Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases
1
Accounting for Long-term Assets,
Long-term Debt and Leases
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction2
Long-term Assets 2
Acquiring or creating
2
Tangible assets
2
Intangible assets
3
Depreciating, amortizing and depleting
3
Impairing and revaluing 5
Disposing7
Long-term Debt
8
Issuing8
Accruing interest
9
Reclassifying principal
10
Paying interest and principal 10
Leases11
Classifying leases
12
Measuring initial value of a capital lease
12
Recording entries for leases
13
Proposed updates to leasing standards
15
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter examines accounting for long-term assets, long-term debt, and leases from the
perspective of lessees (the company that leases property, plant or equipment from another company
called the lessor). The reason we are combining these topics is most of the accounting and business
issues associated with leases are applications of related issues for long-term assets and long-term debt.
LONG-TERM ASSETS
Accounting for tangible property, plant and equipment (PP&E) and intangible long-term assets
centers on four events:
• Acquiring or creating
• Depreciating, amortizing or depleting
• Impairing and revaluing (revaluations are only allowed under IFRS)
• Disposing
Acquiring or creating
Accounting for the acquisition or creation of tangible and intangible long-term assets is similar in
many respects, but there are enough differences that we will discuss them separately.
Tangible assets
We will focus our discussion of tangible assets on PP&E since other tangibles such as natural
resources are only important in a few industries.
Companies can acquire ownership of PP&E by purchasing it separately with cash or third-party
debt financing, acquiring it as part of a business acquisition, or constructing it internally. They
can also acquire the right to use PP&E through leasing. When these leases are classified as capital
leases, which we will discuss later, they are included in PP&E. Strictly speaking, the leased property
is tangible, but the lease itself – the right to use the property – is an intangible asset. The only
significance of this difference is some companies describe the usage of capital leases as depreciation
(of a tangible asset) while others describe it as amortization (of an intangible).
We have already studied the entry for purchasing PP&E with cash: increase PP&E and decrease cash
for the cost of the purchased asset. Delivery and installation costs are also included in the recognized
cost. For purchasing PP&E financed with debt, the entry is similar except debt increases and
possibly cash decreases if there’s a down payment. For example, here is the entry if Berger Properties
acquires a building for $90 million with 100% debt financing (along with land,which is recorded
separately):
Berger Properties acquires building with 100% debt financing
Debit
PP&E (historical cost)
Long-term debt
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Credit
$90
$90
Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases
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When PP&E is acquired as part of a business acquisition, it is recorded at its fair value – the
hypothetical price it could be sold for to a third party. When PP&E is constructed internally, it is
recorded at the aggregate cost to complete the construction. This includes capitalized interest: a
portion of the interest associated with debt that is deemed attributable to the construction (through
a formula that is beyond the scope of this chapter).
Intangible assets
When intangible assets are purchased from third parties separately with cash or debt financing or
as part of a business acquisition, the accounting is the same as PP&E purchases. This is not true for
leasing or creating intangible assets and the related guidance can be quite different for US GAAP and
IFRS.
Generally, US GAAP guidance for leases applies only to PP&E and, in particular, not to intangibles.
This means that with one exception the future payments associated with leased intangibles (e.g.,
licensing arrangements) can’t be capitalized: they are expensed as incurred during the term of the
contract. The exception is software leased for internal use. The software can be capitalized if it meets
criteria similar to those used to determine whether PP&E leases should be capitalized. In contrast, to
US GAAP, IFRS guidance for leases can be applied to many intangibles.
When intangible assets are created through advertising (such as brands) or basic research, the “R” in
R&D, (such as intellectual property) with one exception, these assets can’t be recognized on balance
sheets under US GAAP and IFRS. This is because standard setters have concluded they can’t be
measured reliably. Thus, costs associated with research are always expensed as incurred. However, the
one exception under US GAAP is the costs to develop advertisements: costs can be capitalized until
the advertisements are first used, at which time costs are expensed.
When intangible assets are created through development, the “D” in R&D, with a few exceptions,
the costs associated with the development are also expensed as incurred under US GAAP. The
exceptions that are most prevalent center on costs associated with software development. Software
developed for internal use and software developed to be sold to customers can both be capitalized,
but the criteria differ. By contrast, under IFRS costs associated with internally developing any
intangible must be capitalized once the development process is far enough along so six criteria are
met. These criteria establish that it is probable the intangible will meet its intended purpose; the
company is committed to using or selling it; and the remaining development costs can be estimated
reliably. This difference in accounting guidance under US GAAP and IFRS can significantly affect
financial-statement comparisons of global competitors. For example, at year end December 31,
2012, Daimler reported 7.2 billion euros of capitalized development costs under IFRS. These costs
would have been previously expensed if Daimler reported under US GAAP.
Depreciating, amortizing and depleting
Depreciation, amortization, and depletion measure the portion of an asset’s historical cost allocated
to usage or the passage of time during the asset’s useful life. Throughout the world, depletion refers
to using up natural resources. In some countries, including the US, depreciation generally refers to
using up tangible assets and amortization to using up intangible assets. In other countries, however,
amortization is a synonym for depreciation.
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Aside from these differences in terms, the entries for using up PP&E, intangible assets, or natural
resources are structurally the same. For example, to record depreciation expense, we increase the
expense and increase accumulated depreciation. To record amortization expense, we increase the
expense and increase accumulated amortization. These are the only depreciation and amortization
entries for companies that don’t manufacture the products they sell.
Manufacturing companies have two types of long-term assets: (i) production-related longterm assets such as manufacturing equipment, factories and intellectual property associated with
production and (ii) non-production-related long-term assets such as the corporate headquarters
and administrative computers. The depreciation and amortization entries are quite different for nonproduction asset types. However, these differences can easily be understood using the four questions
and OEC Map approach we have been using throughout the course to record entries.
We will first demonstrate this approach for depreciation associated with non-production-related
PP&E. The resulting depreciation entry will be the one you have recorded often in earlier chapters:
increase depreciation expense and increase accumulated depreciation. That is, all along we have been
depreciating non-production-related assets. Recall our responses to the four questions:
1. Should an asset be recognized? Generally, we would expect future benefits to be created
when a company uses non-production-related assets. For example, we would expect future
benefits to be realized when sales staff use company cars to see customers or employees at the
corporate headquarters use computers. However, these benefits can’t be measured reliably
and, in particular, determining when, if ever, the benefits are realized is problematic. Thus,
the answer to this question is no: an asset is not recognized when non-production-related
assets are depreciated.
2. Should an asset be de-recognized? Yes, benefits associated with the asset being depreciated
have been used up so there are fewer future benefits than at the start of the current period.
The ones used up this period need to be de-recognized.
3. Should a liability be recognized? No obligation is incurred when depreciating an asset.
4. Should a liability be de-recognized? No obligation is met when depreciating an asset.
The second question is the only one we answered affirmatively, which means net assets and thus
owners’ equity decreases when a non-production-related asset is depreciated. From the OEC Map,
we can easily determine that an expense is recognized.
What is different with production-related depreciation? The answers to all of the questions above
except the first will be the same. Should we recognize an asset when production-related assets are
depreciated? Yes: An asset should be recognized. Using the production-related asset helped produce
inventory, whose future benefits will be realized when products are sold. So the distinguishing
difference is we can now determine when the future benefits have been realized: when the product is
sold. This was not true for non-production-related assets.
More generally, the cost of all resources used to produce products are recorded to inventory,
including the costs of using up related PP&E - depreciation. These costs are assigned to individual
products in inventory through a process called product costing that is beyond the scope of this
chapter.
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Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases
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To summarize, when production-related PP&E is used up to help produce products, one
asset, inventory, is recognized and another, PP&E, is derecognized (by increasing accumulated
depreciation). These effects offset each other and so there is no change in net assets and thus no
change in owners’ equity and no expense. The depreciation assigned to inventory will ultimately be
expensed through cost of sales when products are sold.
Here is an example that will help you understand the similarities and differences between
depreciating production and non-production related long-term assets: Smart Manufacturing
Company has two identical computers that are depreciated at the same rate, $1,000 per year. One of
these is used in Smart’s factory to help produce products and the other at the corporate headquarters.
Here are the entries to record the annual depreciation:
Smart Company's Depreciation
Depreciating computer used at corporate headquarters
Depreciation expense
Accumulated PP&E depreciation
Depreciating computer used at factory
Inventories
Accumulated PP&E depreciation
Debit
Credit
$1,000
$1,000
Debit
Credit
$1,000
$1,000
Notice the credit is the same for the two computers, indicating a decrease in net PP&E for both
production-related and non-production-related PP&E. However, the debits differ, indicating the cost
associated with using the factory computer has been transferred to inventory and the cost associated
with using the headquarters computer has been recognized in net income as an expense.
Drill deeper - beyond the scope of this chapter. Here we have skipped over several
intermediate entries within inventories: the depreciation is first recorded to an overhead
inventory account, along with other overhead costs; these overhead costs are then transferred to
work-in-process inventory accounts along the costs associated with materials and labor; when
production is completed, costs associated with the completed products are transferred from work
in process inventory to finished goods inventory. Ultimately when products are sold, costs are
transferred from finished goods inventory to cost of sales.
Impairing and revaluing
A long-term asset becomes impaired under IFRS and US GAAP when its carrying value (book value)
is overstated relative to its recoverable amount - the amount that will be recovered in the future.
However, the recoverable amount is defined differently under IFRS and US GAAP, which means an
asset can be impaired under one system but not the other. However, even when an asset is deemed
impaired under the two systems, there can be differences in the way the impairment is measured: the
amount the asset’s carrying value is decreased when the impairment is recognized.
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Drill deeper - beyond the scope of this chapter. A deeper discussion of the differences in
accounting for impairments under US GAAP and IFRS is beyond the scope of this chapter and
introductory courses. To learn more, watch the Navigating Accounting video: “Measurement
Decisions” menu items “Adjusted historical cost: impairment losses” and “US GAAP”:
http://www.navigatingaccounting.com/video/scenic-measurement-decisions
While the amounts recognized as impairments can differ under IFRS and US GAAP, the entries to
recognize impairments are structurally the same. Here are the entries Smart Company records to
recognize a $500 impairment to PP&E and a $300 impairment to identifiable intangible assets:
Smart Company's Impairments
Recognizing an impairment to PP&E
Impairment losses
Accumulated PP&E impairments
Recognizing an impairment to identifiable intangible assets
Impairment losses
Accumulated amortization of Identifiable intangible assets
Debit
Credit
$500
$500
Debit
Credit
$300
$300
Under US GAAP, impairments of long-term assets can’t be reversed if a previously impaired asset’s
fair value increases above its carrying value at a future date. By contrast, under IFRS, except for
goodwill impairments, reversals are generally permitted (up to the accumulated impairments
previously recognized).
Under US GAAP, long-term assets (other than financial instruments) can’t be revalued upwards
when their fair values increase above their carrying values. Instead, long-term assets are recognized
at their adjusted historical cost: historical cost less accumulated depreciation and accumulated
impairments.
By contrast, under IFRS, companies have the option to report most long-term assets at adjusted
historical cost or revalued to fair value. If they elect the fair value option, the assets must be revalued
regularly enough to ensure their carrying values at the balance sheet date don’t differ significantly
from their fair values.
You might be thinking companies would jump at the opportunity to revalue their assets upward,
especially because they are frequently required to recognize impairment losses when assets’ fair values
decrease. Yet, very few companies elect the revaluation option under IFRS. Why not? The answer
illustrates how reporting incentives can affect accounting decisions and why you need to understand
the financial-statement consequences of accounting choices available to companies to understand
their choices:
■ When a company revalues an asset upward, it increases the asset, or more precisely a
companion adjunct account that increases the carrying value, and increases a reserve account
to recognize a gain in other comprehensive income (OCI). Thus, while the gain increases
comprehensive income, it doesn’t affect net income, which is the measure compensation
performance targets are typically based on.
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Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases
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■ However, thereafter depreciation is based on the higher, revalued asset value, which means
net income decreases relative to what it would have been.
■ When the revalued asset is disposed of, the gain previously recognized as an OCI reserve can
be transferred directly to retained earnings or left in the accumulated OCI reserve account.
However, it can’t be recognized in net income.
■ Thus, electing the revaluation option doesn’t increase net income when carrying values are
revised upwards but lowers future net income. As a result, managers who are rewarded for
achieving targets based on net income have an incentive to elect the adjusted historical cost
option and not revalue assets based on fair values.
■ This said, their can be other considerations that outweigh this incentive. In particular, the
revaluation method decreases financial leverage (because assets and owners’ equity both
increase and liabilities are not affected).
Disposing
While the account names differ, the entries to record PP&E and intangible disposals are conceptually
the same. We recorded the entry for a PP&E disposal in an earlier chapter, assuming at the time
that the asset was accounted for under the adjusted historical cost option rather than the revaluation
option.
Here is an example of a similar entry for an intangible asset disposal. Smart Company records the
following entry when it sells a trademark for $100 cash that had a carrying value of $110: $200
historical cost less $70 of accumulated amortization and $20 of accumulated impairments:
Smart Company's disposal of an identifiable intangible asset
Debit
Cash and cash equivalents
Accumulated amortization of Identifiable intangible assets
Accumulated impairment of Identifiable intangible assets
Gain/loss on identifiable intangible asset disposals
Identifiable intangible assets (historical cost)
Credit
$100
$70
$20
$10
$200
As indicated earlier, if the asset had been accounted for under the revaluation method, the company
would have the option to record another entry that transfers the related balance in the accumulated
OCI reserve account to retained earnings.
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LONG-TERM DEBT
Accounting for long-term debt centers on six events or circumstances:
• Issuing
• Accruing interest
• Reclassifying principal
• Paying principal and interest
• Restructuring debt
• Early extinguishment
Drill deeper - beyond the scope of this chapter. Debt restructurings and early
extinguishments occur infrequently and are beyond the scope of this chapter, as are redeemable
and convertible debt.
We will also only be discussing bonds briefly here. They are explained in considerable detail in a
Navigating Accounting video: “Bonds”
http://www.navigatingaccounting.com/video/scenic-bonds
Similarly, while we will be discussing entries related to interest and principal payments, we won’t
be discussing the way interest and principal payments are derived from contractual features in
debt agreements. These computations are explained in another Navigating Accounting video:
“Debt Basics”
http://www.navigatingaccounting.com/video/scenic-debt-basics
Issuing
When companies issue debt they receive cash or other proceeds. We studied the entry for issuing
debt for cash in the balance sheet chapter: increase cash and increase long-term debt. Earlier in
this chapter we discussed the entry for acquiring PPE with 100% debt financing. Another way to
describe this entry is issuing debt in exchange for PP&E proceeds: increase PP&E and increase longterm debt. When recording these entries, we ignored debt issuance costs and assumed we weren’t
issuing bonds. The issuance entries are slightly different in these situations.
As explained in the “Bonds” video cited above, when bonds are issued, the increase to long-term debt
is split into two accounts. All you need to know about these accounts now is they arise because bonds
are issued to a market and during the time it takes to build demand for the bonds in this market,
interest rates usually change in ways that result in the two accounts.
By contrast, debt besides bonds, is typically issued to a bank, insurance company, pension fund or
other financial institution rather than to a market. These issuances are called private placements and
the debt is referred to as short-term or long-term notes. These placements also include syndicated
debt issuances where a lead bank arranges for a limited number of other financial institutions to
contribute part of the proceeds.
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Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases
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The debt issuance entries we recorded in earlier chapters were all private placements, rather than
bonds. Similarly, the remainder of this chapter focuses exclusively on private placements.
When debt is issued there are issuance costs. These include commissions, legal fees, and other costs
incurred to issue debt. Issuance costs are accounted for differently under US GAAP and IFRS. For
example, suppose Smart Company pays $5 million to a lead bank to raise $100 million through a
private placement to a few pension funds and insurance companies. Thus, Smart Company nets $95
million cash after paying the debt issuance costs.
As indicated below, under IFRS, the debt issuance costs are expensed immediately as financing costs.
By contrast, under US GAAP, they are capitalized at issuance and subsequently expensed over the
term of the debt:
Smart Company's Debt Issuance under US GAAP AND IFRS
US GAAP
Cash and cash equivalents
Deferred issuance cost (asset)
Long-term debt
IFRS
Cash and cash equivalents
Financing costs (includes interest expense)
Long-term debt
Debit
Credit
$95
$5
$100
Debit
Credit
$95
$5
$100
Accruing interest
Interest is the amount lenders charge borrowers for the use of money during a specified period,
usually expressed as a percentage of the amount owed the lender at the beginning of a period. The
percentage applied is called the interest rate for the period. Interest computations are explained in
the “Debt Basics” video cited earlier.
In this chapter, we assume interest expense is accrued as an end-of-period adjusting entry before it
is paid the next period. (If the payment is made by the last day of the reporting period, there is no
need for an accrual.)
Here is an example. Assume Smart Company borrowed $100 on January 1, 2013 and that Smart is
obligated to repay the lender the $100 borrowed plus $5 interest on January 1, 2014. The interest
is the amount charged by the lender for the use of the $100 during 2013. Thus, on December
31, 2013, which is the end of Smart’s fiscal year, Smart is legally obligated to pay the lender $5 of
interest the next day. Thus, Smart must recognize a liability associated with the interest obligation.
However, the passage of time that gave rise to this obligation didn’t result in an asset being
recognized; an asset being de-recognized; or a liability being derecognized. Accordingly, net assets
and thus owners’ equity decreased. Following the OEC Map, we see that Smart must recognize an
expense, which is typically called interest expense by companies following US GAAP and financing
costs by IFRS companies. Here is the December 31, 2013 entry to accrue interest expense:
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Smart Company's adjusting entry to accrue interest expense
Debit
Financing costs (includes interest expense)
Accrued interest
Credit
$5
$5
Typically, accrued interest is classified as current and does not need to be reclassified to a current
liability, unlike the principal portion of the debt obligation, as we will see next.
Reclassifying principal
We have seen in earlier chapters that investors analyze working capital and current ratios at the end
of reporting periods, along with other information, to assess the likelihood companies can meet
their near-term obligations. To facilitate these assessments, companies are required to classify any
debt obligations that must be met within the next year as current liabilities. Thus, the portion of the
principal that is scheduled to be repaid during the next year must be reclassified as a current liability,
which is usually called the current portion of long-term debt.
For the Smart Company example, on December 31, 2013 Smart reclassifies the $100 of principal
that will be paid on January 1, 2014 from long-term debt to the current portion of long-term debt.
Here is the entry:
Smart Company's adjusting entry to reclassify principal
Debit
Long-term debt
Current portion of long-term debt
Credit
$100
$100
Paying interest and principal
The entries to pay previously accrued interest and principal are straightforward. Here are the entries
Smart Company records on January 1, 2014:
Smart Company's debt payments
Pay interest
Accrued interest
Cash and cash equivalents
Pay principal
Current portion of long-term debt
Cash and cash equivalents
■
Debit
Credit
$5
$5
Debit
Credit
$100
$100
The principal payment, also referred to as repayment of borrowings, is classified as
a financing activity on the cash flow statement under both US GAAP and IFRS. The
interest payment must be classified as an operating cash flow under US GAAP, but may
be classified as either an operating or financing cash flow under IFRS.
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Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases 11
LEASES
Leases are contracts between lessees and lessors. Lessees acquire the right to use property owned
by lessors in exchange for lease/rent payments or other consideration. If you are not familiar with
the concept of a lease, it is best to get a brief background before studying the accounting for leases.
Watch just the first six minutes of the Navigating Accounting video: “Capitalizing Operating Leases”
http://www.navigatingaccounting.com/video/capitalizing-operating-leases
When PP&E is leased and the lease is classified as a capital lease (called a finance lease under IFRS),
the entry to record the lease is very similar to the entry we presented earlier to record a purchase with
100% debt financing. An asset is recognized, representing the right to use the leased property during
the lease term and a liability is recognized, representing the lessee’s obligation to make lease payments
during the lease term.
The primary difference between purchasing PP&E with debt financing versus leasing is the amount
recorded as PP&E for a capital lease is generally less than what would have been recorded if the
same PP&E had been purchased with debt. There are two reasons there are fewer future benefits and
therefore a lower asset value for leased PP&E: First, purchasing the asset conveys all of the rights and
benefits of ownership. Second, leasing the asset limits the future benefits to the lease term, which is
generally shorter than the asset’s economic life associated with ownership.
The amount recorded for a capital lease is generally more difficult to determine than the amount
recorded for a purchase of the same asset. With a purchase, the cash paid or the amount that would
have been paid in cash is recorded. For a capital lease, the present value of the future lease payments
must be determined. The present value concept is explained in a Navigating Accounting video cited
later in the chapter. For now, you can think of it as the amount the company would have to put in
an interest bearing bank account at the start of the lease to ensure this deposit plus interest would
exactly cover the future lease payments during the lease term. The present value of the payments
would be less than the sum of the payments, providing the bank account earns interest.
Here is the entry Berger Properties would record if it leased, rather than purchased, the building
discussed earlier and the present value of the future lease payments was determined to be $30
million:
Berger Properties leases a building under a capital lease
Debit
PPE: capital lease asset
LTD: capital lease obligation
Credit
$30
$30
■
Because PP&E and long-term debt are recorded at the commencement of a capital lease,
the accounting entries thereafter are structurally identical (but with smaller numbers) to
those that would have been recorded if the company had purchased the PP&E with debt
financing. ■
This means that if you understand how to account for PP&E and long-term debt, you
know how to account for capital leases.
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In this section, we will: (i) briefly discuss the criteria for classifying leases as capital versus operating;
(ii) explain how the amount recognized as an asset and liability is determined when a lease is
classified as a capital lease; (iii) explain the entries for capital leases and operating leases; and (iv)
briefly describe the most prominent features of the changes proposed by standard setters.
Classifying leases
Under IFRS, a lease is classified as a finance lease (referred to as a capital lease under US GAAP) if
the lease transfers substantially all of the risks and rewards of ownership to the lessee, otherwise it
is classified as an operating lease. Determining whether this criterion is met can require significant
judgment in some contexts, meaning experts might reasonably disagree on the classification.
Similar to IFRS, the US GAAP classification criteria center on the extent to which the risks and
rewards of ownership are transferred to the lessee, but they are much more prescriptive, leaving
very little room for judgment. Leases are classified as capital leases under US GAAP if one of the
following conditions are satisfied:
1. The lease transfers ownership to the lessee at the end of the lease term.
2. The transfer seems likely even if it is not stated explicitly because the lessee has a bargain
purchase option.
3. The lease extends for at least 75% of the asset’s life.
4. The present value of the contractual lease payments equals or exceeds 90% of the fair market
value of the asset at the time the lease is signed. Present values will be discussed later.
These criteria try to ensure that most of the risks of ownership have been transferred to the
lessee when a lease is capitalized. The problem with this objective is that considerable risk can be
transferred when longer leases are classified as operating because they barely fall short of the criteria
thresholds. Also, because companies would generally prefer not recognize the lease liabilities, they
have an incentive to design lease contract to be classified as operating leases.
Measuring initial value of a capital lease
When a lease is classified as a capital lease, the lessee must determine the amount that will be
recognized as an asset and liability. Under US GAAP, the lessee recognizes the present value of the
minimum payments specified in the lease contract (excluding insurance, maintenance, and taxes
paid by the lessor), discounted at the lessee’s borrowing rate (or the lessor’s implicit rate when it is
available to the lessee and less than the implicit rate.)
Present value is one of the most important concepts in finance. If you are not familiar with present
value computations, here’s a Navigating Accounting video that explains them: “Present Values and
Future Values”
http://www.navigatingaccounting.com/video/scenic-present-values
Next, we introduce an example that we will refer to during the remainder of the leases discussion.
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Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases 13
Example facts
■ On January 1, 2013, Smart Company commences a five-year non-cancellable lease with a $100
payment due each January 1, 2014-2018.
■ Smart has yet to determine how the lease should be classified.
■ Smart intends to use the leased asset at the same rate over the lease term.
■ It is not practical for Smart to determine the implicit rate computed by the lessor and so Smart
uses its incremental borrowing rate, 5% per year, to determine the present value of the lease at
its commencement date: $432.95.
Recording entries for leases
For a capital lease, the entries are structurally the same as those for purchasing the leased asset with
100% debt financing. However, the numbers are smaller in the lease entries because the lessee
doesn’t get all of the rights of ownership and the lease term is usually shorter than the economic life
of the leased property.
For an operating lease, the lessee simply recognizes an expense and payment each year, perhaps
at different dates. If the leased asset is expected to be used the same amount each year and the
payments are constant, as they are in the Smart example, the expense each year is one payment.
More generally, the expense is determined by multiplying the total payments for the entire lease
term by the portion of the total usage consumed during the year.
If Smart classifies the lease as capital, at the commencement of the lease, January 1, 2013, Smart
recognizes a lease asset and liability of $432.95, which is the present value of the minimum annual
payments.
If Smart classifies the lease as operating, at the commencement of the lease, January 1, 2013, no
entry is recorded (but one would be recorded if a lease payment was required at the start of the
lease):
Smart Company's January 1, 2013 entry
If lease classified capital
Recognize lease asset and liability
PPE: capital lease asset
LTD: capital lease obligation
Debit
$432.95
Credit
$432.95
If lease classified operating
No entry
Smart could have classified some of the obligation as current portion when the lease was recognized
at the commencement date. Instead, we are going to transfer part of the long-term obligation to the
current portion at the end of 2013, which is an acceptable alternative if this is the first reporting
date after the commencement of the lease.
© 1991–2013 NavAcc LLC, G. Peter & Carolyn R. Wilson
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While the first payment is not due until January 1, 2014, adjusting entries are required on December
31, 2013, the fiscal year-end. If the lease is classified as capital, there are three entries on this date:
■ Recognize amortization expense related to the using up part of the lease asset. Because the
leased asset is expected to be used constantly over the five-year lease term, the amortization
expense is 1/5 of the $432.95 capitalized at the commencement date: $86.59.
■ Recognize interest expense associated with the lease obligation, which is determined by
multiplying the outstanding balance of the lease obligation at the start of the year, $432.95,
by the discount rate, 5%, which equals $21.65.
■ Transfer part of the long-term obligation to the current portion. This will be the principle
portion of the payment that will be made January 1, 2014, which is determined by
subtracting the $21.65 interest portion from the $100 total: $78.35.
If the lease is classified as operating, $100 of expense is accrued. Here are the entries:
Smart Company's December 31, 2013 entries
If lease classified capital
Accrue interest on lease obligation
Financing costs (includes interest expense)
Accrued interest
Debit
$21.65
Recognize amortization on lease asset
Amortization expense
Accumulated capital lease amortization
Debit
$86.59
Transfer part of long-term obligation to current portion
LTD: capital lease obligation
Current portion of capital lease obligation
Debit
$78.35
Credit
$21.65
Credit
$86.59
Credit
$78.35
If lease classified operating
Recognize operating lease (rental) expense
Operating lease expense
Other accrued liabilities
Debit
$100
Credit
$100
The payments are recorded the next day, January 1, 2014:
Smart Company's January 1, 2014 entries
If lease classified capital
Interest portion of lease payment
Accrued interest
Cash and cash equivalents
Debit
$21.65
Principal portion of lease payment
Current portion of long-term debt
Cash and cash equivalents
Debit
$78.35
Credit
$21.65
Credit
$78.35
If lease classified operating
Lease payment
Other accrued liabilities
Cash and cash equivalents
© 1991–2013 NavAcc LLC, G. Peter & Carolyn R. Wilson
Debit
$100
Credit
$100
Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases 15
If the lease is classified as capital, the interest portion of the payment will decrease each year and the
principal portion increase, as illustrated in the following amortization schedule:
Smart Company's capital lease obligation amortization schedule
Year
Beginning
Interest expense
long-term
accrued during
capital lease
current year
obligation
Payment due
first day of the
next year
Principal portion of
payment transferred
to current portion of
capital lease
obligation
Ending longterm capital
lease
obligation
2013
$432.95
$21.65
$100.00
$78.35
$354.60
2014
$354.60
$17.73
$100.00
$82.27
$272.32
2015
$272.32
$13.62
$100.00
$86.38
$185.94
2016
$185.94
$9.30
$100.00
$90.70
$95.24
2017
$95.24
$4.76
$100.00
$95.24
$0.00
As illustrated in the table below, two expenses are associated with capital leases: interest and
amortization. For the capital and operating lease alternatives, the total amount expensed over the
lease term is the same as the total payments, $500. However, the pattern of the expenses differs, with
the capital lease expense decreasing as its interest component decreases.
Smart Company's expenses if lease capital versus operating
Year
Amortization
Interest expense
related to capital expense related to
lease obligation capital lease asset
Total expense if
capital lease
Total expense if
operating lease
2013
$21.65
$86.59
$108.24
$100.00
2014
$17.73
$86.59
$104.32
$100.00
2015
$13.62
$86.59
$100.21
$100.00
2016
$9.30
$86.59
$95.89
$100.00
2017
$4.76
$86.59
$91.35
$100.00
Total
$67.05
$432.95
$500.00
$500.00
Proposed updates to leasing standards
We close this chapter with a brief discussion of proposed changes in accounting for leases.
Accounting for leases from the perspectives of both the lessor and lessee has been extremely
controversial for years and will change significantly in the near future if proposed changes to US
GAAP and IFRS are enacted.
By far the biggest concern about the current models for lease accounting under US GAAP and IFRS
is that the vast majority of non-cancellable leases are not recognized on lessees’ balance sheets because
they are classified as operating leases rather than capital leases (referred to as finance leases under
IFRS). This is true even though for operating leases the lessee’s right to use the related PP&E meets
the definition of an asset; the lessee’s obligation to make lease payments meets the definition of a
liability and both the asset and liability can be measured reliably. For years, standard setters, with
strong support from financial analysts and academics, have been trying unsuccessfully to do away
with operating leases. They have faced great resistance from the business community, especially from
industries where leasing is extensive, because bringing operating leases onto the balance sheet can
increase financial leverage dramatically. This said, there seems to be a reasonably good chance new
standards will be enacted in the next few years.
© 1991–2013 NavAcc LLC, G. Peter & Carolyn R. Wilson
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Navigating Accounting
®
Under both US GAAP and IFRS, the proposed updates are similar and will significantly affect many
companies’ financial statements if enacted. The biggest proposed change is that lease assets and lease
liabilities equal to the present value of the lease payments will be recognized at the commencement
date for all leases longer than twelve months.
The lease payments will differ slightly from the minimum payments currently used for present
value computations for capital leases. However, ignoring these differences, Smart Company would
recognize an asset and liability for $432.95 under the proposed standard, regardless of how the
lease would be classified. For many companies, especially airlines and retailers, this will increase the
recognized liabilities by more than 50%.
Under the proposed updates, there will still be two types of leases: Type A and Type B:
■ If the underlying asset is NOT property (e.g., not land or buildings), the lease is classified
Type A, unless one of the following criteria is met: (i) the lease term is an insignificant
part of the underlying asset’s economic life or (ii) the present value of the lease payments is
insignificant relative to the fair value of the underlying asset at the commencement of the
lease. If either of these criteria is met, the lease is classified as Type B. This means most plant
and equipment will be classified Type A.
■ If the underlying asset is property, the lease is classified as Type B, unless one of the following
criteria is met: (i) the lease term is for the major part of the economic life of the underlying
asset or (ii) the present value of the lease payments accounts for substantially all of the fair
value of the underlying asset at the commencement date. This means most property (e.g, land
and buildings) will be classified a Type B.
Although some of the measures will change slightly, the proposed accounting for Type A leases is
conceptually the same as the current accounting for capital leases. In particular, the entries will be
structurally the same and their financial-statement effects will be the same, meaning the same line
items will be affected in the same direction.
The assets and liabilities recognized at the commencement of the lease will be the same regardless
of whether a lease is classified as Type A or Type B. And the liability will be the same for both
types at all subsequent reporting dates. However, the assets will differ for the two types after the
commencement date. As indicated above, for Type A leases the asset will be depreciated at the same
rate it would be currently as a capital lease.
By contrast, for Type B, the depreciation will be the amount needed to ensure the lessee would
amortize the total lease cost on a straight-line basis over the lease term. For example, if Smart’s lease
is classified as Type B, the expense recognized each year would be $100. It would be recognized as a
single expense on the income statement, but have separate balance-sheet effects for the lease asset and
liability. Here are the proposed Type-B expense entries for the first two years of Smart’s lease. Notice
the interest component is the same as the interest expense recognized earlier for the capital lease, but
the depreciation differs:
© 1991–2013 NavAcc LLC, G. Peter & Carolyn R. Wilson
Accounting for Long-term Assets, Long-term Debt and Leases 17
Smart Company's first two expense entries if lease is Type B
2013
Lease expense
Accrued interest
Accumulated lease amortization
2014
Lease expense
Accrued interest
Accumulated lease amortization
Debit
$100.00
Debit
$100.00
Credit
$21.65
$78.35
Credit
$17.73
$82.27
In closing, although accounting for leases is expected to change in the near future, understanding
the current accounting will provide you a solid foundation for interpreting the financial implications
when the updates to the accounting standards become effective.
© 1991–2013 NavAcc LLC, G. Peter & Carolyn R. Wilson