabilitated under Zhou,
and, as the most senior vice-premier, became the effective
head of the government during Zhou's later illness. But Mao's
supporters were alarmed by his efforts to promote economic
reform through "capitalist methods of production." Instead of
succeeding Zhou when the premier died, Deng was banished
by the radical Gang of Four, an elite group of Mao's supporters
led by Mao's wife, Jiang Qing.
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After Mao's death, the Gang of Four lost power. Until 1980-81
Deng struggled for supreme control with Hua Guofeng, Mao's
chosen successor, but he finally engineered the promotions of
his own proteges--Zhao Ziyang as premier and Hu Yaobang
as party secretary. In late 1987, to force the resignation of
senior leaders, Deng gave up his own committee posts. At the
beginning of the year Hu Yaobang had been ousted because
his leniency toward dissidents and his support of Westernstyle democracy were blamed for a rash of student
demonstrations for reform. In Deng's next effort to establish
the line of succession, Zhao took over the party leadership.
For the rebellious Chinese students, Hu's disgrace had made
him a martyr; his death on April 15, 1989, became the catalyst
for more aggressive pro-democracy demonstrations that
ended in the massacre of unarmed marchers in Peking
(Beijing) on June 4. Deng's other designated heir, Zhao, was
removed because he favored concessions to the protesters. A
new leader, Jiang Zemin, was chosen for his law-and-order
stance during similar demonstrations in Shanghai. General
Secretary Jiang next took over Deng's chairmanship of the
party's Central Military Commission in November 1989. Deng
resigned from his last official post in March 1990. (See China)
Jiang was born in July 1926 in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province.
Little is known about his childhood. He joined the Communist
party while attending Shanghai's Jiaotong University, where he
graduated in 1947 with a degree in electrical engineering. After
several Shanghai factory jobs and advanced training in
Moscow in the 1950s, Jiang worked up to a top position at a
northeastern Chinese automobile plant. He did not hold a
government post until 1980. Jiang became a member of the
party's Central Committee in 1982 and the Political Bureau in
1987. As the mayor of Shanghai from 1985 until his surprise
appointment as general secretary, and later the city's party
chief, Jiang had gained recognition as an economic reformer.
Many believed the ideologically tough Jiang was chosen to
replace the moderate Zhao Ziyang as a reward for his swift
action in quelling the student demonstrations in Shanghai.
(See Zhao Ziyang)
As general secretary, Jiang called for strict vigilance against
what he described as efforts by the West to subvert the
Chinese government. In October 1989 the party announced
that Jiang would serve as the "core" of the next generation of
Chinese leaders.
Hu Jintao ( December 1942)
Jiang Zemin (born 1926).
In the wake of the student-led prodemocracy movement in China, Jiang
Zemin emerged as one of the nation's
most influential Communist leaders. In
June 1989, when the Communist party
was purged of its moderate leaders, he
was appointed party general secretary
and chosen as the heir apparent to the
senior leader Deng Xiaoping (See
Deng Xiaoping).
Hu became president of the People's
Republic of China in 2003, succeeding Jiang
Zemin. Hu, a trained engineer, joined the
communist party in 1964 and quickly worked
his way up, gaining notice in Beijing as a
leader in the Communist Youth League.
Most of his career was spent in western
China, overseeing Gansu, Guizhou and
Tibet. Picked for the Central Committee's
Political Bureau in 1992 by Deng Xiaoping, Hu was the first
modern Chinese leader to start his political career after the
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1949 communist revolution. In 2002 all other senior leaders of
the Central Committee stepped down to make way for a
"fourth generation" of party officials, but Hu remained, leading
political analysts to conclude that Hu would eventually take
over for President Jiang Zemin. (The same year Hu was
named General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
(CPC) Central Committee.) Although he has been considered
a reformer by some, Hu also has demonstrated his loyalty to
traditional policies of Beijing, including the rigid control over
political opposition; in 1989 Hu imposed martial law in Tibet to
deter pro-independence demonstrations. Since taking office as
president, Hu has taken charge of the China's military and
reached out diplomatically to countries around the world (
resourced from: answer.com).
(BBC News Sept.16, 2004) Analysts agree that he has tried to
give more consideration to the plight of ordinary people, and
one of the key phrases used has been "yi ren wei ben", or
putting people first.
Official biographies say he was born in eastern Anhui province,
and joined the party at the height of the Cultural Revolution in
1964 when he was studying hydroelectric engineering at
Beijing's prestigious Qinghua University.
One entry - excised after he took over as Party chief mentioned his liking for table tennis and ballroom dancing.
He is also said to have a photographic memory.
After graduating, he worked his way up through the ranks in
the Ministry of Water Conservancy and Power.
Mr Hu's party career began to take off after Deng's rise to
power in the late 1970s. He was one of several young
administrators promoted rapidly because of their performance
or patrons.
There has also been a little more openness, notably at the
time of the Sars outbreak, though Mr Hu has made clear he
has no interest in going so far as countenancing Western-style
political reform.
He has been described as a builder of consensus, bridging
competing factions at the top of the party.
It may be that his public persona remains a mystery because
he has been careful to move slowly and not antagonise his
predecessor, Mr Jiang, who remains a powerful and influential
figure.
Hu Jintao was born in 1942, and he is the first leader whose
party career began after the Communist takeover in 1949.
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CHINA
ECONOMY
By U.S Dept. of Commerce
http://www.state.gov
Economic Reforms
Since 1979, China has reformed and opened its economy. The
Chinese leadership has adopted a more pragmatic perspective
on many political and socioeconomic problems, and has
reduced the role of ideology in economic policy. China's
ongoing economic transformation has had a profound impact
not only on China but on the world. The market-oriented
reforms China has implemented over the past two decades
have unleashed individual initiative and entrepreneurship. The
result has been the largest reduction of poverty and one of the
fastest increases in income levels ever seen. China today is
the fourth-largest economy in the world. It has sustained
average economic growth of over 9.5% for the past 26 years.
In 2006 its $2.68 trillion economy was about one-fifth the size
of the U.S. economy.
In the 1980s, China tried to combine central planning with
market-oriented reforms to increase productivity, living
standards, and technological quality without exacerbating
inflation, unemployment, and budget deficits. China pursued
agricultural reforms, dismantling the commune system and
introducing a household-based system that provided peasants
greater decision-making in agricultural activities. The
government also encouraged nonagricultural activities such as
village enterprises in rural areas, and promoted more selfmanagement for state-owned enterprises, increased
competition in the marketplace, and facilitated direct contact
between Chinese and foreign trading enterprises. China also
relied more upon foreign financing and imports.
During the 1980s, these reforms led to average annual rates of
growth of 10% in agricultural and industrial output. Rural per
capita real income doubled. China became self-sufficient in
grain production; rural industries accounted for 23% of
agricultural output, helping absorb surplus labor in the
countryside. The variety of light industrial and consumer goods
increased. Reforms began in the fiscal, financial, banking,
price-setting, and labor systems.
By the late 1980s, however, the economy had become
overheated with increasing rates of inflation. At the end of
1988, in reaction to a surge of inflation caused by accelerated
price reforms, the leadership introduced an austerity program.
China's economy regained momentum in the early 1990s.
During a visit to southern China in early 1992, China's
paramount leader at the time, Deng Xiaoping, made a series
of political pronouncements designed to reinvigorate the
process of economic reform. The 14th Party Congress later in
the year backed Deng's renewed push for market reforms,
stating that China's key task in the 1990s was to create a
"socialist market economy." The 10-year development plan for
the 1990s stressed continuity in the political system with
bolder reform of the economic system.
Following the Chinese Communist Party's Third Plenum, held
in October 2003, Chinese legislators unveiled several
proposed amendments to the state constitution. One of the
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most significant was a proposal to provide protection for
private property rights. Legislators also indicated there would
be a new emphasis on certain aspects of overall government
economic policy, including efforts to reduce unemployment
(now in the 8-10% range in urban areas), to rebalance income
distribution between urban and rural regions, and to maintain
economic growth while protecting the environment and
improving social equity. The National People's Congress
approved the amendments when it met in March 2004. The
Fifth Plenum in October 2005 approved the 11th Five-Year
Economic Program aimed at building a "harmonious society"
through more balanced wealth distribution and improved
education, medical care, and social security.
Agriculture
China is the world's most populous country and one of the
largest producers and consumers of agricultural products.
Over 40% of China's labor force is engaged in agriculture,
even though only 10% of the land is suitable for cultivation and
agriculture contributes only 13% of China's GDP. China's
cropland area is only 75% of the U.S. total, but China still
produces about 30% more crops and livestock than the United
States because of intensive cultivation, China is among the
world's largest producers of rice, corn, wheat, soybeans,
vegetables, tea, and pork. Major non-food crops include cotton,
other fibers, and oilseeds. China hopes to further increase
agricultural production through improved plant stocks,
fertilizers, and technology. Incomes for Chinese farmers are
stagnating, leading to an increasing wealth gap between the
cities and countryside. Government policies that continue to
emphasize grain self-sufficiency and the fact that farmers do
not own--and cannot buy or sell--the land they work have
contributed to this situation. In addition, inadequate port
facilities and lack of warehousing and cold storage facilities
impede both domestic and international agricultural trade.
Industry
Industry and construction account for about 46% of China's
GDP. Major industries are mining and ore processing; iron;
steel; aluminum; coal, machinery; textiles and apparel;
armaments; petroleum; cement; chemicals; fertilizers;
consumer products including footwear, toys, and electronics;
automobiles and other transportation equipment including rail
cars and locomotives, ships, and aircraft; and
telecommunications.
China has become a preferred destination for the relocation of
global manufacturing facilities. Its strength as an export
platform has contributed to incomes and employment in China.
The state-owned sector still accounts for about 40% of GDP.
In recent years, authorities have been giving greater attention
to the management of state assets--both in the financial
market as well as among state-owned-enterprises--and
progress has been noteworthy.
Regulatory Environment
Though China's economy has expanded rapidly, its regulatory
environment has not kept pace. Since Deng Xiaoping's open
market reforms, the growth of new businesses has outpaced
the government's ability to regulate them. This has created a
situation where businesses, faced with mounting competition
and poor oversight, will be willing to take drastic measures to
increase profit margins, often at the expense of consumer
safety. This issue acquired more prominence in 2007, with the
United States placing a number of restrictions on problematic
Chinese exports. The Chinese Government recognizes the
severity of the problem, recently concluding that up to 20% of
the country's products are substandard or tainted, and
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undertaking efforts in coordination with the United States and
others to better regulate the problem.
Energy
Together with strong economic growth, China's demand for
energy is surging rapidly. In 2003, China surpassed Japan to
become the second-largest consumer of primary energy, after
the United States. China is the world's second-largest
consumer of oil, after the United States, and for 2006, China's
increase in oil demand represented 38% of the world total
increase in oil demand. China is also the third-largest energy
producer in the world, after the United States and Russia.
China's electricity consumption is expected to grow by over
4% a year through 2030, which will require more than $2
trillion in electricity infrastructure investment to meet the
demand. China expects to add approximately 15,000
megawatts of generating capacity a year, with 20% of that
coming from foreign suppliers.
Coal makes up the bulk of China's energy consumption (70%
in 2005), and China is the largest producer and consumer of
coal in the world. As China's economy continues to grow,
China's coal demand is projected to rise significantly. Although
coal's share of China's overall energy consumption will
decrease, coal consumption will continue to rise in absolute
terms. China's continued and increasing reliance on coal as a
power source has contributed significantly to putting China on
the path to becoming the world's largest emitter of acid raincausing sulfur dioxide and green house gases, including
carbon dioxide.
The 11th Five-Year Program, announced in 2005, calls for
greater energy conservation measures, including development
of renewable energy sources and increased attention to
environmental protection. Moving away from coal towards
cleaner energy sources including oil, natural gas, renewable
energy, and nuclear power is an important component of
China's development program. China has abundant
hydroelectric resources; the Three Gorges Dam, for example,
will have a total capacity of 18 gigawatts when fully on-line
(projected for 2009). In addition, the share of electricity
generated by nuclear power is projected to grow from 1% in
2000 to 5% in 2030. China's renewable energy law, which
went into effect in 2006, calls for 10% of its energy to come
from renewable energy sources by 2020.
Since 1993, China has been a net importer of oil, a large
portion of which comes from the Middle East. Net imports are
expected to rise to 3.5 million barrels per day by 2010. China
is interested in diversifying the sources of its oil imports and
has invested in oil fields around the world. Beijing also plans to
increase China's natural gas production, which currently
accounts for only 3% of China's total energy consumption.
Analysts expect China's consumption of natural gas to more
than double by 2010.
In May 2004, then-Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham
signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with China's
National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) that
launched the U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue. The
dialogue has strengthened energy-related interactions
between China and the United States, the world's two largest
energy consumers. The U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue
builds upon the two countries' existing cooperative ventures in
high energy nuclear physics, fossil energy, energy efficiency
and renewable energy and energy information exchanges. The
NDRC and the Department of Energy also exchange views
and expertise on Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Technologies, and
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we convene an annual Oil and Gas Industry Forum with China.
Chinese economy 7%-10% of GDP each year.
In July 2009, during the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic
Dialogue, the two countries negotiated a Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) to Enhance Cooperation on Climate
Change, Energy, and the Environment in order to expand and
enhance cooperation between the two sides on clean and
efficient energy, to protect the environment, and to ensure
energy security.
China's leaders are increasingly paying attention to the
country's severe environmental problems. In 1998, the State
Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) was officially
upgraded to a ministry-level agency, reflecting the growing
importance the Chinese Government places on environmental
protection. In recent years, China has strengthened its
environmental legislation and made some progress in
stemming environmental deterioration. In 2005, China joined
the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development, which
brings industries and governments together to implement
strategies that reduce pollution and address climate change.
During the 10th Five-Year Plan, China plans to reduce total
emissions by 10%. Beijing in particular invested heavily in
pollution control as part of its campaign to host a successful
Olympiad in 2008. Some cities have seen improvement in air
quality in recent years.
Environment
One of the serious negative consequences of China's rapid
industrial development has been increased pollution and
degradation of natural resources. Many analysts estimate that
China will surpass the United States as the world's largest
emitter of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in 2009.
A World Health Organization report on air quality in 272 cities
worldwide concluded that seven of the world's 10 most
polluted cities were in China. According to China's own
evaluation, two-thirds of the 338 cities for which air-quality
data are available are considered polluted--two-thirds of them
moderately or severely so. Respiratory and heart diseases
related to air pollution are the leading cause of death in China.
Almost all of the nation's rivers are considered polluted to
some degree, and half of the population lacks access to clean
water. By some estimates, every day approximately 300
million residents drink contaminated water. Ninety percent of
urban water bodies are severely polluted. Water scarcity also
is an issue; for example, severe water scarcity in Northern
China is a serious threat to sustained economic growth and
the government has begun working on a project for a largescale diversion of water from the Yangtze River to northern
cities, including Beijing and Tianjin. Acid rain falls on 30% of
the country. Various studies estimate pollution costs the
China is an active participant in climate change talks and other
multilateral environmental negotiations, taking environmental
challenges seriously but pushing for the developed world to
help developing countries to a greater extent. It is a signatory
to the Basel Convention governing the transport and disposal
of hazardous waste and the Montreal Protocol for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer, as well as the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species and other major
environmental agreements.
The question of environmental impacts associated with the
Three Gorges Dam project has generated controversy among
environmentalists inside and outside China. Critics claim that
erosion and silting of the Yangtze River threaten several
endangered species, while Chinese officials say the dam will
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help prevent devastating floods and generate clean
hydroelectric power that will enable the region to lower its
dependence on coal, thus lessening air pollution.
The United States and China are members of the Asia Pacific
Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP). The
APP is a public-private partnership of six nations--Australia,
China, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the United
States--committed to explore new mechanisms to meet
national pollution reduction, energy security and climate
change goals in ways that reduce poverty and promote
economic development. APP members have undertaken
cooperative activities involving deployment of clean technology
in partner countries in eight areas: cleaner fossil energy,
renewable energy and distributed generation, power
generation and transmission, steel, aluminum, cement, coal
mining, and buildings and appliances.
The United States and China have been engaged in an active
program of bilateral environmental cooperation since the mid1990s, with an emphasis on clean energy technology and the
design of effective environmental policy. While both
governments view this cooperation positively, China has often
compared the U.S. program, which lacks a foreign assistance
component, with those of Japan and several European Union
(EU) countries that include generous levels of aid.
Science and Technology
Science and technology have always preoccupied China's
leaders; indeed, China's political leadership comes almost
exclusively from technical backgrounds and has a high regard
for science. Deng called it "the first productive force."
Distortions in the economy and society created by party rule
have severely hurt Chinese science, according to some
Chinese science policy experts. The Chinese Academy of
Sciences, modeled on the Soviet system, puts much of
China's greatest scientific talent in a large, under-funded
apparatus that remains largely isolated from industry, although
the reforms of the past decade have begun to address this
problem.
Chinese science strategists see China's greatest opportunities
in newly emerging fields such as biotechnology and computers,
where there is still a chance for China to become a significant
player. Most Chinese students who went abroad have not
returned, but they have built a dense network of trans-Pacific
contacts that will greatly facilitate U.S.-China scientific
cooperation in coming years. The U.S. space program is often
held up as the standard of scientific modernity in China.
China's small but growing space program, which successfully
completed their second manned orbit in October 2005, is a
focus of national pride.
The U.S.-China Science and Technology Agreement remains
the framework for bilateral cooperation in this field. A 5-year
agreement to extend the Science and Technology Agreement
was signed in April 2006. The agreement is among the
longest-standing U.S.-China accords, and includes over 11
U.S. Federal agencies and numerous branches that participate
in cooperative exchanges under the Science and Technology
Agreement and its nearly 60 protocols, memoranda of
understanding, agreements, and annexes. The agreement
covers cooperation in areas such as marine conservation,
renewable energy, and health. Biennial Joint Commission
Meetings on Science and Technology bring together
policymakers from both sides to coordinate joint science and
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technology cooperation. Executive Secretaries meetings are
held biennially to implement specific cooperation programs.
Japan and the European Union also have high profile science
and technology cooperative relationships with China.
Trade
The U.S. trade deficit with China reached $268 billion in 2008.
U.S. imports from China accounted for 16.1% of overall U.S.
imports in 2008. At the same time, the share of many other
Asian countries' imports to the United States and the U.S.
trade deficit with the Asia-Pacific region as a whole have fallen.
U.S. goods exports to China, which accounted for 5.5% of total
U.S. exports in 2008, totaled $71.5 billion, a 9.5% increase of
$16.2 billion from 2007 ($55.3 billion). The top three U.S.
exports to China in 2008 were electrical machinery ($11.4
billion), machinery ($9.7 billion), and aircraft ($5.1 billion). In
July 2009, Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner met with
P.R.C. Vice Premier Wang Qishangin Beijing for the inaugural
round of the Strategic and Economic Dialogue (for further
details, please refer to the S&ED section below). In November
1991, China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC) group, which promotes free trade and cooperation in
the economic, trade, investment, and technology spheres.
China served as APEC chair in 2001, and Shanghai hosted
the annual APEC leaders meeting in October of that year.
China formally joined the WTO in December 2001. As part of
this far-reaching trade liberalization agreement, China agreed
to lower tariffs and abolish market impediments. Chinese and
foreign businessmen, for example, gained the right to import
and export on their own, and to sell their products without
going through a government middleman. By 2005, average
tariff rates on key U.S. agricultural exports dropped from 31%
to 14% and on industrial products from 25% to 9%. The
agreement also opens up new opportunities for U.S. providers
of services like banking, insurance, and telecommunications.
China has made significant progress implementing its WTO
commitments, but serious concerns remain, particularly in the
realm of intellectual property rights protection.
China is now one of the most important markets for U.S.
exports: in 2008, U.S. exports to China totaled $71.5 billion, a
9.5% increase of $16.2 billion from 2007. U.S. agricultural
exports have increased dramatically, totaling $12.2 billion in
2009 and thus making China our fourth-largest agricultural
export market. Leading categories include: soybeans ($7.3
billion), cotton ($1.6 billion), and hides and skins ($859 million).
Export growth continues to be a major driver of China's rapid
economic growth. To increase exports, China has pursued
policies such as fostering the rapid development of foreigninvested factories, which assemble imported components into
consumer goods for export, and liberalizing trading rights. In
its eleventh Five-Year Program, adopted in 2005, China
placed greater emphasis on developing a consumer demanddriven economy to sustain economic growth and address
global imbalances.
The United States is one of China's primary suppliers of power
generating equipment, aircraft and parts, computers and
industrial machinery, raw materials, and chemical and
agricultural products. However, U.S. exporters continue to
have concerns about fair market access due to strict testing
and standards requirements for some imported products. In
addition, a lack of transparency in the regulatory process
makes it difficult for businesses to plan for changes in the
domestic market structure.
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In April 2009, the United States and China announced that the
Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade (JCCT) will
continue to serve as the primary venue for the two countries to
discuss trade issues. Under the Obama administration, the
JCCT, which will be led by Commerce Secretary Gary Locke
and U.S. Trade Representative Ron Kirk on the U.S. side and
Vice Premier Wang Qishan on the Chinese side, will not only
focus on discussing trade issues, but will also include broader
issues such as healthcare and innovation and industrial
policies.
Foreign Investment
China's investment climate has changed dramatically in a
quarter-century of reform. In the early 1980s, China restricted
foreign investments to export-oriented operations and required
foreign investors to form joint-venture partnerships with
Chinese firms. Foreign direct investment (FDI) grew quickly
during the 1980s, but slowed in late 1989 in the aftermath of
Tiananmen. In response, the government introduced
legislation and regulations designed to encourage foreigners
to invest in high-priority sectors and regions. Since the early
1990s, China has allowed foreign investors to manufacture
and sell a wide range of goods on the domestic market, and
authorized the establishment of wholly foreign-owned
enterprises, now the preferred form of FDI. However, the
Chinese Government's emphasis on guiding FDI into
manufacturing has led to market saturation in some industries,
while leaving China's services sectors underdeveloped. China
is now one of the leading FDI recipients in the world, receiving
over $80 billion in 2007 according to the Chinese Ministry of
Commerce.
As part of its WTO accession, China undertook to eliminate
certain trade-related investment measures and to open up
specified sectors that had previously been closed to foreign
investment. New laws, regulations, and administrative
measures to implement these commitments are being issued.
Major remaining barriers to foreign investment include opaque
and inconsistently enforced laws and regulations and the lack
of a rules-based legal infrastructure.
Opening to the outside remains central to China's
development. Foreign-invested enterprises produce about half
of China's exports, and China continues to attract large
investment inflows. Foreign exchange and gold reserves were
$2.033 trillion at the end of 2008, and have now surpassed
those of Japan, making China's foreign exchange reserves the
largest in the world.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Since its establishment, the People's Republic has worked
vigorously to win international support for its position that it is
the sole legitimate government of all China, including Hong
Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. In the early 1970s, Beijing was
recognized diplomatically by most world powers. Beijing
assumed the China seat in the United Nations in 1971 and has
since become increasingly active in multilateral organizations.
Japan established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, and
the United States did so in 1979. As of March 2008, the
number of countries that had diplomatic relations with Beijing
had risen to 171, while 23 maintained diplomatic relations with
Taiwan.
After the founding of the P.R.C., China's foreign policy initially
focused on solidarity with the Soviet Union and other
communist countries. In 1950, China sent the People's
Liberation Army into North Korea to help North Korea halt the
UN offensive that was approaching the Yalu River. After the
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conclusion of the Korean conflict, China sought to balance its
identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing
friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries,
particularly in Southeast Asia.
In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political
influence among communist parties and in the developing
world generally. Following the 1968 Soviet invasion of
Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border,
Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly
reflected concern over China's own strategic position.
In late 1978, the Chinese also became concerned over
Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and
Cambodia. In response to the Vietnamese invasion of
Cambodia, China fought a brief border war with Vietnam
(February-March 1979) with the stated purpose of "teaching
Vietnam a lesson."
Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was
heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979
invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and
the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's
continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border
and in Mongolia--the so-called "three obstacles" to improved
Sino-Soviet relations.
In the 1970s and 1980s China sought to create a secure
regional and global environment for itself and to foster good
relations with countries that could aid its economic
development. To this end, China looked to the West for
assistance with its modernization drive and for help in
countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the
greatest threat to its national security and to world peace.
China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower
hegemony," focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist
actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as
Vietnam and Cuba, but it also placed growing emphasis on a
foreign policy independent of both the United States and the
Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China
continued to follow closely economic and other positions of the
Third World nonaligned movement, although China was not a
formal member.
In the immediate aftermath of Tiananmen crackdown in June
1989, many countries reduced their diplomatic contacts with
China as well as their economic assistance programs. In
response, China worked vigorously to expand its relations with
foreign countries, and by late 1990, had reestablished normal
relations with almost all nations. Following the collapse of the
Soviet Union in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic
relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union.
In recent years, Chinese leaders have been regular travelers
to all parts of the globe, and China has sought a higher profile
in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations
Security Council and other multilateral organizations. Closer to
home, China has made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia,
hosting the Six-Party Talks on North Korea's nuclear weapons
program, cultivating a more cooperative relationship with
members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), and participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum.
China has also taken steps to improve relations with countries
in South Asia, including India. Following Premier Wen's 2005
visit to India, the two sides moved to increase commercial and
cultural ties, as well as to resolve longstanding border disputes.
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The November 2006 visit of President Hu was the first state
visit by a Chinese head of state to India in 10 years.
China has likewise improved ties with Russia, with Presidents
Putin and Hu exchanging visits to Beijing and Moscow in April
2006 and March 2007. A second round of Russia-China joint
military exercises was scheduled for fall 2007. China has
played a prominent role in the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO), a regional grouping that includes Russia
and the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Beijing has resolved many of its
border and maritime disputes, notably including a November
1997 agreement with Russia that resolved almost all
outstanding border issues and a 2000 agreement with Vietnam
to resolve differences over their maritime border, though
disagreements remain over islands in the South China Sea.
Relations with Japan improved following Japanese Prime
Minister Shinzo Abe's October 2006 visit to Beijing, and
continued to improve under Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda until
his resignation in September 2008. Longstanding and
emotionally charged disputes over history and competing
claims to portions of the East China Sea remain sources of
tension.
While in many ways Sudan's primary diplomatic patron, China
has played a constructive role in support of peacekeeping
operations in Southern Sudan and pledged 315 engineering
troops in support of UN operations in Darfur, all of whom have
been deployed China has stated publicly that it shares the
international community's concern over Iran's nuclear program
and has voted in support of UN sanctions resolutions on Iran.
Set against these positive developments has been an effort on
the part of China to maintain close ties to countries such as
Iran, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Venezuela, which are sources of
oil and other resources and which welcome China's nonconditional assistance and investment.
The Chinese Zodiac is based on Chinese Lunar calendar.
Twelve animal signs are used to record the year in 12-year
cycle. The Chinese 12 Zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit,
Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig.
Asking a person's zodiac sign is a traditional way for Chinese
to recall his or her age since one's age correspond to one's
animal Zodiac sign. The 12 animal zodiac signs have been a
long-standing and distinctive Chinese culture. There are also
five elements - metal (gold), wood, water, fire, and earth that
integrate with the cycle of zodiac animals. A person's year sign
could be a gold dragon, a wood ox, and so on. Chinese
horoscopes have been developed around 12 zodiac animal
signs together with 5 elements to predict a person's
personality, degree of success and happiness in the future by
the characteristics of his or her animal zodiac sign with a
particular element. The 12 Chinese Zodiac shows a clear and
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non-technical cultural concept, which is different from the
Western zodiac. The 12 Chinese zodiac tradition remains a
vital part of Chinese culture today. Chinese people enjoy the
interesting concept and its long history, though most are not
serious about the fortune telling part of it.
The Rat
Years:
The Ox
1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996,
2008
The Rat is highly imaginative, charming and very
Brief Description generous. They can sometimes be quick tempered
and overly critical.
charming, protective, compassionate,
communicative, dynamic, familial, thrifty, skilful,
Positive Traits sober upright, attractive, idealistic, prosperous,
experimental, calm, sensual, loving, talented,
adaptable, open-minded and brilliant entrepreneurs
possessive, picky, defensive, excessive, addictive,
fickle, stingy, bumptious, bossy, exploitive, anxious,
Negative Traits
argumentative, opinionated, overbearing and selfobsessed
EXCELLENT
GOOD
Compatibility
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Rat, Ox, Dragon
Monkey, Dog, Pig
Rooster, Tiger, Rabbit,
Sheep
Snake, Horse
Famous People Ugly Betty star America Ferrera, dancer Gene
Who Have This Kelly, chefs Mario Batali and Julia Child, actors
Sign
David Duchovny and Hugh Grant
Years:
1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997,
2009
The Ox is full of strength and a born leader, they
are methodical and good with their hands. They
Brief Description
can also be introverted and often feel
misunderstood.
patient, contemplative, skillful, dexterous, eloquent,
Positive Traits confident, familiar, authoritative, industrious and
sure of foot
prejudice, chauvinistic, proud, tyrannical, petty,
Negative Traits critical, eccentric, bigoted, conservative, grumpy
and on occasion violent
EXCELLENT
Compatibility
GOOD
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Rat, Monkey, Rooster
Ox, Snake, Pig
Dog, Tiger, Rabbit
Horse, Dragon, Sheep
Actor Adrien Brody, President Gerald Ford, singer
Famous People
Melissa Etheridge, New Orleans Saints football
Who Have This
player Reggie Bush, actress Keira Knightley, model
Sign
Tyra Banks
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The Rabbit
The Tiger
Years:
Years:
1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998,
2010
Tigers are strong but very emotional and sensitive.
Brief Description They can get stubborn over things that they believe
to be right or true.
lovable, alluring, warm-hearted, altruistic,
Positive Traits honourable, hard-working, pleasant, independent,
engaging, dynamic and idealist sweetie pies
rash, hot-headed, reckless, infatuated,
Negative Traits quarrelsome, caustic, moody, predatory, rebellious,
disobedient and irreverent rascals
EXCELLENT
Compatibility
GOOD
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Brief Description
snobbish, secretive, pedantic, complicated,
haughtily indifferent, self-indulgent,
Negative Traits hypochondriacally, punctilious, judgmental, selfrighteous, deceptive, self-centered and terminally
condescending
EXCELLENT
Dragon, Horse, Pig
Monkey, Snake, Tiger, Sheep
Rabbits are kind, affectionate but often over
cautious and can be superficial at times.
sensitive, tactful, home loving, refined, prudent,
discreet, long-living, ambitious, cultured, wellPositive Traits mannered, artistic, considerate, scholarly, suave,
graciously hospitable, modest and unimpeachably
virtuous
Dog
Rat, Rooster, Ox, Rabbit
1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999,
2011
GOOD
Compatibility
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Famous People
Actress/director Jodie Foster, actor Tom Cruise,
Who Have This
biologist Jonas Salk, singer Alanis Morisette
Sign
Pig, Sheep
Monkey, Rabbit
Dog, Snake, Dragon, Horse,
Rat, Ox, Tiger
Rooster
Famous People Playwritght Arthur Miller, hairdresser Vidal
Who Have This Sassoon, actresses Lisa Kudrow, Drew Barrymore,
Sign
and Angelina Jolie, soccer star David Beckham
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The Snake
The Dragon
Years:
1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000,
2012
Brief Description
Dragons are witty, enthusiastic, popular, intelligent
and gifted yet are also perfectionists.
vibrant, magnanimous, charismatic, principled, selfsufficient, discriminating, compelling, sentimental,
Positive Traits
accomplished, noble-hearted, healthy and
prodigiously shrewd
bombastic, dissatisfied, ruthless, demanding,
Negative Traits opinionated, mawkish, egocentric, defensive,
power-mad, foolhardy, willful and pompous
EXCELLENT
GOOD
Compatibility
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Rat, Monkey, Rooster
Years:
Snakes are wise, romantic, deep thinkers heavily
Brief Description guided by their intuition. They do not trust others
easily and have trouble accepting criticism.
amiable, compromising, fun-loving, altruistic,
honourable, sympathetic, philosophical, charitable,
Positive Traits
a paragon of fashion, intuitive, discreet, diplomatic,
amusing and sexy
self-righteous, imperious, judgmental, conniving,
Negative Traits mendacious, grabby, clinging, pessimistic, fickle,
haughty, ostentatious and a very sore loser
EXCELLENT
Horse, Tiger, Sheep, Pig,
Snake
Rabbit
Dragon, Dog, Ox
Famous People Authors Roald Dahl and Amy Tan, musician Ringo
Who Have This Starr, actor Russell Crowe, actress Reese
Sign
Witherspoon
1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001,
2013
Compatibility
GOOD
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Rooster
Ox, Horse, Dog, Dragon,
Sheep
Rabbit, Monkey, Snake
Rat, Tiger, Pig
Famous People
Musician Dizzy Gillespie, tv and radio personality
Who Have This
Dick
Sign
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The Goat (Ram or Sheep)
The Horse
Years:
1918, 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002,
2014
Years:
1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003,
2015
Horses are very capable of hard work, independent
Brief Description and intelligent. However, they can sometimes be
very selfish.
Sheep are often elegant and artistic and like to be
Brief Description part of a group. They are good with people but tend
to step off on the wrong foot.
productive, enthusiastic, amusing, warm-hearted,
talented, agreeable, industrious, generous,
Positive Traits
sociable, autonomous, strong minded, sexy,
curious, persuasive and logical
appealing, altruistic, creative, empathetic, intuitive,
Positive Traits generous, artless, gentle, romantic, sensitive,
compliant, candid and self-effacing darlings
defiant, condescending, unscrupulous, anxious,
moody, excessively pragmatic, opportunistic, hardNegative Traits
nosed, self-serving and so obtuse as to seem to
have gone both blind and deaf at once
EXCELLENT
Compatibility
GOOD
FAIR
DIFFICULT
self-pitying, pessimistic, fugitive, parasitic, vengeful,
lazy, indecisive, contentious, violent, capricious,
Negative Traits
irresponsible, tardy, careless, bigoted, nasty little
pieces of work
EXCELLENT
Sheep, Dog
Tiger, Snake, Dragon, Pig
GOOD
Compatibility
FAIR
Rooster, Horse, Rabbit
Ox, Monkey, Rat
Politician Nelson Mandela, singer Aretha Franklin,
Famous People
Grey’s Anatomy actress Katherine Heigl, actress
Who Have This
Halle Berry, actor Kiefer Sutherland, action star
Sign
Jackie Chan
DIFFICULT
Pig, Rabbit, Horse
Dragon, Snake
Monkey, Sheep, Dog,
Rooster, Rat
Ox, Tiger
Famous People Singer Nat King Cole, musician Yo-Yo Ma, actress
Who Have This Nicole Kidman, actor/comedian Will Ferrell, author
Sign
Toni MorrisoN
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The Rooster
The Monkey
Years:
1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004,
2016
Monkeys are very popular and have a magnetic
Brief Description personality. They can however get very
competitive.
reasonable, faithful, autonomous, candid, altruistic,
Positive Traits successful, inventive, co-operative, loving,
intelligent, individualistic and generous entertainers
hyperemotional, capricious, guileful, self-indulgent,
Negative Traits immature, insecure, indifferent, careless, gullible,
petty and grabby scene-stealers
Compatibility
EXCELLENT
Dragon, Monkey, Ox
GOOD
Rat, Rabbit, Rooster
FAIR
Sheep, Pig, Snake
DIFFICULT
Horse, Dog, Tiger
Years:
1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005,
2017
Roosters are very smart dressers, hard workers
and dreamers. They have a tendency of speaking
Brief Description
their minds all the time which isn't always a good
thing!
forthright, brave, enthusiastic, loyal, hardworking,
tenacious, resilient, adventurous, meticulous,
Positive Traits prompt, astute, well-dressed, proficient, down-toearth, gregarious, communicative, sensible,
generous, charming, ebullient and terminally witty
cranky, fussy, vain, self-involved, blindly
egotistical, over-zealous, pretentious,
Negative Traits
materialistic, grabby, high-handed, cynical,
mercurial, self-absorbed and quixotic as hell
EXCELLENT
GOOD
Compatibility
Famous People Author John Updike, singer Diana Ross, actresses
Who Have This Naomi Watts and Lucy Liu, actors Will Smith and
Sign
Ryan Gosling
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Snake, Dragon, Ox
Monkey
Tiger, Rat, Pig, Sheep, Horse,
Dog
Rabbit, Rooster
Famous People Comedian Rodney Dangerfield, TV personality
Who Have This Larry King, singer Gloria Estefan, actresses Cate
Sign
Blanchett and Natalie Portman, actor Jack Black
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The Dog
Years:
The Pig (or Boar)
1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006,
2018
Dogs will never let you down, they are honest, and
Brief Description faithful, they put others first but often worry too
much.
attentive, well meaning, helpful, warm-hearted,
Positive Traits altruistic, modest, devoted, philosophical, dutiful,
discreet, intelligent and enthusiastic
nasty, mean-spirited, disagreeable, bad-tempered,
Negative Traits self-righteous, judgmental, quarrelsome, accusing,
nervous, anxious and impossible to live with
EXCELLENT
Compatibility
GOOD
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Horse, Tiger
Years:
Brief
Description
1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007,
2019
Pigs are very tolerant, kind and courteous with
inner strength. They can be naive and too
impulsive at times.
sensible, sensual and sensitive, sweetly naive,
caring, self-sacrificing, erudite, talented, openPositive Traits
handed, candid, outgoing, amusing, charitable,
obliging, graciously hospitable and virtuous
Negative
Traits
Pig, Snake, Dog, Rat
Rabbit, Ox, Sheep, Rooster
hot-tempered, pessimistic, outrageously epicurean,
earthy to a fault, sardonic, snobbish, snide,
authoritarian, competitive, know-it-all, stingy,
victimized and sometimes downright criminally mad
at the world
EXCELLENT
Monkey, Dragon
Famous People Singer/actress Judy Garland, fashion designer
Who Have This Giorgio Armani, actresses Michelle Pfeiffer and
Sign
Kirsten Dunst, actor Matt Damon
Compatibility
GOOD
FAIR
DIFFICULT
Famous
People Who
Have This
Sign
Rabbit, Sheep
Dog, Tiger, Horse, Dragon,
Rat, Ox
Rooster, Monkey, Pig
Snake
Politician Henry Kissinger, country singer Loretta
Lynn, House star Hugh Laurie, actor Ewan
McGregor, cyclist Lance Armstrong, pop star Carrie
Underwood
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All about Chinese New Year
Chinese New Year is a holiday that celebrates the beginning of a
new year according to the lunar calendar. It is considered to be one
of the most important holidays for Chinese families.
The holiday is celebrated with big family gatherings, gift giving, the
eating of symbolic foods and display of festive decorations--all
focused on bringing good luck for the new year and celebrating the
coming of Spring.
When Is Chinese New Year?
The start of Chinese New Year changes every year since it is
dictated by the lunar calendar. The Gregorian or solar calendar-which is based on the Earth's movement around the sun and has a
fixed number of 365 days a year (366 during a leap year)--is the
most widely used calendar system in the world and has been the
official calendar used in China since 1912.
But in China the lunar calendar is still used to determine traditional
holidays like Chinese New Year. Since the lunar calendar is based
on the phases of the moon-- which has a shorter cycle than the sun-Chinese New Year is never on the same day each year, but typically
falls somewhere between January 21st and February 20th.
How Long Do Chinese New Year Celebrations Last?
According to Daria Ng, Assistant Curator of Education at
the Museum of Chinese in the Americas in New York City,
celebrations can actually last up to a month, especially in China.
Originally the celebrations lasted for lengthy amounts of time
because China was a very agriculture-based country so farmers took
the whole month off to rest since crops couldn't be planted during the
winter. Nowadays most families celebrate the New Year for about
two week's time, says Ng, starting on the first day of the new year
and end on the 15th.
There are many traditions and symbols associated with Chinese
New Year. Here are a handful of the most popular practices.
Clean house and new clothes
According to Celebrate Chinese New Year by Elaine A. Kule, prior to
the first day of the New Year it is customary for families to thoroughly
clean their homes from top to bottom. Doing this is said to clear out
any back luck from the previous year and to ready the house to
accept good luck for the coming year.
All cleaning must be finished before New Year's Day so there is no
chance of accidentally throwing out the good fortune of the new year.
"Before New Year's Day you want to buy new clothes or cut your
hair" in order to have a fresh start, says Ng. Wearing black is not
allowed due to its association with death, however, wearing red is
encouraged as the color is associated with warding off bad spirits.
Decorate the house
Another popular custom is to hang up signs and posters on doors
and windows with the Chinese word fu written on them, which
translates to luck and happiness. Buying flowers for the home is
also commonplace since they symbolize the coming of spring and a
new beginning. Special lunar New Year flower markets pop up in
Chinese neighborhoods prior to the New Year.
Eat with your family
On the eve of the Chinese New Year it is customary to visit with
relatives and partake in a large dinner where a number of specific
foods are served.
"Typically families do eight or nine dishes because they are lucky
numbers," says Grace Young, author of The Wisdom of the Chinese
Kitchen. "The Chinese word for eight is baat [in Cantonese], which
rhymes with faat, the word for prosperity." The word for nine means
"long-lasting."
"A lot of the foods are very symbolic," explains Ng. Some popular
foods include: dumplings ("because they look like golden nuggets"
says Ng), oranges ("because they are perfectly round, symbolizing
completeness and wholeness"), and long noodles ("served to
symbolize long life").
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Sticky rice cakes and sweets are also served and are tied to a story
about the Kitchen God-- a Santa Claus-like figure who reports to the
Jade Emperor in heaven on whether families have been good or bad
through the course of the year. According to legend, when families
serve the Kitchen God sticky, delicious foods, his mouth gets stuck
together and therefore he cannot report any bad things about the
family to the Jade Emperor.
US-CHINA RELATIONS
Give good luck gifts
It is a traditional practice for adults to give children little red
envelopes--hong bao in Mandarin or lai-see in Cantonese--filled with
money in order to symbolize wealth and prosperity for the coming
year. It is also common for elders to bestow red packets to
unmarried members of the family. It is a sign of respect to bow three
times in order to accept the hong bao. Envelopes are not to be
opened until the recipient has left the home of the giver.
As the PLA armies moved south to complete the communist
conquest of China in 1949, the American Embassy followed the
Nationalist government headed by Chiang Kai-shek, finally moving to
Taipei later that year. U.S. consular officials remained in mainland
China. The new P.R.C. Government was hostile to this official
American presence, and all U.S. personnel were withdrawn from the
mainland in early 1950. Any remaining hope of normalizing relations
ended when U.S. and Chinese communist forces fought on opposing
sides in the Korean conflict.
Lanterns
The New Year's festivities come to an end on the fifteenth day of the
new year, which is celebrated by the Lantern Festival. According to
the book Moonbeams, Dumplings & Dragon Boats by Nina Simonds,
Leslie Swartz, and the Children's Museum, Boston, the Lantern
Festival honors the first full moon of the year and represents the
coming of springtime.
Families will light lanterns, which symbolize the brightness of spring,
and hang them on walls around the house, or on poles to be carried
in lantern parades.
Honor the animal
Each year is associated with one of the 12 animals of the Chinese
zodiac, with each animal being represented once every 12
years. These animals are often represented in decorations during
the holiday. Some people believe that those born during the year of
a particular animal will end up with the character traits of that animal.
For example, if you were born during the year of the rat, you will
grow up to be imaginative and cunning.
http://crafts.kaboose.com/holidays/chinese_new_year.html
U.S Dept. of Commerce
http://www.state.gov
From Revolution to the Shanghai Communique
Beginning in 1954 and continuing until 1970, the United States and
China held 136 meetings at the ambassadorial level, first at Geneva
and later at Warsaw. In the late 1960s, U.S. and Chinese political
leaders decided that improved bilateral relations were in their
common interest. In 1969, the United States initiated measures to
relax trade restrictions and other impediments to bilateral contact. On
July 15, 1971, President Nixon announced that his Assistant for
National Security Affairs, Dr. Henry Kissinger, had made a secret trip
to Beijing to initiate direct contact with the Chinese leadership and
that he, the President, had been invited to visit China.
In February 1972, President Nixon traveled to Beijing, Hangzhou,
and Shanghai. At the conclusion of his trip, the U.S. and Chinese
Governments issued the "Shanghai Communique," a statement of
their foreign policy views. (For the complete text of the Shanghai
Communique, see the Department of State Bulletin, March 20,
1972.)
In the Communique, both nations pledged to work toward the full
normalization of diplomatic relations. The United States
acknowledged the Chinese position that all Chinese on both sides of
the Taiwan Strait maintain that there is only one China and that
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Taiwan is part of China. The statement enabled the United States
and China to temporarily set aside the "crucial question obstructing
the normalization of relations"--Taiwan--and to open trade and other
contacts.
Liaison Office, 1973-78
In May 1973, in an effort to build toward the establishment of formal
diplomatic relations, the United States and China established the
United States Liaison Office (USLO) in Beijing and a counterpart
Chinese office in Washington, DC. In the years between 1973 and
1978, such distinguished Americans as David Bruce, George H.W.
Bush, Thomas Gates, and Leonard Woodcock served as chiefs of
the USLO with the personal rank of Ambassador.
President Ford visited China in 1975 and reaffirmed the U.S. interest
in normalizing relations with Beijing. Shortly after taking office in
1977, President Carter again reaffirmed the interest expressed in the
Shanghai Communique. The United States and China announced on
December 15, 1978, that the two governments would establish
diplomatic relations on January 1, 1979.
Normalization
In the Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic
Relations dated January 1, 1979, the United States transferred
diplomatic recognition from Taipei to Beijing. The United States
reiterated the Shanghai Communique's acknowledgment of the
Chinese position that there is only one China and that Taiwan is a
part of China; Beijing acknowledged that the American people would
continue to carry on commercial, cultural, and other unofficial
contacts with the people of Taiwan. The Taiwan Relations Act made
the necessary changes in U.S. domestic law to permit such unofficial
relations with Taiwan to flourish.
U.S.-China Relations Since Normalization
Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping's January 1979 visit to Washington, DC,
initiated a series of important, high-level exchanges, which continued
until the spring of 1989. This resulted in many bilateral agreements-especially in the fields of scientific, technological, and cultural
interchange and trade relations. Since early 1979, the United States
and China have initiated hundreds of joint research projects and
cooperative programs under the Agreement on Cooperation in
Science and Technology, the largest bilateral program.
On March 1, 1979, the United States and China formally established
embassies in Beijing and Washington, DC. During 1979, outstanding
private claims were resolved, and a bilateral trade agreement was
concluded. Vice President Walter Mondale reciprocated Vice
Premier Deng's visit with an August 1979 trip to China. This visit led
to agreements in September 1980 on maritime affairs, civil aviation
links, and textile matters, as well as a bilateral consular convention.
As a consequence of high-level and working-level contacts initiated
in 1980, U.S. dialogue with China broadened to cover a wide range
of issues, including global and regional strategic problems, politicalmilitary questions, including arms control, UN and other multilateral
organization affairs, and international narcotics matters.
The expanding relationship that followed normalization was
threatened in 1981 by Chinese objections to the level of U.S. arms
sales to Taiwan. Secretary of State Alexander Haig visited China in
June 1981 in an effort to resolve Chinese questions about America's
unofficial relations with Taiwan. Eight months of negotiations
produced the U.S.-China joint communique of August 17, 1982. In
this third communique, the United States stated its intention to
reduce gradually the level of arms sales to Taiwan, and the Chinese
described as a fundamental policy their effort to strive for a peaceful
resolution to the Taiwan question. Meanwhile, Vice President
George H.W. Bush visited China in May 1982.
High-level exchanges continued to be a significant means for
developing U.S.-China relations in the 1980s. President Reagan and
Premier Zhao Ziyang made reciprocal visits in 1984. In July 1985,
President Li Xiannian traveled to the United States, the first such visit
by a Chinese head of state. Vice President Bush visited China in
October 1985 and opened the U.S. Consulate General in Chengdu,
the fourth U.S. consular post in China. Further exchanges of cabinetlevel officials occurred between 1985-89, capped by President
George H.W. Bush's visit to Beijing in February 1989.
In the period before the June 3-4, 1989 crackdown, a large and
growing number of cultural exchange activities undertaken at all
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levels gave the American and Chinese peoples broad exposure to
each other's cultural, artistic, and educational achievements.
Numerous Chinese professional and official delegations visited the
United States each month. Many of these exchanges continued after
Tiananmen.
U.S.-China Economic Relations
U.S. direct investment in China covers a wide range of
manufacturing sectors, several large hotel projects, restaurant chains,
and petrochemicals. U.S. companies have entered agreements
establishing more than 20,000 equity joint ventures, contractual joint
ventures, and wholly foreign-owned enterprises in China. More than
100 U.S.-based multinationals have projects in China, some with
multiple investments. Cumulative U.S. investment in China was
estimated at $57 billion through the end of 2007, making the United
States the sixth-largest foreign investor in China.
Total two-way trade between China and the United States grew from
$33 billion in 1992 to over $386 billion in 2007. The United States is
China's second-largest trading partner, and China is now the thirdlargest trading partner for the United States (after Canada and
Mexico). U.S. exports to China have been growing more rapidly than
to any other market. U.S. imports from China grew 5.1% in 2008 and
accounted for 16.1% of overall U.S. imports in 2008, bringing the U.S.
trade deficit with China to $266.3 billion. Some of the factors that
influence the U.S. trade deficit with China include:
• A shift of low-end assembly industries to China from the
newly industrialized economies (NIEs) in Asia. China has
increasingly become the last link in a long chain of valueadded production. Because U.S. trade data attributes the
full value of a product to the final assembler, Chinese
value-added gets over-counted.
• Strong U.S. demand for Chinese goods.
• China's restrictive trade practices, which have included an
array of barriers to foreign goods and services, often aimed
at protecting state-owned enterprises. Under its WTO
accession agreement, China is reducing tariffs and
eliminating import licensing requirements, as well as
addressing other trade barriers.
The U.S. approach to its economic relations with China has two main
elements:
First, the United States seeks to fully integrate China into the global,
rules-based economic and trading system. China's participation in
the global economy will nurture the process of economic reform,
encourage China to take on responsibilities commensurate with its
growing influence, and increase China's stake in the stability and
prosperity of East Asia.
Second, the United States seeks to expand U.S. exporters' and
investors' access to the Chinese market. As China grows and
develops, its needs for imported goods and services will grow even
more rapidly. The U.S. Government will continue to work with
China's leadership to ensure full and timely conformity with China's
WTO commitments--including effective protection of intellectual
property rights--and to encourage China to move to a flexible,
market-based exchange rate in order to further increase U.S. exports
of goods, agricultural products, and services to the P.R.C.
U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED)
During a discussion of U.S.-China relations and global issues of
common interest at a bilateral meeting in April 2009, President
Barack Obama and President Hu Jintao agreed to work toward a
positive, cooperative, and comprehensive U.S.-China relationship for
the 21st century. They established the U.S.-China Strategic and
Economic Dialogue as the mechanism to advance that relationship.
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The Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED) provides a framework
for the U.S. and China to open up paths of communication on global
issues of common concern and deal with these challenges as
responsible global stakeholders.
The S&ED brings together top political and economic leaders from
both sides to identify opportunities for cooperation and engage in
frank discussions of priorities for our bilateral relationship. It
complements and adds additional force to the many existing bilateral
dialogues that we have with China. The S&ED sets the tone and
framework for these sub-dialogues, which incorporate the priorities
developed at the S&ED. It was designed to meet once a year to give
room for these sub-dialogues to produce results.
The dialogue enables us to work together to resolve our differences,
to build trust, and to strengthen cooperation, all of which serves our
common interest.
The strategic track of the S&ED consists of four pillars: 1) bilateral
relations (people-to-people exchanges); 2) international security
issues (nonproliferation, counterterrorism); 3) global issues (health,
development, energy, global institutions); and 4) regional security
and stability issues (Afghanistan/Pakistan, Iran, D.P.R.K.).
On July 27 and 28, 2009, the first Strategic and Economic Dialogue
was held in Washington, DC and was led by four co-chairs:
Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton and Secretary of the
Treasury Timothy Geithner, Vice Premier Wang Qishan, and State
Councilor Dai Bingguo. The event provided an opportunity for over
20 officials of cabinet rank from each side to meet face-to-face and
to discuss a range of substantive issues. This novel whole of
government approach incorporates the full range of economic,
regional, global, and environmental challenges that require action by
both countries in order to attain progress.
The joint press release on the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic
Dialogue documents more specifically the wide range of issues
discussed and is located on the State Department website
at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2009/july/126596.htm.
Over the next year, the United States and China will be working on
priority issues identified at the S&ED in our various bilateral
initiatives with China, including several sub-dialogues and meetings
between cabinet and sub-cabinet level officials. The results of these
meetings will feed into the planning for the second S&ED to be
hosted in Beijing in the early summer of 2010.
Chinese Diplomatic Representation in the United States
Ambassador--Zhou Wenzhong
In addition to China's Embassy in Washington, DC, there are
Chinese Consulates General in Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles,
New York, and San Francisco.
Embassy of the People's Republic of China
3505 International Place, NW
Washington, DC 20008
Tel.: (202) 328-2500
Consulate General of the People's Republic of China-New York
520 12th Avenue
New York, NY 10036
Tel.: (212) 868-7752
Consulate General of the People's Republic of China-San Francisco
1450 Laguna Street
San Francisco, California 94115
Tel.: (415) 563-4885
Consulate General of the People's Republic of China-Houston
3417 Montrose Blvd.
Houston, Texas 77006
Tel.: (713) 524-4311
Consulate General of the People's Republic of China-Chicago
100 West Erie St.
Chicago, Illinois 60610
Tel.: (312) 803-0098
Consulate General of the People's Republic of China-Los Angeles
62
11/13/2009
502 Shatto Place, Suite 300
Los Angeles, California 90020
Tel.: (213) 807-8088
CHINA TRAVEL
U.S. Diplomatic Representation in China
Ambassador--Jon M. Huntsman
In addition to the U.S. Embassy in Beijing, there are U.S. Consulates
General in Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang, and Wuhan.
American Embassy Beijing
No. 55 An Jia Lou Road
Beijing 100600
People's Republic of China
Tel.: (86) (10) 8531-3000
http://beijing.usembassy-china.org.cn/
China is a vast and quickly developing nation. Its amazing
economic growth has attracted the world’s attention, and
approximately 80% of the Fortune 500 companies already
have offices in China. There are abundant opportunities, both
large and small, for exchanges, investment and etc. The
Chinese government at all levels is eager to assist foreign
investors and visitors with preferential terms to ensure they
achieve the best returns!
Easton Resource Development, Inc. (ERD) has connections
with rich knowledge, wide connections and the expertise to
reach government bodies, industry associations, academic
institutions at all levels in China. We understand both
American and Chinese cultures as well as their mutual needs.
Our mission is to create a bridge between you and your
Chinese counterparts, thereby building up a friendly and
mutually beneficial relationship.
************
63
11/13/2009
Documents Required for Traveling to China
I. US PASSPORTS
The following information is taken directly from the Department
of State
at http://travel.state.gov/passport/get/first/first_830.html#
How to Apply in Person for a Passport
Should You Apply In Person?
You are applying for a U.S. passport for the first time.
Yes
Your previous U.S. passport was lost, stolen, or damaged.
Yes
Your previous U.S. passport has expired & was issued more
than 15 years ago.
Yes
Your previous passport has expired and it was issued when
you were under 16.
Yes
Your name has changed since your passport was issued and
you do not have a legal document formally changing your
name.
Yes
NOTES: All persons must have their own passports, including
infants. If you are behind in child support payments, you may
not be able to get a passport. See Child Support .
For All Minors Under Age 14:
• Each minor child shall appear in person.
• All applications for children under 14 require both parents' or
legal guardians' consent.
( See Special Requirements for Children Under Age 14 )
For All Minors Ages 14 to 17:
• Each minor child shall appear in person.
• For security reasons, parental consent may be requested.
• If your child does not have identification of his/her own, you
need to accompany your child and
present identification.
• Follow instructions below.
To Apply in Person for a U.S. Passport You MUST:
1. Provide Application for Passport, Form DS-11
• To download an application form, please click
here. http://travel.state.gov/passport/get/first/first_830.html#
• Or, forms can be obtained from any passport agency or
acceptance facility. (Call to check hours of availability.)
NOTE: Please do NOT sign the DS-11 application form until the
Passport Acceptance Agent instructs you to do so.
2. Present Proof of U.S. Citizenship
All documentation submitted as evidence of U.S. Citizenship
will be returned with the issued passport. See Processing
Times . You may prove U.S. Citizenship with any one of the
following:
• Previous U.S. Passport (mutilated, altered, or damaged
passports are not acceptable as evidence of U.S.
citizenship.)
• Certified birth certificate issued by the city, county or state
NOTE: A certified birth certificate has a registrar's raised, embossed,
impressed or multicolored seal, registrar’s signature, and the date
the certificate was filed with the registrar's office, which must be
within 1 year of your birth. Please note that some short (abstract)
versions of birth certificates may not be acceptable for passport
purposes.
• Consular Report of Birth Abroad or Certification of Birth
• Naturalization Certificate
• Certificate of Citizenship
A Delayed Birth Certificate filed more than one year after your
birth may be acceptable if it:
• Listed the documentation used to create it and
• Signed by the attending physician or midwife, or, lists an
affidavit signed by the parents, or shows early public
records.
If you do NOT have a previous U.S. passport or a certified birth
certificate, you will need:
a. Letter of No Record
64
11/13/2009
Issued by the State with your name, date of birth, which
years were searched for a birth record and that there is no
birth certificate on file for you.
b. AND as many of the following as possible:
• Baptismal certificate
• Hospital birth certificate
• Census record
• Early school record
• Family bible record
• Doctor's record of post-natal care
NOTES: These documents must be early public records showing
the date and place of birth, preferably created within the first five
years of your life. You may also submit an Affidavit of Birth, form DS10, from an older blood relative, i.e., a parent, aunt, uncle, sibling,
who has personal knowledge of your birth. It must be notarized or
have the seal and signature of the acceptance agent. If you were
born abroad AND do not have a Consular Report of Birth
Abroad or Certificate of Birth on file, you will need:
c. If you claim citizenship through birth abroad to one U.S.
citizen parent:
• Foreign birth certificate,
• Proof of citizenship of your U.S. citizen parent, AND
• An affidavit of your U.S. citizen parent showing all
periods and places of residence or physical presence in
the United States and abroad before your birth.
d. If you claim citizenship through birth abroad to two U.S.
citizen parents:
• Your foreign birth certificate,
• Parent’s marriage certificate, AND
• Proof of citizenship of your U.S. parents and an affidavit
of your U.S. citizen parents showing all periods and
places of residence of physical presence in the United
States and abroad before your birth.
Click here for additional information on documentation of U.S.
citizens born abroad who acquire citizenship at birth NOTE: The
following are NOT proof of citizenship
• Voter registration cards
• Army discharge papers
Information on foreign-born children adopted by U.S. citizens.
NOTE: If you travel extensively, you may request more Visa pages in
your passport at no additional cost. To do so, please attach a
signed request for additional Visa pages to be added to your
application. 48-page passport s are no longer available in the U.S.
or abroad. FOR MINORS UNDER THE AGE OF 14: The citizenship
evidence submitted for minors under the age of 14 must list both
parents' names. Read more information on the citizenship
requirements for minors under the age of 14.
3. Present Proof of Identity
You may prove your identity with any one of these, if you are
recognizable:
• Previous U.S. passport (mutilated, altered, or damaged
passports are not acceptable as proof of identity.)
• Naturalization Certificate
• Current, valid
o Driver's license
o Government ID: city, state or federal
o Military ID: military and dependents
NOTE: Your Social Security Card does NOT prove your identity.
If none of these are available , you will need:
A. Some signature documents, not acceptable alone as ID
(ex: a combination of documents, such as your Social Security card,
credit card, bank card, library card, etc.) AND
B. A person who can vouch for you. He/she must:
o Have known you for at least 2 years,
o Be a U.S. citizen or permanent resident,
o Have valid ID, and Fill out a Form DS-71 in the
presence of a passport agent.
FOR MINORS UNDER THE AGE OF 14: Each minor child shall
appear in person. Both parents or legal guardians must present
evidence of identity when they apply for a minor under the age of
14. Read more information on the identity requirements for minors
under the age of 14. FOR MINORS 14 to 17:
o Your child MUST appear in person.
o For security reasons, parental consent may be
requested.
65
11/13/2009
o
If your child does not have identification of his/her
own, you need to accompany your child, present
identification and co-sign the application.
The passport application fee includes the $12.00 Security Surcharge,
which became effective March 8, 2005.
Methods of Payment –
4. Provide Two Passport Photos
At Our 14 Passport Agencies Your photographs must be:
• 2x2 inches in size
• Identical
• Taken within the past 6 months, showing current
appearance
• Color
• Full face, front view with a plain white or off-white
background
• Between 1 inch and 1 3/8 inches from the bottom of the chin
to the top of the head
• Taken in normal street attire
o Uniforms should not be worn in photographs except
religious attire that is worn daily.
o Do not wear a hat or headgear that obscures the
hair or hairline.
o If you normally wear prescription glasses, a hearing
device, wig or similar articles, they should be worn
for your picture.
o Dark glasses or nonprescription glasses with tinted
lenses are not acceptable unless you need them for
medical reasons. A medical certificate may be
required.
Both fees and the surcharge are combined into one payment to the
''U.S. Department of State'':
• Credit Cards – VISA, MasterCard, American Express,
Discover
• Debit/Check cards (not ATM cards)
• Checks (personal, certified, cashiers', travelers'), money
orders (U.S. Postal, international, currency exchange), bank
drafts
Note: If abroad, U.S. Embassies and Consulates accept the foreign
currency equivalent, or a check drawn on a U.S. bank. At our
over 9,000 Passport Acceptance Facilities, you pay the passport
application fee and the security surcharge to the ''U.S. Department of
State'' and the execution fee to the facility where you are applying.
For Passport Application Fee:
• Personal checks, money orders, and bank drafts at all
locations
• Exact cash at some locations (verify with the Acceptance
Facility)
Click here for information on acceptable digitized photos.
Click here for detailed information for professional photographers.
NOTE: Vending machine photos are not generally acceptable
For Execution Fee:
• Money orders and bank drafts at all locations
• Personal checks and exact cash at some locations (verify
with the Acceptance Facility)
• Credit cards at U.S. Postal Facilities and some other
locations (verify with the Acceptance Facility)
5. Pay the Applicable Fee
Expedite Fee: (See How to Get Your Passport in a Hurry. )
Age 16 and older: The passport application fee is $67. The
execution fee is $30. The total is $97 .
Under Age 16: The passport application fee is $52. The execution
fee is $30. The total is $82 .
6. Provide a Social Security Number
If you do not provide your Social Security Number, the
Internal Revenue Service may impose a $500 penalty. If you
have any questions please call your nearest IRS office.
66
11/13/2009
Local facilities to pick up and turn in passport applications:
Facility
Name
Street
Stat
City
Address
e
1199
Jim Fonteno
Pasadena
Pasadena TX
Post Office
Blvd.
Albert
14917 El
Thomas
Houston TX
Camino Real
Post Office
Channelvie
531 Sheldon Channelvi
w Post
TX
Road
ew
Office
Baytown
601 W. Baker
Main Post
Baytown TX
Rd.
Office
Kemah Post 1129 Highway
Kemah
TX
Office
146
Webster
17077 Texas
Webster TX
Post Office Avenue
Highlands 608 S. Main
Highlands TX
Post Office Street
Sterling
M. E.
Municipal
Wilbanks
Baytown TX
Library
Avenue
Galveston
County
174 Calder
League
TX
District Clerk Rd. ste 143 City
of Court
League
League City 240 W.
TX
Post Office Galveston
City
ZIP
Public Phone
Code
77501(713) 472-5137
9998
II. China Visa Application
ERD also provides you China visa assistances. Our most
experienced and reliable service is convenient and hassle-free
for you. It is easy, fast, reliable and affordable. We are
committed to providing travelers with knowledgeable and
professional service to meet your tight and constant deadlines.
77062 (281) 488-9173
77530(281) 452-1586
9998
77521(281) 420-2500
9998
77565(800) 275-8777
9998
77598(281) 316-0156
9998
77562 (281) 426-6708
We apply China visa for all passport holders living in all 50
states no matter what nationality you are, including travel
agencies, students, company employees, individual tourists
and our own members of educational and cultural exchange
programs.
A visa is a "pre-authorization" stamp inside your passport.
The passport must be valid and not expire for at least 6
months from the date you plan to enter China. The visa
stamp permits entry into China for Tourist / Family Visit (L)
Visa, Business Visit (F) Visa, Employment / Work (Z)
Visa, Study (X) Visa or other purposes. All travel into China
requires a visa.
77520 (281) 427-7331
Requirements:
77573 (281) 316-8727
1. A valid and actual passport which must have at least
six (6) months of remaining validity with at least one
blank visa page in it.
77573(281) 557-0781
9998
2. A completed Visa Application with your original
signature, Download the application form
at http://www.chinavisa4u.com/bg01.pdf
3. One recently taken standard passport-size front-face
photo. (Do not scan a photo and print it on your
computer, the Chinese Consulate will not accept it!)
67
11/13/2009
4.
A copy of your green card if you are not an American
citizen
6. Visa Validity and Duration of Stay
•
Usually the validity of a Single Entry or Double
Entry "L" visa is 90 days or 180 days from the date
of issue. This means the holder of the visa shall
enter China no later than 90 days or 180 days from
the date of issue, otherwise the visa is expired and
is null and void. The duration of stay of a "L" visa is
30 days, which means the holder of the visa may
stay in China for up to 30 days from the date of
entry.
•
The visa officer may extend the Duration of Stay if
the applicant needs and requests a stay in China
for more than 30 days
5. To apply for a Multiple Entry "L" Visa valid for 6 months
or 1 year, one of the following requirements shall be
met:
o
Submit documents that certify he/she will come
to China frequently for family visits or
sightseeing. Acceptable documents include an
invitation letter from your family member in
China or proof of the kinship; or ownership
certificate of real estate in China, or sale
agreement or lease agreement of an apartment
in China; or a copy of adoption certificate or the
child's former Chinese passport if he/she has
adopted a child from China; or
o
Foreign Chinese born in China who has visited
China at least twice in the past 12 months, shall
submit a copy of the visa(s); or
o
Submit an official letter issued by the host
institution in China, or an application letter
which explains the need to visit China frequently
for tourism; or
o
Renew a multiple entry "L" visa, and shall
submit a copy of the visa if it's in a different
passport rather than the one submitted for a
new visa.
7. China Visa Application forms:
Please download the forms
at http://www.chinavisa4u.com/elvisa.shtml
68
11/13/2009
III. TRAVEL FACTS
Customs Regulations
Entry: Tourists must fill out a baggage declaration form (in two
copies) and hand it in to customs, retaining the carbon to show
upon exit. Personal belongings will be admitted duty free,
including food, two bottles of liquor and two cartons of cigarettes.
Wristwatches, radios, tape recorders, cameras, movie cameras,
and similar items may be brought in for personal use but cannot
be sold or transferred to others and must be brought out of
China. Gifts for relatives or friends in China, or articles carried on
behalf of other, must also be declared. Visitors can bring in an
unlimited amount of foreign currency and Chinese Renminbi
(RMB) traveler's checks, and the unspent portion can be taken
out.
Bringing in the following articles is prohibited:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Arms, ammunition, and explosives of all kinds
Radio transmitters-receivers and principal parts
Renminbi (RMB) in cash
Manuscripts, printed matter, films, photographs,
gramophone records, cinematographic films, loaded
recording tapes and videotapes, etc. which are detrimental
to China's politics, economy, culture, and ethics
Poisonous drugs, habit-forming drugs, opium, morphine,
heroin, etc.
Animals, plants and products thereof infected with or
carrying germs and insect pests
Unsanitary foodstuffs and germ-carrying food-stuffs from
infected areas
Other articles the import of which is prohibited by state
regulations
Exit: On leaving China, tourists must again submit the baggage
declaration form for customs inspection (the second copy).
Travelers by ship are exempted. Items purchased in China with
RMB converted from foreign currencies may be taken out or
mailed out of the country after receipts are presented for
customs inspection. In cities where a Customs Office does not
exit, this can be arranged through the local Friendship Store.
Taking out the following articles is prohibited:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Arms, ammunition, and explosives of all kinds
Radio transmitters-receivers and principal parts
Renminbi (Chinese currency) in cash and negotiable
securities in RMB
Unratified foreign currency, foreign notes or drafts
Manuscripts, printed matter, films, photographs,
gramophone records, cinematographic films, loaded
recording tapes and videotapes, etc. which are detrimental
to China's national security
Rare and precious copies of books about Chinese
revolution, history, culture and art that are not for sale
Valuable animals, plants, and seeds
Precious metals, pearls, and jewels (things declared to the
customs are exempted)
Other articles the export of which is prohibited by state
regulations
Quarantine & Immunizations
Those who carry such special articles as microorganisms, human
body tissues, biological products, and blood and its products,
should declare to a quarantine department, and subject these
articles to quarantine inspections. Passengers from yellow feverinfested areas should, when entering China, display to the
quarantine department effective certificates showing that they
have been inoculated against yellow fever. He who does not have
such a valid certificate shall be retained for observation for six
days beginning from the day he left the infested area, or he shall
be inoculated and retained until the certificate comes into effect. It
is the task of the Chinese quarantine authorities to prevent
foreigners suffering AIDS, venereal diseases, leprosy, mental
diseases and open tuberculosis from entering China.
There are no particular immunizations required for entry into
China, unless the traveler is coming from a yellow fever infected
area. The Canadian and US disease control and prevention
69
11/13/2009
authorities recommend the all travelers have current polio and
tetanus immunizations. For traveling into the countryside and
remote areas, immune globulin is also recommended to combat
hepatitis A, as is typhoid immunization. It is very important that
you consult your own doctor or local clinic for more information.
We advise you to bring along a supply of antibiotics, an antidiarrhea agent, and any other prescription drugs required by your
current medical conditions.
Currency
The Chinese currency is called Renminbi, and is issued by the
People's Bank of China. The unit of Renminbi is the yuan and the
smaller units are the jiao and fen (10 fen=1 jiao, 10 jiao=1 yuan).
Yuan, jiao and fen are issued as paper banknotes but there are
also yuan, five jiao and fen coins. Denominations of yuan
banknotes are 1 yuan, 2 yuan, 5 yuan, 10 yuan, 20 yuan, 50 yuan
and 100 yuan. Jiao banknotes are 1 jiao, 2 jiao and 5 jiao and fen
banknotes are 1 fen, 2 fen and 5 fen. The abbreviation for
Chinese currency is RMB¥. Many hotels and stores accept major
credit cards. At present, the following credit cards can be used in
China: Master Card, Visa Card, American Express, JCB, Diners
Card. Holders of these cards can draw cash from the Bank of
China, buy goods and pay for purchases at exchange centers of
the Bank of China, appointed shops, hotels and restaurants.
For the convenience of tourists, the Bank of China can cash
travelers' checks sold by international commercial banks and
travelers' check companies in the United States, Canada,
Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, Britain, France, Switzerland,
Germany and other countries and regions. Also the Bank of China
sells travelers' checks for such banks as American Express,
Citibank, Tongjilong Travelers' Check Co., the Sumitomo Bank of
Japan, the Swiss Banking Corporation and others.
Foreign Exchange
Foreign currency cannot be circulated within the People's
Republic of China or used to determine the price and settle
accounts. At present, China will accept and convert into Chinese
Renminbi such foreign currencies as the US dollar, British pound,
Euro, Japanese yen, Australian dollar, Austrian schilling, Belgian
franc, Canadian dollar, HK dollar, Swiss franc, Danish Krone,
Singapore dollar, Malaysian ringgit, Italian lira, Macao dollar,
Finnish markka, and Taiwan dollar. Exchange rates are issued
every day by the State Administration of Exchange Control.
Before leaving China, unused Chinese Renminbi can be
converted back into foreign currency with a "foreign exchange
certificate" which is valid for six months.
Packing and Checklist
The rule of thumb is to PACK LIGHTLY, and bring casual clothes. A
sturdy, comfortable pair of walking shoes is an absolute. A sports
coat and a nice shirt for man, and one or two dresses or pantsuits for
women will suit the most formal occasions to be encountered in
China. Travelers should bring shirts, sweaters and jackets that can
be worn in layers to suit a range of climates. Shorts (for both men
and women) are fine for summer days though not recommended
when visiting religious shrines. Remember, dress for Comfort, not for
Style.
Checklist:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Razor, alarm clock.
Common toiletries, cold and digestive medications, lip balm,
sanitary napkins and any over-the-counter medicines you
generally use.
Chewing gum, mints or throat lozenges to keep your mouth
moist.
Reading materials, including a guidebook on the places you
will see.
Sunscreen lotion and sunglasses.
A light raincoat or an umbrella except in winter months.
Camera & film. Be aware that while print film is available in
most places, slide film may be difficult to find. And be sure to
pack extra batteries.
A notebook to keep track of all the exciting things happening
on the trip.
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11/13/2009
Electricity
The electricity used in China is 220 volt AC. Many middle
and high-class hotel wash rooms have transformer plugs or
have separate plugs for 110 volt AC.
Climate and Clothing
China has a continental and seasonal climate. Most parts are in
the temperate zone but southern areas are in the tropical or
subtropical zone while northern areas are in the frigid zone.
Climates in different areas are complicated. For instance,
northern Heilongjiang Province has a winter climate the year
round without summer, while Hainan Island has a summer
climate the year round without winter. The following is a
reference table for tourists to prepare clothing on their trips.
China can be visited through out the year because of the
stretch of its territories and sites and activities it can offer.
Deciding when to visit China depends on which places you
wish to visit, what type of weather you enjoy, and how much
a bargain you want. China is a huge country with many
different climates and types of landscape. Think of it in terms
of the United States, which China resembles in size and
shape. Traveling along the Golden Route (Beijing, Xian,
Shanghai, Guilin) is like visiting New York, Chicago, Santa
Fe, and Jacksonville, Florida all in one trip.
•
•
Average Temperatures (Centigrade/Fahrenheit) in Major Cities
CITY
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JU
N
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Beijing
-4.1
25
-1.6
29
4.9
41
13.6
57
20.0
68
25.2
77
27.9
82
26.6
80
20.3
69
12.7
55
4.2
40
-2.2
28
Guilin
7.8
46
9.0
48
12.9
55
18.5
65
23.0
73
26.2
79
28.1
83
27.8
82
25.5
78
20.5
69
15.2
59
10.2
50
Kunming
7.9
46
10.0
50
13.2
56
16.6
62
19.1
67
19.6
67
19.7
67
19.0
66
17.2
63
14.6
58
11.1
52
8.0
46
HongKon
g
15.8
60
15.9
61
18.5
65
22.2
72
25.9
79
27.8
82
28.8
84
28.4
83
27.6
81
25.2
77
21.4
70
17.6
64
Shanghai
4.7
40
8.2
46
13.4
56
18.5
65
22.9
73
27.2
81
27.5
82
24.1
76
18.8
66
12.8
55.0
6.9
44
4.0
39
Suzhou
3.2
38
4.3
40
8.6
47
14.5
58
19.6
67
23.8
75
28.0
82
27.7
82
23.1
73
17.7
64
11.9
53
5.6
42
Xian
-0.5
31
2.5
37
8.4
47
14.6
59
19.6
67
25.0
77
26.4
80
24.8
77
19.0
66
13.3
56
6.3
43
0.7
33
CITY
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JU
N
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
•
•
Spring:10-22°C, Western suits, jackets, sports coats,
woolen jackets, long sleeve shirts and travel shoes.
Summer: 22°C and above, T-shirts, short sleeve shirts,
skirts, sandals, caps, rain wear.
Autumn: 10-22°C, Western suits, jackets, sports coats,
light woolen sweaters, rain wear and travel shoes.
Winter: 10°C or lower, overcoat, cotton clothes, lined
coats. In very cold areas a cap, gloves and cottonpadded shoes are required.
Health & Hygiene
China is a remarkably healthy country despite its relative
poverty and climatic variations. Standards of hygiene varies
from place to place so all visitors must be aware of potential
hazards and act cautiously. Tap water is not safe; all water
consumed must be boiled or filtered unless it is bottled
mineral water. Boiled water is available in all Chinese hotels
and restaurants. Although food is prepared fresh and cooked
or cleaned thoroughly, stomach upsets are possible so it is
advisable to take some medicine with you. Ailments such as
sore throats and chest colds are also possible and can occur
at any time of year considering China's climatic extremes.
The summer months are brutally hot so it is imperative to
combat the harmful summer heat with a sufficient supply of
liquids to prevent dehydration.
71
11/13/2009
Prior to departing for China, it is recommended that you get
accident and medical insurance coverage for any medical
expenses that may arise during a trip.
No vaccinations are required for travel to China but it is
advised to check with your doctor for current information.
Tetanus and typhoid vaccines are essential for travel
anywhere, and rabies and hepatitis vaccinations are
recommended. Please note that there is a risk of malaria in
remote areas of south China, so take precautionary
measures before you go.
Although many locals do drink the tap water, we recommend
that you drink only bottled water or boiled water. Bottled
water is available everywhere. You may use the tap water to
brush your teeth as long as you remember to rinse your
mouth once or twice after brushing. For Health Regulations
please check with your local health unit for required
vaccinations and inoculations.
Baggage Limits on Flights
For China domestic flights, you are allowed to check one
piece of luggage. A fee will be imposed for extra piece or
excessive weight. You can also take one carry-on plus a
backpack or tote bag, all of which should fit in the overhead
compartment or under your seat. However it is best to
update with the travel coordinator(s) for the newest
regulations and policies, as well as log on the web site to
search for the carriers you are going to take for both
international and China domestic flights. OR simply log on
our web site
at http://www.eastonresource.com/info/info.shtml
Safety
China is a relatively safe country. Travelers should be
conscious of pick pocketing and bag snatching.
Emergency Medical Service
The clinics in large hotels and restaurants offer medical and
first aid services to travelers. If you feel uncomfortable while
on a tour, you may call the outpatient department of a local
hotel, or ask your guide to take you to see the doctor.
Measurement
China uses metric system for measurement.
A comparison between Chinese system and Anglo-American
system:
Length, Square Measures, Weight and Volume
LENGTH
1 km (1,000 m) = 2 li = 0.621 mile = 0.54
sea mile
1 chi = 0.333 m = 1.094 ft
1 mile = 1.609 km = 3.219 li = 0.868 sea
mile
1 ft = 0.305 m = 0.914 chi
1 sea mile = 1.852 km = 3.704 li = 1.15
mile
SQUARE MEASURES
1 hectare = 15 mu = 2.47 acre
1 mu = 0.067 hectare = 0.164 acre
1 acre = 0.405 hectare = 6.07 mu
WEIGHT & VOLUME
1 kg = 2 jin = 2.205 pound
1 jin = 0.5 kg = 1.102 pound
1 liter = 1 sheng = 0.22 UK gallon
1 UK gallon = 4.546 liter = 4.546 sheng
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Telephone and Postal Service
In towns and cities, IDD service is provided at all hotels and
post offices. Phone cards are available in post offices inside
hotels or in the streets. Even more conveniently, most
newsstands in major cities also carry phone cards.
Telephone booths in the streets are mostly for local calls.
Tourist hotels provide postal services. If you want to send
important items such as antiques and cultural relics that are
under customs control, you will have to ask for the help of
the local branch of the international post office, instead of the
small post office in a hotel.
Some Useful Numbers
110--Police
112--Inner-city telephone mishaps
113--Operator of domestic long-distance calls
114--Inner-city telephone number inquiries
115--Operator of international long-distance calls
116--Information on domestic long-distance calls
117--Time
119-Fire
120--Ambulance
121--Weather forecasts
Table Manners
The main difference on the Chinese dinner table is
chopsticks instead of knife and fork, but that’s only
superficial. Besides, in decent restaurants, you can always
ask for a pair of knife and fork, if you find the chopsticks not
helpful enough. The real difference is that in the West, you
have your own plate of food, while in China the dishes are
placed on the table and everyone shares. If you are being
treated to a formal dinner and particularly if the host thinks
you’re in the country for the first time, he will do the best to
give you a taste of many different types of dishes.
The meal usually begins with a set of at least four cold
dishes, to be followed by the main courses of hot meat and
vegetable dishes. Soup then will be served (unless in
Guangdong style restaurants) to be followed by staple food
ranging from rice, noodles to dumplings. If you wish to have
your rice to go with other dishes, you should say so in good
time, for most of the Chinese choose to have the staple food
at last or have none of them at all.
Perhaps one of the things that surprises a Western visitor
most is that some of the Chinese hosts like to put food into
the plates of their guests. In formal dinners, there are always
“public” chopsticks and spoons for this purpose, but some
hosts may use their own chopsticks. This is a sign of
genuine friendship and politeness. It is always polite to eat
the food. If you do not eat it, just leave the food in the plate.
People in China tend to over-order food, for they will find it
embarrassing if all the food is consumed. When you have
had enough, just say so. Or you will always overeat!
(from china.org.cn)
Shopping
• Arts and Crafts
China is a treasure house of arts and crafts which are an
important part of the Nation's cultural inheritance. Products
such as carving, embroidery, pottery and porcelain,
glassware and dyeing, replicas of ancient cultural relics are
all exquisitely crafted. Other well-known crafts are weaving,
printing and dyeing. Cloisonne is a special traditional
handicraft of Beijing while Jiangxi Jingdezhen ware is a
representative of China's fine porcelain. China's handmade
carpets are much sought after in international markets.
Suzhou, Hunan, Guangdong and Sichuan embroidery are
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four of China's best-known embroideries. Some of the
regional art and craft specialties include the wood carving of
Dongyang and the bamboo products of Shengxian from
Zhejiang Province, the clay figurine of Master Zhang from
Tianjin, the grass and wickerwork from Shandong Province,
the three color-glaze Tang ware of Luoyang from Henan
Province, the batik from Guizhou Province and the Huishan
clay figurine of Wuxi from Jiangsu Province. Also well-know
are the four treasures of study of Xuan paper and ink stick
from Anhui Province, Duan ink slab from Zhaoqing,
Guangdong Province, and Shanlianhu writing brush from
Wuxing, Zhejiang Province. There are many other famous
handicrafts, such as folk paper cuts created by women
farmers.
Other popular Chinese products include:
•
•
•
•
Traditional Chinese medicine: The body of knowledge that
makes up traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been
accumulated over thousands of years. It is a school of its
own. Numerous herbal and other drugs are being used for
their high curative efficacy, and those with a high tonic value
are favorites with the Chinese.
Tipping Practice for Visitors to China
It is a common practice for visitors to tip the tour guide and
driver in recognition of their good service. Hotel bellboy
expects your tips as well. It is not customary to leave tips at
hotel or local restaurant as the bill usually includes 10-15%
service charge.
Silk: Chinese silk is famous in the world for its magnificent
quality, color and variety. Representative samples are
brocade from Hangzhou, Sichuan brocade from Chengdu,
the fine, tough silk and pure silk crepe from Suzhou and
tussah silk from Dandong.
Tea: China is the home of tea. Tea is divided into green,
black, perfumed, white and Wulong tea. Longjing (green tea)
and Biluochun (green tea), are famous throughout the world.
Liquors and Wines: Since ancient times, China’s spirits and
wines have developed in their unique way and have won
many international awards. Famous liquors include Maotai
from Guizhou, Fen and Zhuyeqing from Shanxi, Wuliangye,
Jiannanchun and Luzhou Laojiao from Sichuan, Gujing
tribute liquor from Anhui, Yanghe Daqu from Jiangsu and
Dong Liquor from Guizhou. Fruit wines include gold medal
brandy, red grape wine and Weimeisi from Yantai, China red
grape wine from Beijing, Shacheng white grape wine form
Hebei, Minquan white grape wine from Henan. Yellow rice
wines include rice wine from Shaoxing, sinking-in-jar wine
from Longyan and sealed jar wine from Danyang. Yanjing
and Qingdao are two famous brands of the many varieties of
fine beers available in China.
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Asian or cultural studies. Julia Glynn, Copyright ©
American Library Association.
CHINA
An annotated bibliography of selected titles featuring
China
An Annotated Bibliography
Selected by
for Credited Study Programs
Becker, Jasper. The Chinese: An Insider’s Look at the Issues which
Affect and Shape China Today. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2000.
China has the largest population in the world and one of the
most ancient cultures. Becker, a journalist currently living in
Beijing and the author of Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret
Famine (1997), which was banned by the Chinese
government, delves into the intricacies of the Chinese
people. He breaks down the population of 1.25 billion people
by using social, ethnic, and economic methods. Beginning
with the illiterate peasants who live along the borders of
Vietnam, he introduces the reader to people of various
statuses from all over that massive country. Becker has spent
20 years touring through China and meeting people in order
to understand this vast and mysterious land. His vignettes on
government types, shamans, and businessmen join to present
a revealing look at China over time. The Chinese is a
captivating and enlightening read for anyone interested in
Brown, Liam D’Arcy. Green Dragon, Sombre Warrior: Travels to
China's Extremes. London: John Murray, 2004.
In 2001, Liam
D’Arcy Brown traveled to the four corners of the People’s
Republic to reconcile for himself modern China’s seemingly
irreconcilable extremes. His 10,000–mile journey took him
to an isolated fishing community in the East China Sea, a
tropical holiday resort on Hainan Island, a Muslim city on
the Silk Road, and a remote village in Manchuria. In each he
discovered aspects of China that the wider world seldom
glimpses. And among the variety of her peoples, the web of
her many histories, and the contrasts of her physical and
social geography, he found common threads: the hardships
faced now that the iron rice bowl has been taken away; the
strength that millions have found in religion; the corruption
and entrepreneurship flourishing in the rush to modernize;
and the lingering splendor of its ancient beauty. (from the
publisher)
Buck, Pearl. The Good Earth. New York: Simon and Schuster,
1931.
Though more than seventy years have
passed since this remarkable novel won the Pulitzer Prize, it
has retained its popularity and become one of the great
modern classics. "I can only write what I know, and I know
nothing but China, having always lived there," wrote Pearl
Buck. In The Good Earth she presents a graphic view of a
China when the last emperor reigned and the vast political
and social upheavals of the twentieth century were but
distant rumblings for the ordinary people. This moving,
classic story of the honest farmer Wang Lung and his
selfless wife O-lan is must reading for those who would fully
appreciate the sweeping changes that have occurred in the
lives of the Chinese people during this century. Nobel Prize
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winner Pearl S. Buck traces the whole cycle of life: its
terrors, its passions, its ambitions and rewards. Her brilliant
novel -- beloved by millions of readers -- is a universal tale
of the destiny of man. -Chang, Jung. Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China. New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1991.
Bursting with drama, heartbreak and horror, this
extraordinary family portrait mirrors China's century of
turbulence. Chang's grandmother, Yu-fang, had her feet
bound at age two and in 1924 was sold as a concubine to
Beijing's police chief. Yu-fang escaped slavery in a brothel
by fleeing her "husband" with her infant daughter, Bao Qin,
Chang's mother-to-be. Growing up during Japan's brutal
occupation, free-spirited Bao Qin chose the man she would
marry, a Communist Party official slavishly devoted to the
revolution. In 1949, while he drove 1000 miles in a jeep to
the southwestern province where they would do Mao's
spadework, Bao Qin walked alongside the vehicle, sick and
pregnant (she lost the child). Chang, born in 1952, saw her
mother put into a detention camp in the Cultural Revolution
and later "rehabilitated." Her father was denounced and
publicly humiliated; his mind snapped, and he died a broken
man in 1975. Working as a "barefoot doctor" with no
training, Chang saw the oppressive, inhuman side of
communism. She left China in 1978 and is now director of
Chinese studies at London University. Her meticulous,
transparent prose radiates an inner strength. (Publishers
Weekly, Copyright 1991 Reed Business Information, Inc.)
Chen, Pearl Kong, Tien Chi Chen and Rose Y. L. Tseng. Everything
You Want to Know About Chinese Cooking. Woodbury,
New York: Barron’s, 1983.
Like most
good Chinese recipe books, the initial sections describe
Chinese ingredients and food preparation techniques (this
book contains very nice photo illustrations). The subsequent
chapters are organized by entree type (poultry, beef, etc.).
Each recipe has a cooking difficulty rating, number served,
total preparation/cooking time, and well-organized
ingredient lists and preparation/cooking instructions. There
is extensive and useful background information on food in
the Chinese culture, planning a Chinese meal, food as
tradition, and Chinese food and health.
Clissold, Tim. Mr. China: A Memoir. New York: HarperCollins,
2005.
In the early 1990s, British businessman
Clissold--with a passing knowledge of China and of
Mandarin--found himself the point man between a group of
Wall Street bankers with hundreds of millions to invest and a
budding entrepreneur class in China strapped for cash and
foreign expertise. This seemingly perfect marriage would
become, as one investor put it, "the Vietnam War of
American business." By decade's end, hundreds of joint
ventures would fail and billions of dollars would be lost. If
Clissold was well placed to help create many of these illfated partnerships, he's even better positioned to explain,
through his own horrific experiences, what went wrong: a
labyrinthine legal and political system that Westerners (even
with Chinese help) could never decipher, a rickety and
hidebound system of factory management in China, an
almost-willful lack of respect by Wall Street for Chinese
sensibilities, and often-flagrant abuse by Chinese managers
of the Western largesse made available to them. A
compelling account, related with sly humor and hard-earned
wisdom. (Booklist, Alan Moores)
De Mente, Boyé Lafayette. The Chinese Have a Word For It: The
Complete Guide to Chinese Thought and Culture. Chicago:
Passport Books, 2000.
This is an ideal
introduction to the Chinese language and culture for business
people, students, and travelers. It sheds light on the character
and personality of the Chinese by examining the meaning,
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historical significance, and use of more than 300 Chinese
expressions. This practical guide will help readers anticipate
Chinese behavior and avoid cultural faux pas. Several
reviewers note cultural insensitivity and some errors in
dealing with the complexities of the Chinese language. For
example, “I wouldn’t show it to just any English speaking
Chinese I talked to, it is not flattering to either the political
culture or to the herd mentality that we westerners often see
displayed in China, but it shows remarkable taste and
scholarship from someone who genuinely likes the Chinese
and their 5000 year old complex culture as mirrored in a
very interested language.” (Amazon.com)
DeWoskin, Rachel. Foreign Babes in Beijing: Behind the Scenes of
a New China. New York: W. W. Norton, 2005.
DeWoskin moved to
Beijing in 1989, shortly after the military squashed the
democracy movement in Tiananmen Square, but just as
China's younger population began embracing Western
ideologies and commodities. This entertaining romp through
her five-plus years in Beijing details her life as a PR
consultant—and as the star of the wildly popular Chinese
nighttime television drama Foreign Babes in Beijing. After
getting the gig on a lark, DeWoskin became known,
sometimes even in her real life, as the character Jiexi, an
American who falls in love with a married Chinese man, in
the 20-episode drama, which aired to an estimated 600
million viewers. Her memoir weaves humorous tales of
Sino-U.S. culture clashes both on and off the set with astute
observations of the two cultures, as well as a significant
amount of Chinese history. Though she admits frequently to
being homesick for New York, DeWoskin feels for the loss
of more traditional Chinese culture: "Consumerism became a
religion; companies arrived like missionaries... seducing the
average Zhou Schmoe with products he had never known he
needed." The book offers a generous helping of Chinese
words (along with their English translations and insights into
the young people's "Chinglish"), as well as Lost in
Translation–esque glimmers of the differences between the
Chinese and American acting worlds. Agent, Jill Grinberg.
(May)
Duncan, Sue and Wang Mingjie, eds. China 2005. Beijing: New
Star Publishers, 2005.
An introduction to China in
the format of a yearbook, the book records the major events
and changes taking place in China in the previous year. It
considers history, land and resources, administrative
divisions, population and ethnic groups, state structure,
foreign relations, economy, environmental protection,
education, science and technology, culture, and sports
Fairbank, John King. The United States and China. 4th ed.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983.
For two generations scholars and general readers have
looked to John King Fairbank for knowledge and insights
about China. In three editions of The United States and
China he has provided these. In this fourth edition, enlarged,
he includes a new Preface and an Epilogue that brings the
book up to date through the events of 1982. He has also
updated the vast bibliography and both indexes. This book
stands almost alone as a history of China, an analysis of
Chinese society, and an account of Sino-American relations,
all in brief compass.
The older portions of the book still sparkle, and they have
been refined by the latest scholarship and the author's own
observations in the People's Republic of China. And many
photographs, especially chosen by John and Wilma
Fairbank, show a changing land and its inhabitants.
Hsiung, Deh-Ta and Nina Simonds. The Food of China.
Vancouver: Whitecap Books, 2001.
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Extensively and beautifully illustrated, this is an accessible
cookbook with useful and informative essays. It is attractive
and glossy enough to be a coffee-table book, but also offers
good information on technique and ingredients. Designed
for Westerners who wish to replicate Asian techniques at
home.
Junru, Liu. Chinese Foods. Translated by William W. Wang. China
Intercontinental Press, 2004.
A detailed introduction to Chinese foods from the Cultural
China Series, this provides an articulate approach to the
subject by considering traditional foods, foods from afar,
tools of the trade, the Chinese way of eating, food and
festivities, delicacies, minority cuisines, dining etiquette, the
art of tea, Chinese wine, chefs and the culinary arts, foods
and health, the “forbidden”, and the place of contemporary
restaurants. Our Chinese interpreter and educational travel
specialist, Nancy Li, recommended this.
Lazzerini, Edward J. The Chinese Revolution. Westport,
Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999.
This
title from the Guides to Historic Events of the Twentieth
Century series offers biographies, primary documents, and
an annotated bibliography, in addition to background
information. “...The Chinese Revolution presents readers
with a straightforward history that covers most aspects of
twentieth-century Chinese politics. It is a good reference
guide and introduction to the Chinese Revolution...” –
Journal of Third World Studies
Lord, Bette Bao. Legacies: A Chinese Mosaic. New York, Alfred
A. Knopf, 1990. Using the dramatic chronology of the
"China Spring" demonstrations in 1989 as her structure,
Lord illuminates the mystery that is China for Westerners.
While in The People's Republic of China as the wife of the
American Ambassador, she renewed family ties that had
been severed in 1949 when she and her family departed for a
political assignment in America. Using narratives from her
Chinese family and new friends, Lord is able to repair her
family heritage and come to terms with the disparity of the
two cultures that she shares. This is a fascinating account of
China from 1949-1989 and the tenacity with which the
Chinese people hold on to life within a constantly vacillating
world. The book is a valuable resource in helping students
better understand the background from which the "China
Spring" came. It also illustrates the demands placed on an
individual who must live a bicultural life. An outstanding
chronology is included. --Dolores M. Steinhauer, Jefferson
Sci-Tech, Alexandria, VA
Copyright 1990 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Lord, Bette Bao. Spring Moon. New York: Harper and Row, 1981.
Spring Moon is a big and engrossing
novel, the literary equivalent of a rich, indulgent dessert.
Spanning five generations of a Chinese family, the book
illuminates the social and political upheavals of late
nineteenth- and twentieth-century China through its focus on
Spring Moon, the cherished, if headstrong daughter of the
wealthy and powerful house of Chang. Spring Moon's feet
are bound when she is seven, and when she screams in pain
she is told "'It is for your own good, child... No matter how
beautiful, how rich, how filial, no man will marry feet that
flop like a yellow pike." But although she is part of a
household that continues the old traditions, Spring Moon is
determined to learn to read and soon becomes the favorite of
her uncle, who once studied in America. The love that
develops between them and continues despite their marriages
to others threatens many of the traditions and codes of honor
that are the foundation of the house of Chang. Their affair
raises in microcosm many of the ethical controversies faced
by a changing China, and as the generations pass, as large
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and illustrious households disappear, as a mother's secret and
personal transgressions are replaced by her daughter's open
rebellion and revolutionary fervor, we witness the immense
changes in China on both an intimate and grand scale. (500
Great Books by Women; review by Erica Bauermeister)
Morton, W. Scott and Charlton M. Lewis. China: Its History and
Culture. 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.
Morton provides a concise and thorough history of one of
the world's most powerful nations. This brilliantly lucid and
concise study traces China's history and culture from
Neolithic times to the present, working into an integrated
and authoritative narrative that covers centuries of politics,
warfare and government, science and technology, economics
and commerce, religion, philosophy, and the arts. Most
valuable of all, Dr. Morton illuminates the essential Chinese
design, the underlying mental set of the people and the
society. He has given approximately equal treatment to all
premodern periods, as each has its importance in the
evolving history of the Chinese experience, and has
illustrated the work with numerous photographs, maps,
paintings and drawings and quotations from the
literature.Newly updated and revised, China: Its History and
Culture, Fourth Edition, also carefully examines the crucial
social and economic changes that have taken place in China
over the last decade. (from the cover)
Riboud, Marc. Marc Riboud in China: Forty Years of Photography.
New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1997.
Marc Riboud's
images are a window on a world in transition as China
reinvents itself with dizzying speed--his is as revealing a
window as we are likely to find. The contrast between China
old and new, as interpreted by Riboud, is an often startling
one that cannot help but inform and intrigue. He specializes
in the juxtaposition of images, perhaps none are more jarring
than his photograph of a poor man lugging a sack of
belongings down a trash-littered back street while a pair of
chubby-cheeked babies glance over his shoulder in a nearby
poster and a porno actress bares her chest in an ad overhead.
Riboud's home is France, his territory is the world from
Vietnam to Iran, but his heart and soul are apparently in the
China he has covered from the days of Mao's revolution
through the erosion of Communism to the country's modern
economic upheaval. (Amazon.com)
Shanor, Donald and Constance Shanor. China Today: How
Population Control, Human Rights, Government Repression,
Hong Kong, and Democratic Reform Affect Life in China
and Will Shape World Events Into the New Century. New
York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
In a richly
informative, panoramic report on modern China, the Shanors
observe that the failure of Beijing's attempt to impose a limit
of one child per family has exacerbated a host of problems,
including overpopulation, rural underemployment and mass
migrations to already overburdened cities. This husbandand-wife team lived and worked in China on and off from
1984 to 1993: he, a Columbia University journalism
professor, taught journalism to students in Beijing; and she
was an editor for the Xinhua News Agency. Urging U.S.
leaders to exert "quiet pressure" on behalf of Chinese human
rights activists, the authors explore how China's writers and
filmmakers have managed to escape the state censorship that
stifles newspapers and broadcast stations. The Shanors air
Hong Kong citizens' fears that their freedoms will be crushed
when the British colony reverts to mainland control in 1997.
This lucid primer also looks at pervasive corruption, looming
mass unemployment, repression in Tibet and the power
struggle likely to erupt when Deng Xiaoping dies.
(Publisher’s Weekly)
Snow, Edgar. Red Star Over China. New York: Random House,
1968.
Long before Mao became a household
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name, Edgar Snow, a young American journalist, traveled by
train to northwest China to meet and interview the leaders
who were the head and spine of Chinese communism. Red
Star Over China chronicles this journey, while also
describing much of the turbulent history of China during a
period of revolution and turmoil. By telling this story before
everyone else, and after lengthy interviews with Mao, Chou
En Lai, and the like, Snow put himself in the front rank of
modern Chinese historians.
Much of the book is great; Snow shows how conditions in
China's countryside (high rents absentee landlords, etc.)
contributed to China's turmoil, and he effectively describes
how Red China's armies won friends among the populace by,
for instance, teaching the illiterate to read using books that
were the communist propaganda equivalent of "See Spot
Run." Snow also describes scenes well when it suits him; for
instance, in an early vignette about a political conversation
he had on the train, Snow deftly shows the divisions and
factionalism that had permeated Chinese Society.
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. New York: W.
W. Norton & Company, 1990.
Spence advocates
democracy in China and presents contemporary views of its
oppressive history, including Chiang Kai-Shek's fascist
supporters and the bloodbath known as the Cultural
Revolution. "A splendid achievement, this sweeping . . . epic
chronicle compresses four centuries of political and social
change into a sharply observant narrative." (Publisher’s
Weekly)
Stewart, Stanley. Frontiers of Heaven: A Journey to the End of
China. London: Lyons Press, 2004.
British journalist
Stewart lists to his credit stints as a farmer in Tuscany, a
fisherman off the coast of Ireland, a film cameraman in
Turkey, and an erector of circus tents. Small wonder, then,
that his own nomadic tendencies strongly influence this
narrative documenting his months-long trek from Shanghai
to the great western province of Xinjiang. Known to the
Chinese as the region "outside the mouth," this mysterious
territory beyond the Great Wall remains a land of exile to the
Chinese, a siren song to the "foreign devil" in their midst.
Whether from his perch in the "hard sleeper" section of a
passenger train or during a tranquil afternoon tea taken with
a village lama, Stewart is a master at weaving history and
geography into cleverly reconstructed observations and
encounters that range from the merely curious to the heartily
bizarre. Juxtaposed against all this is his unabashed
fascination with unfamiliar surroundings and the isolation
that comes with being dandu, alone. (Terry Glover, Booklist)
Tsukiyama, Gail. Women of the Silk. New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1991.
An auspicious debut, this sensitively written, impressively
researched novel covers 20 years in the life of Pei, a Chinese
girl sent to work in a silk factory during the first decades of
the 20th century. Quick-witted, inquisitive, spirited Pei
spends her early childhood on a poverty-stricken fish farm;
her uncommunicative parents consign her to the factory for
the wages she will send home. Initially terrified, Pei soon
settles into the communal routine, and finds the 12-hour
factory day made bearable by the kindness of supervisors
and fellow workers. Along with her best friend, Lin, she
decides at 16 to go through the hairdressing ceremony, in
which girls pledge to dedicate their lives to silk work instead
of marrying, and move into the peaceful milieu of the
"sisters' house." Details of the process of spinning silk, the
close bonds among the sisterhood, and contrasts between the
tradition-steeped existence the young women enjoy and the
upheaval attending the new communist regime create a
compelling narrative. Tsukiyama's simple, elegant and fluid
prose weaves a vivid picture of rural China. In delicately
evoking the silk workers' world, she has opened a window
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onto an aspect of China few outsiders ever see. (Publishers’
Weekly)
Wu, David Y. H. and Sidney C. H. Cheung, eds. The Globalization
of Chinese Food. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
2002.
In this volume the
authors make use of ethnographic examples collected within
and beyond the boundaries of China to demonstrate the
theoretical relevance of Chinese-inspired foodways, tastes,
and consumption.
"This is
an excellent collection, ethnographically... It is a real
qualitative leap upward in the richness and detail of Chinese
food ethnography! We have previously had many general
works but few richly detailed studies of local ways, let alone
of the transformations of Chinese food as it wanders around
the world." --- E. N. Anderson, University of California,
Riverside
"The
book offers helpful insights into the processes of the
globalization of Chinese culture and identity, the
connectedness by food and consumption of a
deterritorialized and translocal community." --- Ing-Britt
Trankell, Uppsala University
assessment of the best wok for a home kitchen to half a
dozen "recipes" for seasoning a new wok (like Mr. Wen's
Chinese Chive Rub). Naturally, the majority of the recipes
are for stir-fries, such as the familiar Kung Pao Chicken.
Usually, Young takes great care to attribute her recipes to
her sources (e.g., Mary Chau's Shanghai-Style Snow
Cabbage and Edamame). Those sources are refreshingly
varied, including home cooks, like the author's many female
relations, and well-known names like Martin Yan and writer
Amy Tan. Although this is by no means a definitive Chinese
cookbook, its elegance and meditative outlook make it a
welcome gift. Photos. (Publishers’ Weekly)
Yuanchao, Li and Meng Xiaosi, eds. China: Culture Through the
Lens. Beijing: commissioned by the Ministry of Culture,
People’s Republic of China.
Another recommendation by
our own Chinese cultural liaison, Nancy Li, this provides an
overview of a vast array of aspects of Chinese culture. It is
fully illustrated with color photography and presents the
English text side by side with the Chinese characters. It
focuses primarily on the fine and performing arts.
Young, Grace and Alan Richardson. The Breath of a Wok:
Unlocking the Spirit of Chinese Wok Cooking Through
Recipes and Lore. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004.
Among Chinese cookbooks, this one is unusual. It doesn't
strive for comprehensiveness or focus on a regional cuisine.
Instead, it analyzes that sacred object of the Chinese kitchen:
the wok. The wok's "breath" is the heat rising from the
sizzling instrument as a dish is finished, but also much more,
according to Young (The Wisdom of the Chinese Kitchen).
She offers a profound meditation on the wok's spiritual
place, as well as its history and uses. As such, the book may
be appreciated as a work of food scholarship as well as a
cookbook. Nearly half of it concerns wok arcana, from an
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Recommended by
the Houston Museum of
natural science
October, 2007 designed to support the exhibition
Treasures of Shanghai: 5000 Years of Chinese Art and
Culture
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading levels and points listed
Alexander, Lloyd. Dream-of-Jade: The Emperor’s Cat.
Cricket Books, 2005.
Grades 1-5.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.5; 1 point.
From Booklist
Gr. 3-5, younger for reading aloud. No one fabricates a better makebelieve kingdom than Alexander, as this story about a clever cat proves.
Known for her beautiful green eyes, Dream-of-Jade lives in the
forbidden city of the Celestial Emperor Kwan-Yu, upon whose grand
personage no one is permitted to gaze. But Dream-of-Jade is very, very
curious, and she boldly enters the emperor's throne room. Her grave
offense would have cost her her life had she not saved the emperor
from a falling ceiling . . . .The fairy-tale-style narrative flourishes with
wily wit, details of ancient Chinese court life and sophisticated language
. . . . This fancy feast of delicious satire begs to be read aloud. Julie
Cummins Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Alexander, Lloyd. The Remarkable Journey of Prince Jen.
Yearling, 1993. Ages 10 and up.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.4; 9 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 10-up. When Prince Jen hears of the happy, prosperous land of
T'ien-kuo, he vows to seek out its ruler and learn from his example. And
so he sets out, bearing six humble gifts for the emperor of T'ien-kuo.
Readers versed in the logic of fairy tales will not be surprised when
Jen's route veers from his original plan and the six gifts end up in hands
other than those of T'ien-kuo's lord. Along the way, Jen falls in love,
has a number of run-ins with an ambitious, bloodthirsty bandit and
slowly descends from his exalted station until he is condemned to wear
the cangue, a heavy wooden collar for criminals. In the novel's final
scenes, the gifts and their new owners return to play an important part
in Jen's struggle to save his life and kingdom . . . . Copyright 1991 Reed
Business Information, Inc.
Anderson, Dale. Ancient China (History in Art). Raintree,
2005. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 7.6; 2 points.
From Booklist
Gr. 3-5. Titles in the History in Art series use artifacts to present
ancient societies' history and culture. Here, the author begins by
introducing the idea of "art as evidence" and discusses how sculpture
and other artworks can offer clues to life in long-ago civilizations.
Subsequent spreads feature mostly well-reproduced images of paintings,
clay and bronze pieces, and other artifacts, which nicely complement the
brief descriptions of major dynasties. Later pages also use works of art
to focus on the major advancements in technology, religion, government,
the arts, and daily life through the eras . . . . Gillian Engberg
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Ashley, Bernard. Cleversticks. Picture Lions, 2002.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated ATOS reading level 3.1; 0.5 points.
From Kirkus Reviews
Picture book. 3-7. Ling Sung doesn't like his new school: everyone else
seems to be getting praise for their accomplishments, whether it's
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Manjit writing her name, Terry tying his shoes, or Sharon buttoning her
coat. Ling Sung can't do any of those things; but after the teacher
notices him picking up his broken cookie pieces with paintbrushes in lieu
of the chopsticks he uses at home, she asks him to help everyone else
learn his skill--and they share theirs with him . . . . -- Copyright ©1992,
Kirkus Associates, LP. All rights reserved.
Bailey, Linda. Adventures in Ancient China (Good Times
Travel Agency). Kids Can
Press, Ltd., 2003. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.7; 1 point.
Book Description-Amazon.com
Join the Binkertons, twins Josh and Emma and their little sister, Libby,
as they return to the Good Times Travel Agency - and end up knee-deep
in an ancient Chinese rice paddy! Adventures in Ancient China is an
engaging mix of adventure and historical information about life in China
during first century A.D. Kids will learn about Chinese society,
inventions, medicine, the Silk Road, the Great Wall, nomadic warriors
and much more . . . .
Beshore, George. Science in Ancient China (Science of the Past).
Franklin Watts, 1998.
Ages 9-12.
From School Library Journal
Reviewed with Beshore’s Science in Early Islamic Culture
Grade 4-8. Two intriguing overviews of science history. Ancient China
covers such key discoveries as gunpowder, anesthesia, and calendars,
spanning a few thousand years . . . . both books offer historical and
cultural background that play parts in the scientific environment. The
writing is crisp and lively, and some individual scientists are highlighted .
. . . Steven Engelfried, West Linn Public Library, OR Copyright 1998
Reed Business Information, Inc.
Bortolotti, Dan. Panda Rescue: Changing the Future
for Endangered Wildlife.
Firefly, 2003. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 8.3; 2 points.
From Booklist
Reviewed with Dan Bortolotti's Tiger Rescue.
Gr. 5-8 . . . . Both titles cover the animals' natural habitat, habits,
physiology, and behavior in captivity. They also include a time line of
conservation efforts, profiles of conservationists in the field, and
forecasts of the animals' future. Throughout, the author makes clear
the factors that can threaten animal populations, and discusses human
attitudes toward the animals throughout history . . . .Gillian Engberg
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved.
Carpenter, Frances. Tales of a Chinese Grandmother.
Tuttle Publishing, 2001.
Ages 9-12.
Card catalog description-Amazon.com
An aged Chinese grandmother tells some Chinese folk tales and legends
to her grandchildren.
me,
40 years later I still remember my mother reading this to
Cheng, Andrea. Shanghai Messenger. Lee & Low, 2005. Ages 912.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.7; 1 point.
From Booklist
Gr. 4-6. In many of today's immigration stories, the break with the Old
Country is not as final as it used to be, and young people travel back and
forth across borders and generations to visit extended family and
explore their roots. In this picture book for older children, 11-year-old
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Xiao Mei, the child of an American father and a Chinese mother, is
persuaded by Grandma Nai Nai in America to take up the invitation from
Uncle Hai Tao to spend the summer in Shanghai . . . . Hazel Rochman
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Cheng-An, Chiang. Empress of China,Wu Ze Tian. Victory
Press, 1998. Ages 9-12.
Book Description-Amazon.com
A beautiful young nun with skin as smooth as silk and a face as lovely as
a spring flower silently cooked and cleaned all day at Gan Ye Buddhist
Temple . . . . Who would believe that this delicate young nun was
destined to become Emperor of China - the only female emperor in more
than 5,000 years of Chinese history.
Chin. China’s Bravest Girl: The Legend of Hua Mu Lan.
Children’s Press, 1997. Ages 4-8.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 6-12 . . . . Hua Mu Lan's father has no eldest son, and so the
faithful daughter decides "For love of her elderly father / she will
dress in warrior's clothes, / walking and talking like a man, / so no one
ever knows." Hua Mu Lan's "courage wins the day," and a "hundred
battles," earning her the rank of general and the Emperor's highest
esteem . . . . Children will . . . enjoy the heroine's exploits and the
moment of revelation when her war companion discovers her true
identity. When he proposes that the "best of friends" become husband
and wife, the dignified Hua Mu Lan responds: "You treat your friends
with honor. Can your wife expect the same?" The young man agrees . . . .
Copyright 1993 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Chinn, Karen. Sam and the Lucky Money. Lee & Low
Books, 1997. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.6; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Preschool-Grade 2. Sam receives four bright red envelopes decorated
with shiny gold emblems as part of the traditional Chinese New Year
celebration, each containing a dollar. As he accompanies his mother
through Chinatown, his anticipation of how to spend it diminishes when
he realizes that the "lucky money" won't buy as much as he had hoped.
His mood is further sobered after an encounter with a man he stumbles
upon in the street. He nobly, though not surprisingly, concludes that his
four dollars would be best spent on the barefoot stranger . . . .
Starr LaTronica, Four County Library System, Vestal, NY Copyright
1995 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Cotterell, Arthur. Ancient China (DK Eyewitness Books).
DK Children, 2005.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 8.4; 1 point.
From School Library Journal
Grade 5-10. Done in typical "Eyewitness" format, this volume touches
upon such topics as Chinese history, the first emperor, inventions,
health and medicine, waterways, food and drink, clothing, the Silk Road,
and arts and crafts. Material from as recent as the last dynasty, which
ended in 1911, is included; because all of the information is presented in
double-page spreads, some cover extremely wide time frames . . . .
Diane S. Marton, Arlington County Library, VA Copyright 1994 Reed
Business Information, Inc.
Cummings, Mary. Three Names of Me. Albert Whitman & Co.,
2006. Grades 2-5.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.1; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 2-5. A gentle, sensitive story of international adoption told
through the eyes of a Chinese-American girl. Ada Lorane Bennett
explains how she came to have several names–the first was from her
birth mother and is buried deep in her heart, another she received at
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the orphanage, and the third came from her adoptive parents. In telling
her story, readers learn about Ada's life in America, her likes and
dislikes, and a few facts about her homeland. However, it is the child's
present life in the States and her love for her adoptive parents that is
emphasized . . . . The theme of family should interest most children, but
adopted youngsters will relate to Ada's feelings as she considers her
past as well as present circumstances . . . . The warmth and simplicity of
this story, plus the positive message on adoption, should appeal to most
readers.–Margaret R. Tassia, Millersville University, PA Copyright ©
Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. All rights
reserved.
In a series of adventures, he battles evil wizards to save the world from
their darkness. Kung receives help from Master Panda, the first Panda
whom the world has known and one who possesses magical secrets. Panda
gives Kung a magical ring which makes the wearer invisible. With this
ring, Kung travels safely through the valley of the ice dragon and joins a
traveling troupe of performers, complete with a dancing unicorn. In the
end, he rescues his uncle, saves Panda from the grip of the evil wizards,
and weds a princess. The hero is humble and good; Master Panda is wise
and lovable; and the wizards are truly evil . . . . Susan Nemeth McCarthy,
Arlington County Public Library, Va.
Copyright 1987 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Currier, Katrina Saltonstall. Kai’s Journey to Gold Mountain.
Angel Island Association,
2004. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.0; 1 point.
Dean, Arlan. Terra-Cotta Soldiers: Army of Stone. Children’s
Press, 2005. Ages 9-12.
From Booklist
*Starred Review* Gr. 4-7. In their first book, Currier and Utomo retell
a seldom-told 1930s American immigration story. Kai, 12, is the fourthgeneration male in his family to leave China for the U.S. He's on his way
to join his father, who is an American citizen in San Francisco. But after
the long journey and tense medical examination, Kai is locked up on Angel
Island, where he's packed in with other internees until a long, dreaded
interrogation can be completed. The character Kai is based on a real
person, whose photos, then and now, are part of the historical notes at
the back of the book . . . .Hazel Rochman
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Day, David. The Emperor’s Panda. Dodd Mead, 1987.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.7; 4 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 3-5 . . . . In the mythic Celestial Empire of China long ago, Kung, a
poor shepherd boy, sets out to find his uncle, who has been kidnapped.
From School Library Journal
Grade 5-8. These hi/lo books will appeal to readers with an interest in
ancient civilizations. Soldiers discusses ancient Chinese history,
including the first emperor and his tomb, which was found to contain
8000 clay soldiers, made to protect him in his afterlife. Beliefs about
life after death are explained . . . . –Heather Ver Voort, Wilson Middle
School, Natick, MA
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
DeJong, Meindert. The House of Sixty
Fathers. HarperTrophy, 1987.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.5; 6 points.
Book Description-Amazon.com
Tien Pao is all alone in enemy territory. Only a few days before, his
family had escaped from the Japanese army, fleeing downriver by boat.
Then came the terrible rainstorm. Tien Pao was fast asleep in the little
sampan when the boat broke loose from its moorings and drifted right
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back to the Japanese soldiers. With only his lucky pig for company, Tien
Pao must begin a long and dangerous journey in search of his home and
family.
Demi. The Dragon’s Tale: and Other Animal
Fables of the Chinese
Zodiac. Henry Holt, 1996. Ages 4-7.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 4-7. In this striking volume, Demi . . . introduces each of the
Chinese zodiac's 12 animal symbols by retelling the fables associated
with them. . . .
Copyright 1996 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Demi. The Emperor’s New Clothes: A Tale Set in China.
Margaret K. McElderry, 2000.
Ages 4-8.
Amazon.com
Ages 4 to 8. Hans Christian Andersen's beloved, wise, and humorous tale
about the emperor who cares more about his appearance than about
truthfulness is retold here by award-winning illustrator Demi. A weaver
and tailor arrive at the palace one day, promising to make the most
beautiful, soft clothes the Emperor has ever seen. Furthermore, these
clothes are magic--only clever people can see them. The silly, vain
Emperor is soon marching about almost buck-naked (except for some
magnificent royal boxer shorts and an undershirt). Will anyone risk
being dubbed a fool, and call the Emperor's bluff? . . . .
--Emilie Coulter
From School Library Journal
Grade 1-3. When the Chinese emperor proclaims that his successor will
be the child who grows the most beautiful flowers from the seeds the
emperor distributes, Ping is overjoyed. Like the emperor, he loves
flowers and anything he plants bursts into bloom. But the emperor's
seed will not grow, despite months of loving care, and Ping goes before
the emperor carrying only his empty pot. The emperor ignores the
beautiful blossoms brought by the other children and chooses Ping,
revealing that the seeds he handed out had been cooked and could not
grow. This simple story with its clear moral is illustrated with beautiful
paintings . . . . --Eleanor K. MacDonald, Beverly Hills Public Library
Copyright 1990 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Demi. The Greatest Power. Margaret McElderry,
2004. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.0; 0.5 points.
From Booklist
K-Gr. 3. This companion to The Empty Pot (1990) continues the story of
the life of Ping, the young emperor who wants to bring harmony to his
kingdom. Ping sends all the children in the kingdom on a year-long quest
to find the greatest power in the world, telling them, "A wise person
must be able to see the unseen and know the unknown." The boys believe
the power is great weapons; the girls, great beauty; the students, great
technology; and the practical children, great amounts of money. When
the children come to show the emperor what they have discovered, the
last child in line, a little girl named Sing, remembers Ping's words. She
presents a lotus seed as the powerful force of eternal life, and Ping
names her the new prime minister . . . . Julie Cummins
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Demi. The Empty Pot. Henry Holt, 1996. Baby-Age 8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.8; 0.5 points.
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Demi. Happy, Happy Chinese New Year! Crown Books
for Young Readers, 2003.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.6; 0.5 points.
Amazon.com
Kung-Hsi Fa-Ts’Ai! Happy New Year! The Chinese New Year is all about
fresh starts. Taking place during China’s springtime (usually January or
February in the Western calendar), celebrations include sweeping and
dusting, paying off debts, catching up on homework, cooking and eating,
setting off firecrackers, and dancing . . . . We learn about the symbols
behind traditional foods: "Pork brings wealth," "Sweet-and-sour fish
signifies surplus," "Fried rice symbolizes harmony and plenty." And we
marvel at the gorgeous dragons, lions, kites, and door guardians that
dance, fly, and stand guard throughout the days of the New Year.
Demi. Happy New Year!/Kung-Hsi Fa-Ts’ai!
Dragonfly Books, 1999.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.3; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 3. With delightful charm and simplicity, Demi
offers readers a lovely look at the Chinese New Year. The vibrant,
colorful double-page spreads are full of small, stylized cartoon drawings
of Chinese children and adults dancing and smiling as they prepare for
and participate in the festivities . . . . Anne Connor, Los Angeles Public
Library
Copyright 1998 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Demi. Kites: Magic Wishes That Fly Up to the Sky.
Dragonfly Books, 2000.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.7; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 2-5 . . . . In long-ago China, a woman commissioned an artist to
paint a special dragon kite for her son. It was her hope that this
creature representing wealth, wisdom, power and nobility would be seen
by the gods in heaven and assist the boy in growing up to be big and
strong. Word of the artist’s talent traveled, and he was soon asked to
create a wide variety of flyers for other villagers . . . . There is also
mention of a Chinese festival devoted to kites, as well as detailed
instructions for making a kite . . . . DeAnn Tabuchi, San Anselmo Public
Library, CA
Copyright 1999 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Demi. The Legend of Lao Tzu and the Tao Te Ching. Margaret
McElderry, 2007.
Ages 4-8.
From School Library Journal
Grade 5 Up. This is the legend of Lao Tzu, who may or may not have
been born; who may or may not have founded Taoism, one of the
greatest religions of the world . . . . Demi's elegant picture-book
introduction to the legendary Chinese philosopher, often speculated to
have been a contemporary of Confucius, combines nuggets of his
purported life with 20 verses from the Tao Te Ching, which he may or
may not have written. Allegedly born an old man, Lao Tzu became widely
known for his wisdom, to the point of being courted by the emperor . . . .
–Margaret Bush, Simmons College, Boston
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
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Demi. Liang and the Magic Paintbrush. Henry Holt and
Co., 1988. Ages 4-8.
(Reading Rainbow)
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.2; 0.5 points.
Card catalog description-Amazon.com
A poor boy who longs to paint is given a magic brush that brings to life
whatever he pictures.
Demi. Su Dongpo: Chinese Genius. Lee & Low, 2006. Grades 4-7.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.7; 1 point.
From Booklist
Ages 9-12. This handsome picture book tells the story of the
multitalented Su Dongpo, an eleventh-century Chinese who rose to
political prominence because of his knowledge, skills, accomplishments,
wisdom, and honor. Exiled by a jealous political rival, he lived happily as a
poor farmer until he was appointed secretary to the new emperor.
Exiled again, he survived, but after a triumphal return to China, he fell
ill and died. In the brief introduction, Demi notes that Su Dongpo is
fondly remembered to this day as a "statesman, philosopher, poet,
painter, engineer, architect, and humanitarian who approached
everything with joy and grace." This picture-book biography portrays Su
Dongpo with quiet admiration as a virtuous man who met difficulties with
uncommon dignity and presence of mind . . . . Carolyn Phelan
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved.
Donovan, Sandra. Madame Chiang Kai-shek: Face of Modern
China. Compass Point Books,
2006. Ages 9-12,
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 8.2; 2 points.
Renaissance Learning
This biography discusses the life of Madame Chiang Kai-shek, a powerful
figure in Chinese politics, who helped modernize China through the New
Life Movement of the 1930s.
Dramer, Kim. People’s Republic of China (Enchantment of
the World. Second
Series. Revised Edition). Children’s Press, 2006. Ages 9up.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 7.6; 3 points.
From Library Journal
Grade 5-10 . . . . Chapters cover China's global importance, geography,
plants and wildlife, history, government, food and transportation, people
and language, religion, the arts, and children. Full-color photographs
appear throughout the text and a variety of color maps provide
orientation and clarification . . . .
Alida F. Given, Fairhope Intermediate School, AL
Copyright 1999 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Englar, Mary and I. M. Pei. I.M. Pei (Asian-American
Biographies). Raintree, 2005.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.2; 1 point.
From Booklist
Gr. 3-5. This entry in the Asian-American Biographies series chronicles
the successful career of architect I. M. Pei, who left China in 1937 to
study architecture in the U.S and became a citizen in 1955. His first
major U.S. building was Denver's Mile High Center, but his most famous
may be the East Building of the National Gallery of Art in Washington,
D.C . . . . Jennifer Hubert
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Fang, Linda. The Ch’i-lin Purse: A Collection of Ancient Chinese
Stories. Farrar, Straus
and Giroux, 1997. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.3; 3 points.
From Booklist
Gr. 3-5. As a professional storyteller, Fang uses the tales she heard,
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read, and loved as a child in Shanghai. Now she has written down nine of
those stories, whose origins are legends, novels, and operas hundreds of
years old. Dramatic, humorous, and touching by turn, the stories often
concern difficulties overcome by characters who are kind or clever or
both . . . . Carolyn Phelan
Fisher, Leonard Everett. The Gods and Goddesses of Ancient
China. Holiday House, 2003.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 7.0; 1 point.
From Booklist
Gr. 2-5. Fisher continues his series about world deities with this
picture-book overview of ancient Chinese mythology. Beginning with an
introduction that mentions Qin Shi Huangdi, China's First Supreme
Emperor, Fisher offers very brief historical and cultural background to
China's deities, including the interesting point that the immortals often
mirrored the status and behavior of human beings. Profiles of 17 gods
and goddesses follow . . . . Gillian Engberg
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Fisher, Leonard Everett. The Great Wall of China.
Aladdin, 1995. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.8; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 3-6. Awe-inspiring, impressive, black and gray illustrations set the
tone for this history of the building of the Great Wall of China. These
large, detailed double-spreads of the building of the Wall and of the
people have a rough look entirely suitable to the subject. The story is
simply told and will interest children . . . . Gerri Young, Elementary
School Libraries, Fort Nelson, B.C., Canada
Copyright 1986 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Flack, Marjorie. The Story About Ping. Grosset & Dunlap,
2000. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.3; 0.5 points.
Amazon.com
The tale of a little duck alone on the Yangtze River, The Story About
Ping is a sweet and funny book with wonderfully rich and colorful
illustrations. On a day like any other, Ping sets off from the boat he
calls home with his comically large family in search of "pleasant things to
eat." On this particular day, he is accidentally left behind when the boat
leaves. Undaunted, the little duck heads out onto the Yangtze in search
of his family, only to find new friends and adventures--and a bit of peril-around every bend . . . .
Freedman, Russell. Confucius: The Golden Rule. Arthur
A. Levine Books, 2002.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 7.6; 1 point.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 8-12. Newbery Medal winner Freedman (Lincoln: A Photobiography)
delves deep into Chinese history in his intelligent, comprehensive
biography of the 5th-century B.C. philosopher Confucius, whose teachings
have influenced the development of modern government and education in
both China and the West. Freedman draws on stories, legends and
collected dialogues from The Analects of Confucius, written by his
students, to reveal a man of deep perceptions as well as great humor . . .
.
Copyright 2002 Reed Business Information, Inc.
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Fritz, Jean. China Homecoming. Putnam Juvenile, 1985.
Young Adult.
Card catalog description-Amazon.com
The author returns to China, to relive her memories of her youth and to
witness the many historical and social changes that have taken place
since she left the country in 1928.
Fritz, Jean. China’s Long March. Putnam Juvenile, 1988. Ages 912.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 10-up. After her two memoirs on her childhood in China, Fritz now
turns her stellar abilities to this engaging historical account of one of
China’s most extraordinary events the famous march of the Communist
army during 1934-35. Based on firsthand interviews and many published
sources, the book contains a wealth of interesting details the existence
of traveling ear-cleaners, for an example and several extended,
suspenseful episodes, including the dangerous crossings of Luding Bridge
and Fairy Mountain. The impressions of Chen Changfeng, Mao’s
bodyguard, give the narrative an admirable coherence and a lighthearted focus that is characteristic of Fritz’s work . . . .
Copyright 1988 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Fritz, Jean. Homesick. Puffin (Reissue), 2007. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.1; 6 points.
Book Description-Amazon.com
This is the twenty-fifth anniversary of Jean Fritz’s award-winning
account of her life in China . . . . This fictionalized autobiography tells
the heartwarming story of a little girl growing up in an unfamiliar place.
While other girls her age were enjoying their childhood in America, Jean
Fritz was in China in the midst of political unrest. Jean Fritz tells her
captivating story of the difficulties of living in a unfamiliar country at
such a difficult time.
George, Charles. The Clay Soldiers of
China (Wonders of the World).
Kidhaven Press, 2003. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 8.0; 1 point.
Book Description-Amazon.com
A terracotta army-8,000 life-sized clay soldiers, with chariots and
horses—was unearthed in 1974 in one of the most astounding and
perplexing archaeological discoveries in modern times. Created 2,200
years ago for Qin Shihuangdi, the first Emperor of China, the clay army
is still shrouded in mystery.
Gower, Catherine. Long-Long's New Year: A Story
About The Chinese Spring
Festival. Tuttle Publishing, 2005.
From School Library Journal
Starred Review. Kindergarten-Grade 2–Long-Long and Grandpa bicycle
to town to make money to celebrate the Spring Festival. As Grandpa
unsuccessfully tries to sell his goods, the boy takes the bike to a shop
for repairs. While he waits, Long-Long helps the repairman pump tires
and earns a yuan for his efforts. He also leads a street cook to
Grandpa's cabbages and soon the vegetables are all sold. After buying
provisions for the festival, Long-Long purchases small gifts for his
family, watches a holiday procession, and enjoys a toffee fruit treat,
and the two return home just in time to celebrate . . . . – Rachel G.
Payne, Brooklyn Public Library, NY
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Greenberger, Robert. The Technology of Ancient China (The
Technology of the Ancient
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World). Rosen Central, 2006. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 8.9; 1 point.
Interesting, August 9, 2006
By Kurt A. Johnson (Marseilles, IL)-Amazon.com
This book is part of the Technology of the Ancient World series, a
group of books intended to give the younger reader a glimpse into the
technology of various ancient civilizations. This book is divided into six
chapters: agriculture and food production; communication; calculations;
construction, machines, transportation, and navigation; medicine; and
warfare . . . .
Hall, Bruce Edward. Henry and the Kite Dragon.
Philomel, 2004. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.6; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 4. Henry Chu lives in New York City's Chinatown in
the 1920s. He loves everything about it, from eating tasty dumplings to
making and flying kites with his neighbor, Grandfather Chin. One day
when Grandfather's spectacular butterfly kite is chasing a pigeon, Tony
Guglione and his friends from Little Italy throw rocks at it and destroy
it. Then they ruin his magnificent caterpillar. When they attack
Grandfather's dragon kite, Henry and his companions confront them.
The children almost come to blows, but when the dragon appears in the
sky, again chasing a pigeon, the root of the discord comes to light. Tony
and his pals raise homing pigeons, and the kites are frightening their
pets. A compromise is reached–kites fly in the morning, birds in the
afternoon–and new friendships are formed . . . . –Grace Oliff, Ann
From Booklist
Reviewed with Christine Hatt's Catherine the Great.
Gr. 8-11 . . . . The subject's life story comprises the bulk of each title,
followed by pairs of essays presenting opposite stances on several key
issues: Was Catherine involved in the murders that helped guarantee
her throne? Were Chinese women better off under Mao? Each argument
is backed by quotes and statistics demonstrating how "facts . . . can be
used to support completely different points of view." . . . . REVWR
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Heyer, Marilee. The Weaving of a Dream. Puffin,
1989. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.7; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 3 Up. The Chinese legend of "The Chuang Brocade" is faithfully
retold in a volume of exquisite beauty. The story is of a widow who
supports her three sons by selling her finely crafted brocades. At the
market one day she trades her work for a painting of a lovely palace.
Obsessed with the beauty of the scene, she spends three full years
copying the painting in a brocade, only to have it snatched away by a
wind upon its completion. As she lies grieving, her youngest son, after
the two elder ones succumb to greed, searches for the brocade in a
quest that leads through fire and ice to a fairy palace on a mountain top
. . . . Susan Scheps, Bertram Woods Library, Shaker Heights, Ohio
Copyright 1986 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Blanche Smith School, Hillsdale, NJ
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Hatt, Christine. Mao Zedong. Evan Brothers, 2001. Young Adult.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 9.5; 4 points.
Katz, Karen. My First Chinese New Year. Henry
Holt and Co., 2004. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level, 2.3; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Preschool-Grade 1. In this colorful picture book, a young girl prepares
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for and celebrates the Chinese New Year with her extended family,
describing how she makes an altar to honor her ancestors, gets a
haircut, feasts with her relatives, and attends a Chinatown parade. The
tale radiates warmth and quietly builds up to the dramatic dragon dance
and the traditional greeting of "Gung Hay Fat Choy!" . . . . –Rachel G.
Payne, Brooklyn Public Library, NY
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Kimmel, Eric. The Rooster’s Antlers: A Story of the
Chinese Zodiac. Holiday
House, 1999. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.7; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Preschool-Grade 3. When the Jade Emperor, China's legendary king in
heaven, decides to select 12 admirable animals to represent the years in
his new calendar, Rooster is sure he will be chosen, for his magnificent
coral antlers make him more beautiful than any other creature. Dragon
is less sure; while he does have some good features, he is bald. He
promises Centipede a great reward if he can coax Rooster into lending
him his gorgeous antlers to wear before the Jade Emperor. Rooster
agrees, saying, "Dragon can keep my antlers as long as he needs them."
While American children may not know that Chinese dragons
traditionally sport magnificent antlers, they certainly know that
roosters do not, and so will anticipate the inevitable outcome of
Rooster's generosity . . . .
Margaret A. Chang, Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts, North
Adams
Copyright 1999 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Krasno, Rena. Cloud Weavers. Pacific View PR, 2002. Ages 9-12.
From School Library Journal
Grade 4-6. Chinese legends are full of drama, fantasy, and high
adventure, and at the same time they emphasize the importance of
traditional values. This collection of almost two dozen stories includes
all that, bringing together concise retellings of tales from China's
earliest periods that reflect the beliefs of Confucianism, Daoism, and
Buddhism; stories about historical and literary figures; and tales from
literature . . . .
Barbara Scotto, Michael Driscoll School, Brookline, MA
Copyright 2003 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Landau, Elaine. Exploring Ancient China with Elaine Landau.
Enslow Elementary, 2005.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.3; 1 point.
Renaissance Learning
This book contains an illustrated guide to ancient China, exploring its
people, history, society, religion, food, clothing, housing, and government.
Lazo, Caroline. The Terra Cotta Army of Emperor Qin. New
Discovery Books, 1993.
Lee, Jeanne. Legend of the Milky Way. Henry Holt,
1990. Baby-PreS.
Card catalog description-Amazon.com
Retells the Chinese legend of the Weaver Princess who came down from
heaven to marry a mortal, a love story represented in the stars of the
Milky Way.
Lee, Jeanne. Song of Mu Lan. Hand Print, 1991. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 2.2; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 5. The bilingual edition of a 1500-year-old ballad
celebrates the bravery of a Chinese woman. When the emperor calls her
ailing father to battle, Mu Lan, having no elder brother, answers the call
herself. She buys a horse, puts on armor, takes up sword and spear, and
leads the life of a male soldier for 10 years. When the emperor offers
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the warrior a rich reward, she asks for camels to carry her back to her
village. Once home, she puts on women's clothes, convincing her former
comrades that courage and fighting skills are not the province of men
alone. The story is told through terse, rhythmic, unrhymed stanzas,
combining narration with Mu Lan's own words . . . . Margaret A. Chang,
North Adams State College, MA
Copyright 1995 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Lee, Milly. Landed. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.9; 1 point.
From Booklist
*Starred Review* Gr. 3-5. Like Katrina Saltonstall Currier's Kai's
Journey to Gold Mountain (2005), this poignant picture book is about a
Chinese immigrant boy trying to join his father in America. But this
story is much more detailed, with a lengthy text that describes leaving
the old country as well as the difficulties of getting into the new one.
Drawing on her father-in-law's experience, Lee tells of Sun, 12, whose
family employs a tutor to help prepare him for American officials'
questions. Sun must memorize minute details about his home in China to
prove that he is his father's true son. Indeed, Sun is detained on Angel
Island, where he is interrogated for a month, and where he makes
friends with two "paper sons," who have made up identities to get into
the country . . . . Hazel Rochman
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
choose a favorite dish and then share with everyone at the table. When
the plates and bowls are empty, the family looks satisfied and a little
sleepy. The concluding note explains the cultural history of dim sum as
well as the customs surrounding the meal . . . .
Genevieve Ceraldi, New York Public Library
Copyright 2001 Reed Business Information, Inc
Lin, Grace. Fortune Cookie Fortunes. Knopf Books
for Young Readers, 2004.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 2.4; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Preschool-Grade 3. While eating at a Chinese restaurant, a young
narrator exclaims, "The best part... is the fortune cookies. Crack! Crack!
Crack!" Hers says, "You see the world in a different way." That is indeed
true as she views the world in terms of fortune-cookie messages and
sees them as coming true. For example, Ma-Ma's garden is bursting with
growth ("Attention and care will make great things happen"). Jie-Jie's
room is filled with magnificent origami animals ("Your imagination will
create many friends"). A yellow car laden with luggage is trailed by a
caption that reads, "Someone will visit you soon." . . . . The final
endpaper shows an opened cookie with the fortune, "You have just read
a good book." Children will agree.–Bina Williams, Bridgeport Public
Library, CT
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Lin, Grace. Dim Sum for Everyone. Knopf Books for
Young Readers, 2001. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 1.3; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 3. This tasty tradition is explored through simple
text and realistic illustrations. A family with three daughters arrives at
a restaurant for a meal of "little dishes." Carts are wheeled to each
table and the guests select what they would like to eat. They each
Lin, Grace. Kite Flying. Dragonfly Books, 2004. BabyPreS.
Accelerated Reader ATOS Reading Level 0.9; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Preschool-Grade 3. The parents and three daughters who were
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introduced in Dim Sum for Everyone! (Knopf, 2001) return this time to
shop for supplies and make a dragon kite, which they fly on a windy day .
...
Marianne Saccardi, Norwalk Community College, CT
Copyright 2002 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Lin, Grace. The Ugly Vegetables. Charlesbridge
Publishing, 2001. Baby-PreS.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.1; 0.5 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 3-8. In this debut children's book, a girl and her mother chart
their own course in spring planting and reap the benefits. The girl
narrator is clearly disappointed when, unlike her neighbors who prepare
flower gardens, she and her mother plant Chinese vegetables that, her
mother insists, are "better than flowers." While the other backyards
yield colorful blooms, her garden becomes crowded with "ugly
vegetables," lumpy, bumpy and "icky yellow." But when the girl's mother
uses them to make a soup, its "magical aroma" attracts neighbors to
their door carrying bouquets of flowers from their gardens . . . . (July)
Copyright 1999 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Look, Lenore. Henry’s First-Moon Birthday. Atheneum, 2001.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.5; 0.5 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 4-8. Look's . . . buoyant picture book invites readers to peek at a
Chinese-American family's preparations for a very special party. Older
Sister . . . , who professes to be the lady of the house, rises early with
GninGnin . . . to get ready for brother Henry's first-moon, or one-month
birthday. While the rest of the family sleeps, GninGnin and Jen bustle
about cooking traditional Chinese dishes . . . and writing good-luck
messages in "ink, the real stuff, which GninGnin makes by rubbing an ink
pebble with a little water." Soon, Mother joins the team and "cleans like
a tornado going through every room." At last, GninGnin and Jen put on
their favorite dresses and celebrate with visiting relatives. . . .
Copyright 2001 Cahners Business Information, Inc.
Look, Lenore. Ruby Lu, Brave and True. Aladdin, 2006. Ages 912.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.1; 2 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 1-3. Ruby Lu makes her debut in this funny and charming chapter
book. Full of joie de vivre, the eight-year-old loves her family,
particularly her baby brother, Oscar; wearing reflective tape; and
performing in her own backyard magic show. Plot development is episodic
but steady as Ruby musters up her courage to attend Chinese school;
she confronts mean Christina from California; and she decides to drive
herself to school . . . . Looming large is the fact that her cousin, Flying
Duck, is emigrating from China and Ruby will have to share her bedroom.
All is well, however, when Flying Duck gets off the airplane wearing
reflective tape. Clever book design includes a playful copyright page and
a small flip book of one of Ruby's magic tricks on the lower right-hand
corner of each page. "Ruby's Fantastic Glossary and Pronunciation
Guide" explains unfamiliar terms related to Chinese culture. . . . Debbie
Stewart, Grand Rapids Public Library, MI
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Look, Lenore. Ruby Lu, Empress of Everything. Atheneum,
2006. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS Reading Level 3.8; 2 points.
From School Library Journal
Starred Review. Grade 1-3. Ruby Lu takes her role as Smile Buddy to her
deaf cousin, Flying Duck, so seriously that her work suffers, dooming
the second grader to a vacation marred by summer school and a repeat
of last year's swimming lessons. She is also dealing with the ups and
downs of her relationship with her sometimes-best-friend, Emma . . . . –
Julie R. Ranelli, Kent Island Branch Library, Stevensville, MD
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
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All rights reserved.
Look, Lenore. Uncle Peter’s Amazing Chinese Wedding.
Atheneum, 2006. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.2; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 3. Jenny, who first appeared as an energetic big
sister in Henry's First-Moon Birthday (S & S, 2001), is back,
participating in her uncle's nuptials. The child loves being his special girl
and is having difficulty with the idea of sharing him with a new aunt.
Look perfectly captures the child's envy and jealousy as the bride
becomes the center of attention . . . . The busy day has a sweet
resolution as Stella chooses Jenny to release a box full of butterflies
and thanks her for sharing her uncle. The child responds with a hug and
welcomes the bride into the family . . . . –Maura Bresnahan, High Plain
Elementary School, Andover, MA
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Louie, Ai-Ling. Yeh-Shen. Putnam Juvenile, 1996. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.1; 0.5 points.
Card catalog description-Amazon.com
This version of the Cinderella story, in which a young girl overcomes the
wickedness of her stepsister and stepmother to become the bride of a
prince, is based on ancient Chinese manuscripts written 1000 years
before the earliest European version.
Lynette, Rachel. Great Structures in History-The
Great Wall of China.
KidHaven Press, 2004.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.8; 1 point.
Book Description-Amazon.com
At over 4,000 miles long, the Great Wall of China is the longest
structure ever built. Millions of people were forced to work on the Wall
and many died. This book tells how the Wall was built and how it was
used to defend China from its enemies to the north.
Mahy, Margaret. The Seven Chinese Brothers. Scholastic
Paperbacks, 1992. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.8; 0.5 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 4-8. In colorful language well suited to a story of ingenuity and
valor, Mahy presents the Chinese folktale about brothers with amazing
powers. Although the broad outline is the same as The Five Chinese
Brothers by Claire Huchet Bishop . . . Mahy's stirring retelling is very
different from and just as good as the earlier effort . . . . Children will
be caught up in the many narrow escapes and will benefit from the
subtle lesson on the importance of working together.
Copyright 1990 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Mann, Elizabeth. The Great Wall. Mikaya Press, 1997.
Grade 4 and up.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.4; 1 point.
Book Description-Amazon.com
This is the story of a people's struggle for absolute security in a violent
and dangerous world. Needing defense against the Mongols whose
empire encompassed most of the known world, the Chinese built the
Great Wall of China over 200 years. Thousands of miles long, the Wall
was guarded by over a million soldiers manning thousands of forts and
towers.
McCaughrean, Geraldine. The Kite Rider. Oxford University
Press, 2006. Young Adult.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.5; 10 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 12-up . . . . McCaughrean . . . grabs hold of readers' imaginations
and doesn't let go. In 13th-century China, a 12-year-old boy prepares to
say goodbye to his father, who is about to put to sea as a crew member
of the Chabi, and to watch the testing of the wind, which involves
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strapping a man to a huge kite and seeing if it flies straight up (a good
omen for the Chabi's voyage) or at a certain angle (foretelling danger).
But almost before Haoyou knows what is happening, the first mate
makes his father the wind-tester, and Haoyou looks on in horror as his
father becomes a speck in the distant sky, then returns, lifeless, to
earth . . . . The story takes Haoyou from his determined efforts to
prevent the evil first mate from marrying his beautiful mother to his
joining a traveling circus as a kite rider, mastering his father's tragedy
as he himself flies skyward into what the circus-goers take to be the
spirit world. Eventually the circus reaches the court of the Kublai Khan. .
..
Copyright 2002 Cahners Business Information, Inc.
Minnis, Ivan. You Are in Ancient China (You Are
There!). Raintree, 2004.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.3; 0.5 points.
From Booklist
Reviewed with Ivan Minnis' You Are in Ancient Rome.
Gr. 3-6 . . . . Ancient China describes the Han Dynasty (207 B.C.E.-220
C.E.), providing information about clothing and lifestyle, city and country
life, food, children, literacy, art, technology, entertainment, political
life, and religion . . . . Kay Weisman
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Mosel, Arlene. Tikki Tikki Tembo. Square Fish. 2007. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.2; 0.5 points.
Amazon.com
(Picture book) If you haven't already read Tikki Tikki Tembo, you've
probably heard at least someone recite the deliriously long name of its
protagonist: Tikki tikki tembo-no sa rembo-chari bari ruchi-pip peri
pembo, by now a famous refrain in most nursery schools. In this
beautiful edition. . . Arlene Mosel retells an old Chinese folktale about
how the people of China came to give their children short names after
traditionally giving their "first and honored" sons grand, long names.
Tikki tikki tembo (which means "the most wonderful thing in the whole
wide world") and his brother Chang (which means "little or nothing") get
into trouble with a well, are saved by the Old Man with the Ladder, and
change history while they're at it . . . .
Napoli, Donna. Bound. Simon Pulse, 2006. Young Adult.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.4; 6 points.
From Booklist
*Starred Review* Gr. 7-12. Drawing from traditional Chinese Cinderella
stories, Napoli sets this tale in a small village during China's Ming period.
Since her beloved father's death, Xing Xing has become "hardly more
than a slave," serving her acrimonious stepmother and pitiable
stepsister, Wei Ping, whose botched, bloody foot binding has left her
perilously unwell. A dangerous trip in search of medicine for Wei Ping
brings Xing Xing into the wider world, but she returns to find home
more treacherous than before . . . . Gillian Engberg
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
O’Connor, Jane. The Emperor’s Silent Army: Terracotta
Warriors of Ancient China.
Viking Juvenile, 2002.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 6.8; 1 point.
From School Library Journal
Grade 4-6. When three farmers, digging a well in a field near Xi'an,
China, unearthed a pottery head, they were completely unaware of the
magnitude of their discovery. As archaeologists began to excavate the
site, they found an entire army of life-sized pottery soldiers of every
rank, horses, chariots, weapons-an army fit for an emperor. In lively
fashion, this handsome book recounts the story of China's first
emperor, Qin Shihuang, who ordered the army's construction to ensure
that he remain safe and powerful if his quest for unending life was
unsuccessful. As the excellent colorful photographs make clear, none of
the soldiers look alike. Their costumes reflect their rank, and their
faces probably resemble the people with whom the many potters were
acquainted. O'Connor also speculates on the contents of the Emperor's
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tomb, which at present has not been excavated . . . .
Barbara Scotto, Michael Driscoll School, Brookline, MA
Copyright 2002 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Pittman, Helena Clare. A Grain of Rice. Yearling, 1995.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.9; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 3-8. An original story set on the grounds and in the palace of the
Emperor of China during the 15th Century. Pong Lo, the son of a farmer,
kneels in the Emperor's court to ask for his majesty's daughter's hand
in marriage. Employed as a storeroom worker, Pong Lo sets about to
prove that he is ``wise and quick and more than a little clever, and would
make . . . as fine a prince as China has ever seen.''. . . . Shelley G.
McNamara, University of Maine, Farmington
Copyright 1987 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Provensen, Alice. The Master Swordsman and the Magic
Doorway: Two Legends
from Ancient China. Simon & Schuster Children’s
Publishing, 2001. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.0; 0.5 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 5-8. Two inspiring tales of paradox from the Middle Kingdom
captivate Caldecott winner Provensen . . . In the first, the Master, who
maintains that he no longer teaches, trains his apprentice Little Chu in
an unorthodox way to develop the lightning instincts that will make the
boy an extraordinary swordsman. In exquisitely timed painted panels,
Provensen chronicles the boy's improving skills until one day Little Chu
successfully dodges the Master's sword and the man bequeaths to him
the weapon and releases him from service ("You will never need to draw
it. No enemy can touch you. Use the sword to chop cabbage"). In the
second tale, a greedy emperor commissions a great wall painting by Mu
Chi, then plots to behead him so that the artist can never top his work
for the emperor. But the painter outsmarts the ruler . . . .
Copyright 2001 Cahners Business Information, Inc.
Reddix, Valerie. Dragon Kite of the Autumn Moon.
Lothrop Lee & Shepard,
1992. Ages 4-8.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 5-up. Each year, Tin looks forward to Kite's Day, when he and his
grandfather fly a homemade kite and, as Taiwanese custom dictates, cut
it free at nightfall with the exhortation, "Go now and carry all our
misfortune away." This year, though, Tin's grandfather is ill and there is
no new kite to fly. Convinced that the tradition could help the old man
get well, Tin decides to go alone and fly his special dragon kite--the one
his grandfather made when he was born, and which has always hung
above his bed. It's a great sacrifice, for traditionally the kites must be
burned when they fall back to earth. But this is no ordinary kite, and
this is no ordinary night. When Tin cuts it loose, the kite comes to life,
sweeping away with a laugh and leaving behind a grandfather restored to
health. This exhilarating and touching parable tells of a boy with a
generous heart, and the special magic that sometimes happens when
moonlight and love conspire . . . .
Copyright 1992 Reed Business Information, Inc.
San Souci, Robert D. FA Mulan: The Story of a Woman
Warrior. Hyperion, 2000.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.8; 0.5 points.
Amazon.com
Ages 7 and older "A good swordsman should appear as calm as a fine
lady, but he must be capable of quick action like a surprised tiger," says
a seasoned warrior to Fa Mulan, unaware that the young soldier is in fact
a woman . . . . When Fa Mulan learns that her father has been drafted
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Seow, David. The Littlest Emperor. Tuttle Publishing, 2004.
Ages 4-8.
into Khan's army to fight the Tartars, she is shocked--her father is far
too old and weak to go to war. She forms a brave plan . . . and, "At dawn
she cut her hair short, put on her father's armor, and fastened his
weapons to the horse's saddle."
Fa Mulan is excited and afraid, and soon finds herself engaged in fierce
combat with the Tartars. She studies the art of war, and becomes
skilled with the sword. As her accomplishments gain fame, she is called
to appear before the Khan in the royal city of Loyang. Fearing the
discovery of her true gender, Mulan is anxious about the consequences
for her family. But she needn't have worried; "'General,' the Khan
began, 'you have served me well and have brought honor to your family.
Your deeds are enough to fill twelve books. I give you a thousand strings
of copper coins as a reward. What else do you wish?'" Relieved, the
woman warrior simply asks to go home . . . . --Karin Snelson
It's all about Fun, April 15, 2004-Amazon.com
Reviewer: A reader
I work with kids and they sat enthralled, while listening to the story and
it seems to get better each time you read it. This is an enchanting book
about a little boy, who just happens to be the emperor and his search
for fun. After he's completed his work, the Littlest Emperor does not
know what to do until someone suggests he has some fun! Not knowing
what fun is he sets about searching for fun across his kingdom. The
problem is that everyone has a different idea of what fun is. In the end,
the Emperor finds just what he is looking for.
Schlein, Miriam. The Year of the Panda.
HarperTrophy, 1992. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.4; 1 point.
Book Description-Amazon.com
If you think Superman or Spiderman has been around a long time, think
about Monkey. He has been China's favorite superhero for at least five
centuries. He's amazingly strong, can fly, and has tricks those other
superheroes never heard of.
From School Library Journal
Lu Yi wonders why a daxiong mao (giant panda) has come down from the
mist-shrouded mountains. Then he and his father discover a dead panda
who has left behind a baby. Lu Yi rescues the orphan, and with the help
of his family, cares for it. One day, a messenger arrives in their remote
village in China with the story of the pandas' plight. The bamboo that
the pandas feed on has died, as it does every 60 years, and, as it takes
two to three years for the new shoots to grow sufficiently, there is a
famine. The pandas have journeyed to the farms seeking food. When the
messenger hears of the orphaned panda, he makes arrangements for Lu
Yi and his charge to go to the Panda Rescue Center. There Lu Yi comes
to understand the extent of the effort required to preserve the
endangered daxiong mao and their habitat. --Susan Middleton, LaJolla
Country Day School, CA
Copyright 1990 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Shepard, Aaron. Monkey: A Superhero Tale of China, Retold
from The Journey to the
West. Skyhook Press, 2005. Ages 9-12.
Sing, Rachel. Chinese New Year’s Dragon. Aladdin, 1994.
Ages 4-8.
From Booklist
Gr. 3-5. A little girl tells the story of her family's Chinese New Year
celebration. Although the cover illustration shows the girl riding a
dragon and the first page promises magic, the majority of this book
deals with the holiday as a family event --from cleaning and shopping to
food preparation and gifts . . . . The girl cleans the house in her jeans,
but she wears traditional clothing . . . for the family party. The magical
happening is a tiny, dreamy moment when the girl feels she's back in
ancient China, watching the celebration from a dragon's back. The
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pictures show a world in which tradition intersects a nontraditional
world: the New Year's fireworks explode against an urban skyscraper.
Mary Harris Veeder
Stewart, Whitney. Deng Xiaoping: Leader in a Changing China.
Lerner Publications, 2001.
Ages 12 up.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 8.6; 4 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 6-9. This straightforward biography places the story of the
leader's life firmly within the context of the development of modern
China. It begins with a very brief description of the downfall of the
Qing dynasty. Deng Xiaoping was a small boy when the Qing rulers were
ousted, and so the way was open for him to move outside the traditional
system of Chinese education and assert his leadership at a time when
change was in the air. The text chronicles his rise to power and his
subsequent difficulties . . . .
Barbara Scotto, Michael Driscoll School, Brookline, MA
Copyright 2001 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Stewart, Whitney. Mao Zedong. Twenty-First
Century Books, 2005.
Midwest Book Review-Amazon.com
A little over a hundred pages of detail make for a good foundation
report for grades 4 and up on Chinese ruler Mao Zedong, one of the
most powerful people in the world during his lifetime. Mao grew up in a
world ruled by the Qing dynasty, when many longed for change: he came
to power in 1949 and China became a Communist nation under his control,
which extended throughout Chinese daily life . . . .
Stout, Glenn. On the Court with…Yao Ming (Matt
Christopher Sport Biographies).
Little, Brown Young Readers, 2004. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 7.1; 3 points.
Renaissance Learning
This book traces the life of Yao Ming, who played basketball in his
native China before being drafted by the Houston Rockets in 2002 after
an agreement between the government of China and NBA officials. This
series created by Matt Christopher.
Thong, Roseanne. The Wishing Tree. Shen’s Books,
2003.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.7; 0.5 points.
From Booklist
PreS-Gr. 2. When Ming is five years old, his grandmother takes him to
the Wishing Tree, where, like others in their Hong Kong village, they
write wishes on pieces of paper weighted down by oranges and throw
them into the branches of a giant banyan tree. Ming and Grandmother
continue their annual visits to the tree until Grandmother grows ill.
Bitter when his wish for Grandmother's recovery isn't granted, Ming
avoids the tree until, years later, he returns to the village and
acknowledges the happiness the tree brought . . . . Gillian Engberg
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Treffinger, Carolyn. Li Lun, Lad of Courage. Walker
Books for Young Readers,
1995. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.8; 3 points.
Book Description-Amazon.com
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Banished to a mountaintop to learn to grow rice, Li Lun proves his
courage as he fights the elements and his own loneliness to make his rice
seedlings flourish where no one else has for generations.
Tucker, Kathy. The Seven Chinese Sisters. Albert Whitman &
Co., 2003. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.0; 0.5 points.
From Booklist
PreS-Gr. 2 . . . . Each of the seven Chinese sisters has a noteworthy skill:
the eldest rides a scooter as fast as the wind; the second knows karate;
the third can count to 500 and beyond; the fourth can talk to dogs; the
fifth can catch any ball; the sixth cooks delicious noodle soup. The
baby's talents are as yet undiscovered. One day, a hungry red dragon
from a faraway mountain smells the soup and flies straight to the
sisters' house. Distracted by plump Seventh Sister, he snatches her and
steals her away (Her first word is "HELP!"). Then the sisters kick into
action, each utilizing her unique talent in the rescue mission (especially
amusing is the fourth sister's using dog talk to communicate with the
dragon) . . . . Karin Snelson
Copyright © American Library Association. All rights reserved
Vaughan, Marcia K. The Dancing Dragon. Mondo
Publishing, 1996. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 1.8; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 2. In rhymed couplets, a Chinese-American child
describes the excitement, preparation, and festivities of the Chinese
New Year, culminating in a parade that includes a magnificent dragon . . .
. Carolyn Jenks, First Parish Unitarian Church, Portland, ME
Copyright 1996 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Waterlow, Julia. The Yangtze (Great Rivers of the World).
World Almanac Library, 2003.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 7.4; 2 points.
Renaissance Learning
This book discusses the history of the Yangtze River, its geographical
features and wildlife, and the towns and settlements along its bank.
Waters, Kate. Lion Dancer: Ernie Wan’s Chinese New Year.
Scholastic Press, 1991.
Ages 4-8. (Reading Rainbow)
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 2.9; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Preschool-Grade 3. In brief, simple sentences, Ernie Wan describes his
Chinese -American family's celebration of the lunar New Year. Ernie
lives in New York City's Chinatown, where traditions are rooted in the
culture of southern China. Ernie's father, a kung fu master,
choreographs The Lion Dance, the center of the community celebration
and a major tourist attraction. This year, Ernie dances in the place of
honor under the lion's head . . . . --Margaret A. Chang, Buxton School,
Williamstown, MA
Copyright 1989 Reed Business Information, Inc
Wei, Jiang, Legend of Mu Lan: A Heroine of Ancient China.
Victory Press, 1997.
Ages 9-12.
Historically accurate - wonderful book!, May 29, 2001
A reviewer-Newbury Park, CA United States-Amazon.com
Every culture has their myths, legends and stories which are handed
down through the ages with reverence and respect. In this era of
commercializing and rewriting every classic that comes along, it is
refreshing to find books such as this--that honor the original telling.
Not only is the story historically accurate, but the beautiful pictures
are as well, and this book is a must for any lover of Chinese history
and/or for parents wishing to explain their "roots" to their children. I
loved it!
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Werner, Teresa Orem. A Quilt of Wishes. Lifevest
Publishing, 2005.
a must have, even if you aren't into quilting, November 12,
2005
Tassie, Washington State, USA-Amazon.com
During our journey to our daughter in China, I collected fabric squares
and wishes for a 100 Good Wishes quilt for my daughter, based on a
tradition that started in Northern China. My daughter's quilt is made up
of fabric and wishes that people from around the globe sent to her. This
. . . brings to life all the hope, dreams and love I had while collecting for
my own child's quilt . . . . Bravo Teresa Werner for writing an amazing
book that I'm proud to have in my daughter's library . . . .
Wilson, Barbara Ker. Wishbones: A Folk Tale from
China. Frances Lincoln,
2000. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.6; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 6. Another version of the Chinese Cinderella story .
. . . The story comes from . . . what is now Guangxi province, and was
first redacted by the Tang Dynasty scholar Duan Cheng-shi in the mid800s. Besides the obligatory stepmother and stepsister, Yeh Hsien . . .
has a pet fish as a wise confidant. The stepmother secretly kills and
eats it, but a spirit tells Yeh Hsien where to find the bones, which turn
out to be magic, laying the groundwork for the happy ending . . . .
John Philbrook, San Francisco Public Library
Copyright 1994 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Williams, Brian. Ancient China. Viking Juvenile, 1996. Ages 9-12.
From Kirkus Reviews
Ages 8-12. This entry in the See Through History series chronicles
major events and periods from 3,500 years of the world's oldest
continuous culture. Beginning with the Shang dynasty in the Bronze Age,
Williams covers war, daily life, religious beliefs, farming, burial, class
structure, civil service, cities, homes, and many other aspects of culture
and custom, gradually working forward to the modern era . . . . --
Copyright ©1996, Kirkus Associates, LP. All rights reserved.
Williams, Suzanne. Made in China: Ideas and Inventions from
Ancient China. Pacific View,
1997. Ages 9-12.
From Booklist
Gr. 4^-6 . . . . this colorfully illustrated book focuses on specific topics
related to ancient Chinese culture, history, tradition, and invention . . . .
Carolyn Phelan
Wong, Janet. S. This Next New Year. Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 2000.
Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.9; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Preschool-Grade 2. A Chinese-Korean boy relates how he and his friends
celebrate the "lunar new year, the day of the first new moon." One child
celebrates the holiday with "Thai food to go," while a non-Asian child
likes to get "-red envelopes stuffed with money from her neighbor who
came from Singapore." The narrator's mother cooks a special Korean
soup, and his family observes the traditions of house cleaning, lighting
firecrackers, and being extra good to ensure a lucky new year. Wong
carefully and clearly presents the reasons behind the rituals in a manner
understandable to young children . . . .
Anne Connor, Los Angeles Public Library
Copyright 2000 Reed Business Information, Inc.
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Yep, Laurence. The Dragon Prince: A Chinese Beauty & the
Beast Tale. HarperTrophy,
1999. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.8; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 1-5 . . . . When a poor farmer falls into the clutches of a dragon,
he begs each of his seven daughters to save him from death by marrying
the horrifying creature. At last, the youngest consents. The dragon
carries Seven (the daughters are named in birth order, following
Chinese tradition) to his home under the sea. Far from being frightened,
Seven is full of wonder. When she tells the dragon, "The eye sees what
it will, but the heart sees what it should," the monster turns into a
handsome prince. They live happily until Seven longs to return home.
There, her jealous third sister tries to drown her and takes her place as
mistress of the dragon's palace. Then the Prince must go searching for
his lost bride . . . . Margaret A. Chang, North Adams State College, MA
Copyright 1997 Reed Business Information, Inc
Yep, Laurence. Lady of Ch’iao Kuo: Warrior of the South,
Southern China, A.D. 531.
(The Royal Diaries). Scholastic, 2001. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.3; 8 points.
From School Library Journal
Gr 5-8. This entry in the series covers four months in the life of
Princess Redbird, a member of the royal family of the Hsien people.
Decades before, China had invaded their land and now the Hsien live in
an uneasy peace with the invaders. With an eye to the future of his
people, Redbird's father sends the 16-year-old to a Chinese school to
learn the language and the customs of the Chinese, and also to be a
representative of her people. Once there she also learns the joy of
reading while studying under Master Chen. Her schooling is interrupted
when a neighboring tribe, the Dog Heads, begins attacks on both the
Hsien and the Chinese. The attacks escalate and all Princess Redbird's
knowledge is required to help set up an alliance between the two to
defeat the invaders. Before the Hsien forces triumph, many are killed,
including Master Chen and Redbird's father. She, however, has
discovered a talent for diplomacy and the foresight and practicality to
look ahead for the good of her people . . . .Terrie Dorio, Santa Monica
Public Library, CA
Copyright 2002 Cahners Business Information, Inc.
Yep, Laurence. The Rainbow People. HarperTrophy, 1992. Ages
9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.8; 6 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 3-7. Twenty Chinese folktales, selected and retold by Yep from
those collected in the 1930s in the Oakland Chinatown as part of a WPA
project. His introduction helps children to see the Chinese workers,
gathered in a shack after their day of "hot, grueling work," telling
stories to pass the time before sleep comes. Each section is prefaced by
a short explanation of how the tales might relate to the ChineseAmerican experience . . . . --Constance A. Mellon, Department of Library
& Information Studies, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C.
Copyright 1989 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Yep, Laurence. Spring Pearl: The Last Flower (Girls of Many
Lands). American Girl, 2002.
Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.3; 5 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 9-12 . . . . this colorful novel introduces the spirited 12-year-old
Chou Spring Pearl against the backdrop of Canton, China, during the
Opium War of 1857. The recently orphaned girl has been liberally raised
by her artist parents she can read and write and speak English but now
she's a charity case, taken in by Master Sung, a wealthy friend of her
father's. Life with Sung's arrogant wife and daughters (who call her
"Miss Ratty" after her poor ghetto neighborhood) starts off rocky, but
Spring Pearl rises to the challenge through strength of character,
gradually earning the respect of the entire household. When Master
Sung is arrested and imprisoned, Spring Pearl's courage and ingenuity
help bring the family safely through the ordeal. Spring Pearl has a bit of
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both Cinderella (she's assigned menial chores at first) and Mary Lenox
(she restores the Sungs' neglected garden), but she emerges a fully
realized character . . . .
Copyright 2002 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Yep, Laurence. Tongues of Jade. HarperCollins Childrens Books,
1991. Ages 9-12.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 8-12. Noted children's author Yep . . . scrupulously culls numerous
early Chinese American tales, most of them collected as part of a 1930s
WPA project in Oakland's Chinatown, and gracefully retells them,
weaving everything together with perceptive commentary on the stories'
origins and intents. Many of the virtues and morals espoused are from
familiar folktale territory--the importance of respect for parents ("The
Little Emperor") and of kindness to others ("Waters of Gold") and the
pitfalls of greed ("The Rat in the Wall"). The stories are liberally dosed
with magic, and all praise the qualities--patience and diligence, for
example--necessary to succeed in a foreign and often hostile land . . . .
American experience. Illustrations not seen by PW .
Copyright 1991 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Yip, Mingmei. Chinese Children’s Favorite Stories. Tuttle
Publishing, 2004. Ages 4-8.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 2. A collection of 13 traditional "thousand-year-old"
stories . . . . Some stories will be familiar, such as "The Mouse Bride,"
though this version is a little different from Lida Dijkstra's Little
Mouse (Front St, 2004) and Ed Young's Mouse Match (Harcourt, 1997).
Other selections include traditional Chinese elements such as dragons
and the mischievous monkey king. Like fables, these tales have morsels
of wisdom to impart, and almost all have a close connection with the
natural world. Explanations of cultural elements are nicely incorporated
into the text, such as the qin, a musical instrument . . . . –Robin L. Gibson,
formerly at Perry County District Library, New Lexington, OH
Yolen, Jane. The Emperor and the Kite. Putnam
Juvenile, 1998. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 4.6; 0.5 points.
Book Description-Amazon.com
Largely ignored by her own family, Princess Djeow Seow spends her days
playing with a kite made from paper and sticks. But when the Emperor is
imprisoned in a high tower, only the Princess can save the day, flying her
kite high up into the sky to rescue her father . . . . -- Booklist
Young, Ed. Cat and Rat: The Legend of the
Chinese Zodiac. Henry
Holt and Co., 1998. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.3; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 3. In this version of the story behind the Chinese
zodiac, the Emperor challenges all of the creatures to a race through
forest and river, saying he will name each of the 12 years in the cycle
after the winners. Rat and Cat, the best of friends, ask the water
buffalo to carry them across the river. In sight of the finish line, Rat
pushes Cat into the water and jumps off the buffalo's back, coming in
first. "And that is why, to this very day, Cat and Rat are enemies." . . . .
Margaret A. Chang, North Adams State College, MA
Copyright 1995 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Young, Ed. Lon Po Po. Putnam Juvenile, 1996. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.5; 0.5 points.
From Publishers Weekly
Ages 4-8. This version of the Red Riding Hood story from Young . . .
features three daughters left at home when their mother goes to visit
their grandmother. Lon Po Po, the Granny Wolf, pretends to be the girls'
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grandmother, until clever Shang, the eldest daughter, suspects the
greedy wolf's real identity. Tempting him with ginkgo nuts, the girls pull
him in a basket to the top of the tree in which they are hiding, then let
go of the rope--killing him . . . .
Copyright 1989 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Young, Ed. The Lost Horse: A Chinese Folktale. Voyager
Books, 2004. Ages 4-8.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 3.0; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Kindergarten-Grade 3. A wonderful elaboration on an ancient Chinese
proverb and story dating from the Han Dynasty . . . . When a man's
horse runs away, he refuses to see the event as a tragedy, just as he
refuses to celebrate its return with a mare. Similarly, when his son is
thrown from the mare's back and breaks his leg, the father does not
consider this mishap as necessarily bad. His trust in the fortunes of life
is rewarded when the son's injury prevents him from going to war, and
thus saves him from possible death . . . . Marianne Saccardi, Norwalk
Community-Technical College, CT
Copyright 1998 Reed Business Information, Inc.
Young, Ed. The Sons of the Dragon King: A Chinese Legend.
Atheneum, 2004. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.3; 0.5 points.
From School Library Journal
Grade 1-4. According to legend, the Dragon King had nine sons who,
after leaving their father's house, seemed to be aimlessly frittering
away their days. When the king goes to investigate, he discovers that
what appears to be frivolity or laziness is masking a unique talent, and
he helps each son to employ his talent productively. For example,
because the second son, Chi Wen, constantly stares intently into the
distance, he becomes a sentinel. Young then goes on to describe how
that young man and his talent are still symbolically reflected in Chinese
art and architecture. "And to this day, Chi Wen may still be found at the
tops of buildings, a sentinel searching the distance for potential
danger." . . . . –Grace Oliff, Ann Blanche Smith School, Hillsdale, NJ
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Zhang, Ange. Red Land Yellow River: A Story from the
Cultural Revolution. Groundwood
Books, 2004. Ages 9-12.
Accelerated Reader ATOS reading level 5.6; 1 point.
From School Library Journal
Grade 4 Up. Zhang was a teen living in Beijing when Mao Zedong began
the Cultural Revolution. In a youthful voice he records his experiences in
the early years of that turbulent decade that began in 1966. The son of
a "bad guy" (a famous writer) and hence denied admission to the Red
Guard troops, the boy set up his own one-person Red Guard unit,
participated in some of the struggles that occurred between units, and
in 1968 was sent to a small village to learn how to farm. There he
discovered his true calling, that of an artist . . . . Diane S. Marton,
Arlington County Library, VA
Copyright © Reed Business Information, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
Zheng, Zhensun. A Young Painter. The Life and
Paintings of Wang Yani—
China’s Extraordinary Young Artist. Scholastic,
1991.
From School Library Journal
Grade 5 Up. From the age of three, Wang Yani has shown a remarkable
feeling for color and design. Her creative brushwork in the xieyi hua or
free form style of Chinese art was recognized by art experts by the
time she was four years old. Her work has been shown in museums and
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galleries around the world and has even been featured on a Chinese
postage stamp . . . . --Shirley Wilton, Ocean County College, Toms River,
NJ
Copyright 1991 Reed Business Information, Inc.
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