THE RELATIONSHIP OF PERSONALITYTO
BODY IMAGE IN ADULT WOMENAND THE
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON THIS RELATIONSHIP
GERALDQUINN
A Thesis
Submitted
for
the Degree of
DOCTOROF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENTOF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD
APRIL 1989
DEDICATION
For my children
Mark, Simon and Natalie.
CONTENTS
PAGENO.
ABSTRACT
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iii
LIST OF TABLES
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
vii
1.
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem
1.1.
Specific
1.2.
aims of the study
Significance
1.3.
of the study
Limitations
1.4.
of the study
Definition
1.5.
of terms
2.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.
1
3
3
4
6
7
2.1.
Overview
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
Body Ego
Body Boundary
2.1.3.
Body Image
2.1.4.
Postural
2.1.5.
Body Image and Physical
2.1.6.
Summaryof Body Image
20
2.2.
2.2.1.
Overview of Somatotype
Summaryof Somatotype
28
36
2.3.
2.3.1.
Overview of Personality
Personality
and Physical
38
49
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
Personality and Physical
Summaryof Personality
2.4.
2.4.1.
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
Overview of Exercise
Womenand Exercise
Summaryof Exercise
Null Hypotheses
of Body Image
8
10
10
12
Body Image
Activity
Activity
Fitness
14
16
57
62
65
67
71
73
AND PROCEDURE
METHODS
3.1.
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.1.3.
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
3.1.6.
Subjects
Instrumentation
and Procedure
Personality Assessment
Postural Body Image Assessment
Somatotype
Ismail Fitness Assessment
Exercise Conditioning Programme
74
75
75
76
79
81
82
4.
RESULTS
84
4.1.
General Characteristics
84
4.2.
Ismail Fitý, ýiss Score
85
4.3.
Personality
86
4.4.
Body Image
4.5.
Distortion
4.6.
Analysis of Correlation
Data
89
of Body Image
Matrices
91
121
Correlation
Matrix for the PreProgramme Data on Anthropometric
Personality
and Body Image Variables
121
4.7.
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance
123
4.8.
Principal
132
4.9.
Discriminant
4.10.
Summary
158
4.11.
Null Hypotheses
159
5.
DISCUSSION
5.1.
Postural
5.2.
Somatotype
164
5.3.
Personality
165
6.
CONCLUSIONS
6.1.
Conclusions
171
6.2.
Recommendations
172
4.6.1.
Components Analysis
Analysis
Body Image
148
161
REFERENCES
184
APPENDIX
204
1
ABSTRACT
This
study was undertaken-in
between
ship
effect
and body image,
personality
of exercise
to investigate
order
on measures
the relationthe
and to ascertain
body image and
of personality,
somatotype.
The subjects
women in the age range 18-37 years
were 50 adult
to either
who were assigned
an exercising
or non-exercising
group
at random.
Body image was measured using
Apparatus
and an Abacus.
Carter
individual
Method.
before
The preanalysed
and after
the conditioning
scores,
measures
Heath-
for
obtained
each
programme, were based
of
analysis
of
function
were
obtained
principal
variance,
analysis.
were: -
(a) Two significant
in
between
the
and body
between personality
relationships
existed
association
by the
programme results
and discriminant
The main findings
Personality
(1965).
and post-conditioning
components analysis
Sixteen
somatotyped
fitness
by repeated
image
were also
Physical
of Ismail
on the criterion
Cattell
and the
The subjects
Questionnaire.
was assessed by means of the
Personality
Inventory
Eysenck Personality
the Slade Body Image Estimation
study
inaccuracy
overall
Eysenck's
estimation
and
correlation
between accuracy
groups.
These
in
body
neuroticism/extraversion,
in estimation
were
an
image
and
of the Face and
dominance and aggressiveness.
(b) Changes in
personality
through
participation
were found to be much less marked than hitherto
in
exercise
suggested,
ii
with only Cattell's
16PF Q4 varying significantly,
in the EPI neuroticism
evidence for reduction
(c) Repeated
measures
significant
body
fat,
effect
Ismail
of
of exercise
Fitness
demonstrated
less
changes in
in the
an association
factor.
variance
on body weight,
Score
component of the Heath-Carter
(d) No significant
of
analysis
and some
and on the
a
showed
percentage
Endomorphy
somatotype.
body image estimation
exercising
group;
between fitness
there
levels
could
be
was neverthe-
and body image.
111
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank the group of ladies
for
this
the
subjects
throughout
Finally,
statistics,
Jill
study.
In particular
I wish
in
who participated
the twelve
Mik Heyslop
typing
to
the
express
exercise
weeks were so cheerful
I wish to thank
Hewett for
who volunteered
Paul Milligan
for
his
the manuscript.
my admiration
to
programme,
and
and enthusiastic.
who helped
assistance
to be subjects
with
so much with
the
diagrams
the
and
iv
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
TABLENO.
1.
Scale for Temperament
28
2.
Correlation
between Physique Components and
Temperament Components.
30
Sixteen
3.
Cattell's
4.
Models for the Possible Relationship
to Involvement in Sport and Physical
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Primary
Factors
48
of Personality
Activity.
51
General Characteristics
of the Non-Exercisers
and
Exercisers,
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme.
93
Physical
Criterion
94
Fitness Scores Based on the Ismail et al
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme.
Psychological Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers and
Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning Programme
(Eysenck EPI).
95
Psychological Characteristics
of Exercisers and
Non-Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning Programme.
96
Sixteen Personality
Factor
Pre-Programme Sten Scores.
Questionnaire
Sixteen Personality
Factor Questionnaire
Post- Programme Sten Scores.
(16PF),
97
(16PF),
Actual Measured Body Sizes of Non-Exercisers
Exercisers.
98
and
99
Slade Russell Apparatus - Body Image Characteristics
Pre- and Postof Non- Exercisers
and Exercisers,
Conditioning
Programme.
100
Abacus - Body Image Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers
Programme.
and Exercisers, Pre- and Post-Conditioning
101
Slade Russell Apparatus - Direction of Distortion
Scores, Magnitude of Distortion
Scores, Range Scores.
102
Abacus Apparatus - Direction of Distortion
Scores,
Magnitude of Distortion
Scores, Range Scores.
103
Correlation Matrix of 34 Anthropometric Personality
56
Body Image Variables (selected from the original
variables) Pre- ProgrammeTest.
124
V
LIST OF TABLES (CONT.)
TABLENO.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
PAGE
Correlation
Matrix of 34 Anthropometric
Personality
(selected from the original
Body Image Variables
56
Post- Programme Test.
variables)
125
Slade Russell Correlations
Between Direction
of
Distortion
Scores, Magnitude of Distortion
Scores
Programme.
and Range Scores, Pre- Conditioning
126
Abacus Correlations
Between Direction
of Distortion
Scores, Magnitude of Distortion
Scores and Range
Scores, Pre- Conditioning
Programme.
127
Slade Russell Correlations
Between Direction
of
Distortion
Scores, Magnitude of Distortion
Scores
and Range Scores, Post- Conditioning
Programme.
128
Abacus Correlations
Between Direction
of Distortion
Scores, Magnitude of Distortion
Scores and Range
Scores, Post- Conditioning
Programme.
129
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance
General
Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers and Exercisers
Pre- and Post-Conditioning Programme.
133
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance - HeathCarter Somatotype of Non-Exercisers and Exercisers
Pre- and Post-Conditioning Programme.
134
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance
Physical
Fitness Scores, based on the Ismail et al Criterion,
Pre- and Postof Non-Exercisers
and Exercisers
Conditioning
Programme.,
135
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance
Psychological
Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers
and
Exercisers
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme
(Eysenck).
136
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance Psychological Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers
Programme
and Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning
(Cattell 16PF).
137
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance
Characteristics
Psychological
of Non-Exercisers
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme
and Exercisers
(Eysenck).
138
Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance
Abacus
Body Image Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers
and
Exercisers
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme.
139
vi
LIST OF TABLES(CONT.)
PAGE
TABLENO.
29.
Principal Components Analysis of Personality
Variables.
30.
Principal
Components Analysis
(Slade Russell).
31.
32.
33.
Principal
(Abacus).
Components Analysis
Components Analysis
Principal
Somatotype.
of Body Image
of Body Image
of Heath-Carter
Matrix of Principal
Component Scores
Correlation
Body Image and Heath-Carter
of Personality,
Somatotype.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Anthropometric
Data - Standardised
Discriminant
Function Coefficients.
143
144
145
146
147
Canonical
150
Canonical Discriminant
Functions Evaluated at
Group Means, Groups 1,2,3 vs. Group 4. (Treated
Group) (Anthropometric).
150
Matrix Pooled
Anthropometric
Data - Structure
Discriminating
Between
Correlations
Groups.
within
Functions.
Variables and Canonical Discriminant
151
Personality
Function
Discriminant
Canonical
Standardised
-
Coefficients.
Canonical
-
Discriminant
152
Functions
38.
Personality
39.
Correlations
Groups
Pooled
Within
Personality
and
Variables and Canonical
Between Discriminating
Evaluated at Group Means, Groups 1,2,3 vs. Group 4.153
Discriminant
Functions.
40.
Body Image - Standardised Canonical Discriminant
Function Coefficients.
41.
Body Image - Canonical Discriminant Functions
Evaluated at Group Means, Groups 1,2,3 vs. Group 4.156
42.
Body Image - Pooled Within Groups Correlations
Variables and Canonical
Between Discriminating
Discriminant
Functions.
154
155
157
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURENO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
PAGE
(EPI) Representation
Eysenck Personality
Inventory
Dimensions of Extraversion-Introversion
of Functional
and Neuroticism-Stability.
General Characteristics
of the Non-Exercisers
and
Exercisers
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme -
Height
104
General Characteristics
of the Non-Exercisers
and
Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme Weight
104
General Characteristics
of the Non-Exercisers
and
Exercisers
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Programme Percentage Body Fat
105
General Characteristics
of the Non-Exercisers and
Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning ProgrammeLean Body Weight
105
Heath-Carter Somatotype Endomorphyof Non-Exercisers
and Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning Programme.
107
Heath-Carter Somatotype Ectomorphy of Non-Exercisers
Programme.
and Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning
107
Heath-Carter Somatotype Mesomorphyof Non-Exercisers
and Exercisers
9.
45
Pre- and Post-Conditioning
Somatochart
(Heath-Carter)
Exercisers
Pre-Conditioning
Programme.
of the Non-Exercisers
and
Programme.
107
108
10. Somatochart (Heath-Carter) of the Non-Exercisers and
Programme.
Exercisers Post-Conditioning
108
11. Physical Fitness Scores Based on the Ismail et al
Criterion of Non-Exercisers and Exercisers Pre- and
Programme.
Post-Conditioning
109
12. Eysenck Personality Inventory
Non-Exercisers and Exercisers
Conditioning Programme.
Neuroticism Scale of
Pre- and Post-
Inventory
13. Eysenck Personality
Non-Exercisers
and Exercisers
Extraversion
Scale of
Pre- and Post-
Conditioning
Programme.
14. Eysenck Personality Inventory Lie (Psychotism Scale)
of Non-Exercisers and Exercisers Pre- and PostConditioning Programme.
110
110
111
viii
LIST OF FIGURES(CONT.)
FIGURENO.
PAGE
15. Eysenk Personality Inventory (Diagram) Non-Exercisers
and Exercisers. Pre-Conditioning Programme.
112
16. Eysenk Personality
Inventory (Diagram) Non-Exercisers
Programme.
Post-Conditioning
and Exercisers.
112
17. Cattell
Sixteen Personality
Questionnaire
Exercisers and Exercisers
Pre-Conditioning
(Factors A-I)
of the NonProgramme
113
Sixteen Personality
18. Cattell
Questionnaire
Exercisers and Exercisers
Pre-Conditioning
of the NonProgramme
(Factors L-Q4)
114
19. Cattell Sixteen Personality Questionnaire of the NonExercisers and Exercisers Post-Conditioning Programme
(Factors
A-I)
115
20. Cattell Sixteen Personality Questionnaire of the NonExercisers and Exercisers Post-Conditioning Programme
(Factors L-Q4)
116
21. Slade Russell Apparatus - Body Image Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers and Exercisers Pre-Conditioning
Programme
117
22. Abacus Apparatus - Body Image Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers and Exercisers Pre-Conditioning
Programme
118
23. Slade Russell Apparatus - Body Image Characteristics
Post-Conditioning
of Non-Exercisers
and Exercisers
Programme
119
24. Abacus Apparatus - Body Image Characteristics
of Non-Exercisers and Exercisers Post-Conditioning
Programme
120
25. Models of Self Esteem.
178
26. Content and Structure
of the Physical
27. A Physical Self Perception Model.
0
Self.
181
181
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1
er('TTn,
I
I
INTRODUCTION
It
has been proposed
at
performance
either
in
participate
sports
of
various
participants
traits
many investigators
unique
to
studies
have proposed
in early
that
Sports
qualitative
descriptive
kinds
and at
spectrum
of
that
to
levels
of
that
way,
varying
a commonality
have proposed
of
its
is moulded by participation,
have theorised
psychologists
and individuality
when people
perform
vigorous
type
longitudinal
of
because of
personality,
personality
as a sporting
A number
activity.
have a group manifestation
conditioning
years
a
manifest
particular
adolescence,
swimming.
in
shown,
performance,
which
the
of
"athletic"
that
to personality.
have
Many studies
the past twenty
end
is related
performance
for
plasticity
in
particularly
that
traits
certain
gives way to a form of
in
activities
sporting
groups.
In
of
fitness
conditioning
have been influenced
traits
the
studies
(Kane,
individual
1969;
Littlefield,
Relationships
1973).
fitness
and personality,
have a stabilising
Self-concept
studied
in general
extensively,
to how the
individual
decision-making
1972;
have been established
and it
effect
Whiting,
factors
and body image in particular
and conclusive
uses his
process.
Hendry,
results
&
1973;
between physical
has been shown that
on personality
on
Berger
1966,1970,1971,1972,1973;
1970;
personality
of fitness
and changed by the effect
Jones,
Harris,
programmes,
fitness
(Young,
can
1976).
have not been
are not established
body as a frame of reference
as
in the
2
It
has been demonstrated
that
human beings
a framework
for
themselves.
Awareness of body image relates
by allowing
him to experience
their
separates
one's
body image
variety
not
to learn
Man's
it
is
be
how one perceives
extremes
may represent
body image and whether
perception,
manifests
it
Consequently,
and if
itself
the
in a more conscious
In a dynamic conditioning
variety
of
past the pain threshold,
to
(i. e. obese their
fitness
changes
awareness of body image.
to perceive a
the needs
and to elasticate
is part of both the personality
potential
and image
for any activity
be developed with success if man decided that the positive
and mental attitude
were goal-orientated
When changes occur in the physical
not only
do personality
image can be affected
traits
(Ilg
this
changes affect
programme, the ability
domains. It could be suggested that
or
body's
the
of
investigate
physiological
limitations
of physiological
body image
women's physiques
or not body composition
euphoria
information
of body image,
categories
interesting
and
processed,
aspect
By and large,
is
a
with
fitness
of
The study
of body composition
that
skills.
information
the
an important
orientation.
dynamic,
has a distorted
a person
is
is
filtering
on the
at the same
body weight,
be at fault.
could
but,
been suggested
it
new physical
that
oneself,
psycho-physiological
non-obese).
and if
postulated
mechanism,
processing
has also
by changes in
depends
framework
this
could
static;
of
orientation
outside
instead
and perform
being
whole
It
as
man to his environment
the stimuli
space.
images affected
of
the ability
through
awareness and psycho-physical
man from
time,
bodies
use their
can
approach
to the same end.
fitness
individual,
an
of
become more stable,
& Ames, 1940; Schilder,
but the body
1935;
Lerner,
3
1967;
Drought,
1980).
involved
patterns
is
This
in
image. An exercise
activity
and movement
programme
programme is
loss
weight
known to
body
together
which,
body
affect
general
with
may be a way of positively
up of the musculature,
where
may promote a more positive
conditioning
and resultant
composition
the
conditioning
an exercise
in dynamic activity
participation
toning
due to
enhancing
body image.
Individuals
continuum
who
in
are
of the Witkin
body image.
that
individuals
well
as enhancing
development
I. I.
selected
problem
It
regular
individual's
and
therefore,
activity
improve
of
have a more
a more dynamic
physical
the
styles
may be postulated,
function,
physiological
is
in terms
may, as
of the
body image.
investigate
to
physiological
Specific
in
of
of the Problem
and non-exercising
1.2.
space.
who engage in
of a positive
Statement
The
into
enhances the
and results
reference
intervention
positive
have been shown to
Field-independence
body as a frame of
end
of the perceptual
classification
field-independence/dependence,
positive
field-independent
the
the
and psychological
relationships
variables
between
in exercising
adult women.
Aims of the Study
These may be summarised as follows: 1.
To investigate
the
relationships
between,
fitness,
measures of personality,
physical
body image in exercising
and non-exercising
and among, selected
body composition
adult
females.
and
4
2.
To
determine
influence
the
programme on those
underlying
Significance
The
study
(especially
of
It
sporting
sports
to
central
defined,
actitivies
view taken
certain
definition
of,
supports
would
in
psycho-physical
fitness)
to
demonstrating
abilities
(body
dimensions)
Another
extent
between,
image),
a high level
a
and
personality
has been
reported
and
of
is
there
or
so far
a
and
the search for,
and that
of
nature
the
little
However,
and among, measures of
conceptual
orientation
orientation
psychological
and dynamic physical
and the relative
education
"ability,
relationship.
has been conducted
orientation
for
that
psychological
the
for
in some ways
characteristics.
The research
and
psychologists
physical
support
abilities
and sports)
physical
is
to
particular
be useful.
sports
in
psychologist
(field-independence/dependence),
(personality
variables.
on the one hand, that
addition
these
personality/physical
investigation
between
physical
education
personality
psychological
in
equivocal
physical
participation
sports
involvement,
between
interest
affects
by the
need for
identified
and psychological
relationship
has been argued,
clearly
not
the
has been of
long time.
conditioning
of the Study
those
personality,
exercise
relationships
and among selected physiological
1.3.
an
of
orientation
degree of inter-dependence
(physical
of these
indices.
It
has been demonstrated
physiological
participation
and
by several
psychological
in an exercise
researchers
benefits
(Sterten
programme
can
be
et al,
that
both
gained
from
1964; Young,
S
1976;
lean
Ismail
& Young,
body weight
change
and improved
changes in the stabilising
effects
documented
investigators
and
other
psycho-physiolgical
to chance (Goldman & Dill,
Body image in young female adults
has
domains
investigating
is
variables
conditioning
because of this
of
important
an
To evaluate
orientation.
exercise
body/mind
the
sports
psychology.
between
orientation,
conceptual
is
are affected
positive
school
extent
importance
who engage in an
to
projection
aim of this
concept
of
orientation
and
activity
has
domain
which
orientation
of people
can suggest
in
activity
not
of body image can result
only
in
esteem.
study is to determine the nature
of the inter-relationships
the
psycho-physical
The known benefits
adulthood.
of self
to the field
complexity
of
postulate
involvement
of the
the
body image
their
by dynamic physical
to
the
psycho-physiological
psycholgical
To be able
of
quantifying
subjects
of
and manipulated
can be expounded, but also this
The first
the
domains
various
orientation,
re-thinking
programmes from
a more positive
and
on the psycho-physiological
the most effect
the
the
venture.
an exciting
The
of
An investigation
are not due
1975).
is of paramount importance
involvement
the
the psycho-physiological
with
programme are able to modify
relationship
how they
they
& Trachtman,
or not
whether
have been
manipulated
that
relationship
aspect
psychological
traits
have
investigated.
been
never
of
of personality
1975; Ismail
vigorous
supervised,
to demonstrate
variables
percent
can be shown to
The importance
basis.
on a regular
in
part
in
gains
indices
fitness
have taken
when subjects
activities
The physiological
1976).
and
between and among the three
6
domains
in
possible
interactions.
add to
will
knowledge concerning
of
body/mind
the
relatively
and
the contribution
relationship
unresearched
conditioning
the
programme on the
study
will
among a
of
Data arising
concomitants
psycho-physiological
of an
the
out
add to the body of knowledge
of the enhancement of psychological
and specifically
associated
be used to
will
test
with
the
well-being.
of the Study
Limitations
The number of subjects
used in the
was 50 and therefore
exercisers,
study,
the
group and 25 in the control
experimental
Only adult
current
and extent
domains.
validity
2.
the
the influence
nature
conditioning
1.
in
a new insight
is to determine
exercise
1.4.
gaps
area of study.
second aim of the
concerning
interactions
the
of body image to the concept
between and among the three
relationships
of the
the
and provide
The second aim of the study
exercise
aim of the study
concerning
fill
their
of
understanding
from the first
knowledge
domains,
three
a deeper
Data arising
body of
the
the
within
facilitate
to
order
females
were included
with
exercisers
groups
were
and non25 in
the
group.
the
age range of
18-35
years.
3.
All
4.
The variables
the subjects were volunteers.
domains
the
the
to
of
conceptual
measure
selected
study represented only a sample of the available
5.
There
were fluctuations
subject
6.
in the times
measures.
of testing
because of
availability.
The diet
controlled.
and other physical
activities
of the subjects were not
7
1.5.
Definition
of Terms
The study will
investigate
the three
domains of psycho-physical
These are as follows: -
orientation.
1. Personality
Trait
(1970)
Cattell
Questionnaire
Sixteen
Factor
Personality
Form A
Eysenck (1964)
Personality
Inventory
2. Body Image
Slade
Russell
body width
(1973)
dimension
3. Physiological
body width
self-assessment
Heath Carter (1978) rating
(2) PHYSICALFITNESS
Based on the criteria
VUI
procedure
(Abacus).
procedure for estimating
of Ismail
(1965)
al
et
IauIC3
a) exercis e pulse rate
b) percent lean body weight
c) max 02 uptake ml/kg
body %
method for the assessment of somatotype.
nklne
lean body mass
d) submax min volume vent/kg body weight
blood pressure
e) resting diastolic
f) resting
A novel
Domain
(1) BODYCOMPOSITION
Durnin and Rahman (1967) skinfold
of fat.
Vnr.;
device.
self-estimation
pulse pressure
CONSTANT
Reit.
Llo;
UC%, U
.. c.
nhte
yVJ
-1.329
4.880
2.502
-119.017
1.310
1.310
61.9
SECTION 2
REVIEWOF LITERATURE
8
CCrTTAPJ
1)
REVIEWOF LITERATURE
Overview of Body Image
2.1.
The psychological
relationship
are the constructs
of body ego, body boundary
According
picture
an individual
As the
study
to
(1935)
Schilder
individual's
may be an important
feeling
both cultural
is
child
changes in a person's
loss
of weight,
or other
image drastically.
people
really
is
developed
to
childhood
It
assessing
has been shown that
(accidents,
as broader
rapid
may alter
"that
postulated
her
gain or
the
body
old or injured
and heavier
than
they
are".
in the area suffers
Much of the research
have failed
dimensional,
body image. Many researchers
to recognise or "flag-up"
that the body image is multi-
of the
with
psychology
postural
and ideational
affective
Previous research has not sufficiently
body image concept
researchers
from an inadequate
of
understanding
the
which
and
alterations)
(1970)
bodies
their
perceive
life.
condition
physical
Kreitler
suggestions
not confined
exploring
throughout
physical
are
and environmental.
constantly
but continues
environment,
the
towards her body
or attitude
The development of body image is
a
there
of her identity
reflection
a framework,
where
body image is
has of her body which she forms in her mind.
body image has progressed
of
the "normal"
within
the
mind and the body as both
image.
body
and
that
with
between the conceptualising
and object
stimulus
which deal most directly
constructs
have
either
stressed the relationship
to broader
failed
components.
psychological
to
recognise,
issues.
or
have
of
Many
not
9
the
developmental
global
to a later
emphasised,
from early
and differentiated
articulated
Body image is the body's perceptual
individual
is
to react
and co-operate
as being
classed
to have a cultural
advantage
of the idealised
concept
18th
the
moulds one's
1960's Marilyn
the 1970's,
and inadequacy
of absolute
criteria
interviews
(1973)
Grinker
to
test
Test
which
operant
hypothesis.
the
to measure
attempts
Person
the
lenses.
is
figure
the
effective
clearly
(1967)
During
due to the
lack
and the
relied
there
is
on clinical
little
instruments
(1962)
Gottesfeld
the
Draw a
ideational
body
body image using
of
while
often
and-the
example,
a measure
the
proposed body image
hypothesis
For
of
of Twiggy.
body image is
Also
own
In
the presence of body image disorders,
used disorting
between
relationship
is an
woman's figure.
which to validate
and Burt
it
forms.
of body image instrumentation
Stunkard
to determine
into
research
physical
the paintings
female
voluptuous
the idealised
against
For instance
measures.
used
in the
one's
eras have their
shape changed to the waif-like
Much confusion
paucity
rotund,
Body image
in that
perception
image. Different
Monroe typified
this
because
body shape. For instance,
depict
century
state.
the environment.
origin
self
moves
framework which enables the
with
in
somatic
appearance and build
body image as it
sequence of
the
image.
The concept of body image needs to be clearly
with
allied
this
in mind it
would seem appropriate
identified
and
to distinguish
the
concepts of the body ego, body boundary and body image.
10
2.1.1.
Body Ego
The structure
of the ego system is concerned with
which form allied
psychic
bodily
image to
(1970)
of
include
ego development.
central
level
raw
and organised
allows
fusion
the
mother's
to
writes
developmental
action,
is
objects
movements which
environmental
often
Landis
and product's.
to
said
stage
the
constitute
the body ego is an intermediate
from
body
experience
and
body ego experiences
the
enables
of bodily
to be integrated
experience
view the main function
say
is
physical
that
Piaget
fusion
activity
to
of the self
environment
"me" and what
and by exploring
leads
of the body ego in
of differentiation
body and the
sequence from
e. g.
The
ego system.
the body ego was the first
arising
the process
between what
separation
the
the ego.
with
development
with
data
levels
From a psychoanalytic
2.1.2.
it
relationship
from various
arising
physical
that
While
the
This
personality.
by
objects
core of the ego as a whole,
between
(1974)
clothing,
Freud felt
the body ego as the
in
self
and body image -
beyond the body boundary and body
and extends
one's
that
stated
bodily
the
of
includes
boundary,
Rose (1966) defined
concepts.
representation
self
body (ego),
body ego -
components of
the three
is
to
"not
me".
differentiation
performed
the
to more interactions
a complete
by the
environments
Bemporad
the
that
suggests
from
is
same
achieved
infant
upon
by bodily
and the acquisition
of
reaction.
Body Boundary
The concept of the body boundary is subsumed under the concept
of the body ego. The phenomenological sensation
function
the
and
the body boundary has been described by Laing (1969) as follows: -
of
"We feel
is
bag
to be inside
ourselves
not
description
us.
by Laing
tied
closely
Immediate
inside.
Me -
No -
implies
that
feedback
is
the early
body
the
studied
1970's,
and his
Their
that
distinguished
from the body image. Their
the
quality
of
the
the
body
That is the phenomenological
be penetrated
the
to let
boundary's
their
its
come in,
things
between
(1972)
been
be
have
to
able
conceptually
work focussed
earlier
permeability
on
firmness.
or
to
ability
as opposed to the sensation
to
Fisher
work,
of
from
things
prevent
(1958)
and Cleveland
the articulation,
to examining
attention
has
can
as a barrier
function
body.
the
of the boundary's
sensation
In their'later
penetrating.
turned
i. e.
boundary,
from
colleagues
boundary
is
begins".
research
demonstrate
This
concept
distinguish
to
of the world
Fisher
boundary.
input
available
"where I end and where the rest
Since
body boundary
sensory
this
(p23).
me outside"
the
to
experimentally
sensory
what is outside
a bag of skin;
awareness and
accuracy of the body boundary.
Reitman
in terms of
concept
(1964)
and Cleveland
"the
:-
tendency
body image as definite
his
imprecise"
(p164).
It
was found
accurate
boundary
was more permeable.
of
the
body boundary
of the
that
was firmly
(1970)
vague and
and
articulated
a vague body
whereas
correlated
the
quality
and postulated
variables
personality
to perceive
versus
a well
bounded,
Fisher
with
individual
delineated
and well
body boundary
the body boundary
have described
that: "the
more definite
(she)
and to
an individual's
is to perceive
have a concept
him(her)self
of
his
scope of space equated with
boundaries
as possessing
(her)
the
self".
the more likely
clear-cut
body as a well
It
was also
he
identity
differentiated
suggested
that
12
womenwith a well
directed,
well individuated,
self-motivating,
identity
of self
body boundary were found to be goal
articulated
body boundary.
Body Image
It
would seem that
and both
been confused.
In
Fisher's
he is
whether
boundary.
Likewise,
body ego is
representations
of
the
to
body image or the body
between the body image and the
1970).
to be
are said
body as a psychological
the ego system (Rose, 1966; Landis,
within
has often
difficult
often
These two concepts
confusing.
by the
experiences
is
to the
the relationship
equally
it
writings
referring
be affected
one to
causing
the body image
surrounds
between our body's
relationship
distinguish
body boundary
the
inter-related,
are
This
other.
self
sense
Obviously the converse was
and personal maturity.
true for those with a poorly articulated
2. t. 3.
to have a clear
experience
Landis
postulates
that the body image is subsumed under the concept of the body ego,
the
whilst
psychological
latter
is
larger
incorporates
and
a
component.
The body image is composed of a number of discrete
component parts,
related
social
constructions
information
"start
experiences
(schema) which
which arises
and inter-
to the body as a psychological
These experiences
sensations.
current
which refer
These psychological
experience.
cognitive
greater
up" a series
develop
are the
from
result
from the body when it
past
of
of
and
sensory
is thought of
as an object.
Kolb (1975) has used the terms 'images'
they
are
essential
interchangeable
difference
but
it
is
'schema'
as though
or
imperative
to
appreciate
between body image and body schema. It
been suggested by Ulric
Nesser (1976) that
the
has
schemata and perceptual
13
activity
constitute
directed
to select
items
which
which
does not
alter
the
perceiver
scheme. At the
itself
or
when logical
during
experimental
focus
of
facilitators
and try
turn
or
subsequent
its
into
image experiences
body fantasy
included
body
rigorous
components,
the
affective
in
of
and c)
conceptual
framework.
fundamental
and primary
level
the
while
As Kessler
and
" The postural
the
consists
of experience.
image
three
best
is
can be
b) how the
of
instruments
body
most
body image and
says: - "Each of these
research
system
of
consists
ideational
of a) what it
which
is
(1978)
by Kessler
image
(1975)
Kolb
the body ego and the
body concept,
body
level
development.
the
the
examined from the stand point
its
the
components
and social
a four
body image, the
body image.
divided
of the body schema, the body self,
proposed
the
the postural
image developed,
this
body
The classification
concept
image
system of
body concept,
the body percept,
ideal.
and
the
accuracy,
of the body image during
consisting
and the
libidinal
postural,
(1975)
Shontz
contrast,
as
Images direct
In 1935 Schilder
dimensions.
dimensions
moulded
which
In
in
performed
of the perceptions.
various
body image concept
or
in
in the body image domain have not uniformly
Many researchers
identified
the
as anticipators
vagueness
clarity
the quality
affects
being
When we qualify
perceptions.
its
in
as an object
situations.
or measuring
will
an image or a
involved
examined
are
or it
ignored
not
and as such function
determine
to
is
being
manipulations
attention
Information
end of the continuum
either
testing
is
concept
those
perceptions
as reality.
schema when it
and is
process
of possible
this
other
the
perceptual
the
into
is
The perceiver
system.
conceptualises
translate
to
feedback
from an array
out
the
refers
percept
a dynamic
at
fit
the
its
most
14
Postural
2.1.4.
Body Image
perform
properly
on the body surface;
stimulus
and anticipate,
activities
the
intricate
operating
gestalt,
the
manipulate
the
dancers
motor
and co-ordinate
a
in
pirouette
level,
ballet).
Athletes
and dancers
body image (Sweigart,
of a dance movement and correct
1975).
the
For example,
the sequences
performing
their
in
movements
their
to
a
and directly
consciously
images of themselves
create
in
as a background
body image can be made available
postural
often
performing
on a preconscious
postural
mind.
begin
(e. g. moving the hand to the mouth) to
(e. g.
Generally
conscious
imagine,
plan,
from the simplest
most
the
the body in space; relate
orient
a
in space; perceive the size and shape of the
body to other objects
body;
example locate
for
of functions,
a variety
in order to
body image is essential
The schema of the postural
mind's eye
before performing the movement.
Adequate
and accurate
overall
psychological
ability
to orient
its
the
make comparisons,
development
of
the
activate
with
the
information.
self
and others,
environment.
it
the
also
tactile
Touching
constitute
sense
and
being
the first
required
thereby
facilitates
in
role
Movement is
sense,
and to
and others
sense assumes a greater
kinesthetic
stimulating
exterioceptive
contact
postural
uses, explores
and its
itself
to observe
body image.
information,
enterioceptive
by
visual
to act and
1935).
to itself
body in relation
matures and learns
As the child
reality
(Schilder,
as the
as well
body image emerges as the infant
and experiences
only
development and adjustment,
and move in space, to take actions,
The postural
to
postural
and efficiently
move effectively
for.
body image is required
the
not
providing
contact
which
touched,
with
provides
making
forms of contact
15
with,
that
knowledge
and consequently
without
infancy,
during
information
stated
that
movement is necessary not only
body
image is
when the
from
vague
discriminating
in
life
body as it
about the
proceeds
postural
throughout
continuously
and
to
Its
development
Assumption
is
capacity
to
dynamic once physical
will
become "remarkably
stable
unless new information
it
tactile
mirrors
photograph
external
the
of
intervals
required
it
1975),
tested
via
accessible
instruments
using
which
senses. Some of the
or visual
body image,
used by Glucksman and Hirsch
used
by
Traub
and
(1964),
Orbach
body
(1969),
the
(1968),
Apparatus. known as the SEA (Slade
which has been widely
subject
onto a screen.
projected
that
and
and
1973).
The amorphic lens,
is
(Shontz,
over time"
lenses
and the Size Estimation
regular
reached
Persona Test used by Meyer and Tuchelt-Gailwitz
Gottschlat
Russell,
is
maturity
of body size component of postural
the perception
flexible
dynamic
a
have been used to measure the postural
image, are the amorphic
the
is readily
upon the kinesthetic,
specifically
and
body image has the
body image is most directly
the sensory apparatus,
devices that
requires
postural
[static]
body image
is made available.
Since the postural
rely
the
new
discrete,
concrete,
process.
made that
incorporate
to
The postural
changes.
but
forming,
first
order
global
perceptions.
remain
develop
body image would not
the
motility,
He further
normally.
reality.
of,
believed
Schilder
to project
to adjust
conforms
cue,
a smaller
is
image can be adjusted
at
picture,
swimsuit),
or larger
image (the
image she has of the
is
present
of a
which
in
The screen
the screen
to the
the
(standing
used, consists
image. The subject
of herself)
picture
size
during
so
The
her
body.
of
the
experimental
16
The individual
situation.
internal
image.
cannot
images while
the external
of either
that
we
perceptual
task.
the photograph,
might
another
a perception,
her
cue with
however,
has suggested,.
performing
of an image with
inhibition
produce
(1976)
Neisser
manipulate
The comparing
has to compare the external
internal
or the
percept
image.
Another
Slade
for
to
(1973)
and Russell
devising
the first
be used with
lenses,
It
used device
widely
such test
anorexic
subject
to
adjusts
areas of distortion
which
require
subject
rely
all
the
devices,
it
to
image can be mentally
-
2.1.5.
manipulated
devices,
and mirror
that
internal
cues and the
image of
of time.
up over a period
tapping
what Neisser
this
has shown that
and is available
a
Of
(1976)
of being
image which has the effect
internal
for testing
in
situations.
Body Image and Physical
Activity
order to be enhanced in a positive
"the
and specific
the SEA requires
to
Neisser
This
etc.
Also,
The body image needs an involvement
us that
detailed
the
body
discrete
hips
the
cue.
bar which
waist,
lenses
to
any external
separate,
of
to the
comes closest
behaviour.
with
chest,
has been built
to as the internal
experimental
face,
upon immediate
or her body which
anticipatory
the subject
whole body perception.
mainly
In contrast
of demonstrating
in contrast
his
refers
of the
has the advantage
procedure
of body image distortion.
as a test
the width
(1964)
and Cleveland
mounted on a horizontal
indicate
such as the width
parts
Reitman
by
was developed
and obese patients.
two lights,
of
SEA. It
the
who credit
the SEA does not provide
consists
is
body
image
is
in physical
way. DH Harris
developed
within
the
activity
in
(1973) informs
framework
of
17
It
experiences of the body and the memory of these experiences".
known that there is an association
so that
and activity,
physical
activity.
indicated
that
The work of
degeneration
but also
that
who do not
people
distorted
body image may interfere
(1973)
Kreitler
movement not
has many psychological
body image,
leads
only
in exercise
estimating
themselves
tend
to
muscle
He suggested
effects.
engage
aged has
the
with
with
have a more
to
to be wider
they
than
are.
really
Several
have found evidence
studies
by exercise.
High school
in Bonniwell's
involved
study
in
individual
programmes there
classroom
(1978)
not
among female
significant
individual
those
physical
education
devoted
more positive
physical
abilities
that
success
in
There
students.
degreee
the
improved
between
image.
the
Bedard
al.
et
body image
however,
was,
a
definition
of
of
to physical
self
physical
Harris
activities.
active
throughout
(1973)
their
noted
lives
had
and tended to be confident
concepts
She also
and movement patterns.
activity
participation
of
suggested
encourages
a
body image.
The research
activity
After
programmes.
a more positive
of
between
were then
body images and the number of hours each week
students'
their
positive
and body
fit
problems was assessed
relationship
any evidence
men who had been habitually
generally
development
achievement
find
were found
body image. The children
physical
correlation
students
for
fitness
body image than less
neuromuscular
was a significant
confidence,
did
with
(1981)
body image is improved
of high physical
girls
A group of children
girls.
that
(1961) to have a more positive
by Schultz
that
in
a reduction
body image
between the postural
a poor postural
is
linking
has interested
female
subjects
investigators
in
with
body image and
American universities.
18
(1969)
Cremer and Hukill
basic
physical
body weight
on perceptions
investigators
used a battery
the
were
subjects
drawings
of the idealised
The results
in weight
lines
of the
psychological
women athletes
items
than
between the two sports
In
Scotland
to
questionnaire
concepts
between
involvement
in
importance;
body
investigated
and
contour
measures
scores
results
than non-athletes
well-being
psychological
measures
by
Drought
on
Whilst
and body image.
the
players,
Their
players.
on the
investigation
with
hand, were inclined
sexes ranked given
the deviation
on body
image
were inconclusive.
their
sport
to
required
were represented.
perceived
well-being
scores
investigate
with
paired
(1975)
had higher
male
of body image. His findings
be more content
other
an
from
in terms of height
and basketball
basketball
the
The
figures
greater
"desirable"
psychological
had higher
gymnasts
the
of
effect
and body image between women athletes
gymnasts
measures of
the
that
difference
well-being
and non-athletes,
both
indicated
considered
of
own body lines
their
a
measures and then
They were also
Kivlin
Snyder
and
ones.
and real
showed that
female figure.
study
the
greater
a set
the
body contours.
of
anthropometric
select
so that
from that
the
age,
of
asked to
the body lines
alter
of
from
students
investigate
programme to
education
"idealised"
used 77 undergraduate
aspects
actual
and
a "good
to regard
female
indicated
height
(1980)
undergraduates'
that
and weight,
looking"
body.
themselves
of body image in the
body shape, grace of movement style,
a
used
males tended to
and associated
Women, on the
as overweight.
following
bearing,
Both
order
of
body size
and clothing.
Dosamantes-Alperson and Merrill
females
undergoing
an experimental
(1980) studied
two groups of
the
of
one
movement programme;
19
groups
was
significant
six
ballet
a
of
investigated
feeling
the
effect
image of adolescent
dance
body image than
the
Prakasa
the
and
attending
in
descriptions
as a dependent
body sites
stepwise
non-athletes.
The researchers'
significant
relationship
was found
that
their
either
body
it
well-being
or
body
image
women athletes
to
body
than did
is
it
non-athletes,
i. e.
processes,
a
athletic
and
towards
attitude
a more positive
women
there
were that
a
using
that
revealed
body image on 13 items
express
parts
and non-athletes
used 32 body image
was
conclusions
well-
psychological
data were analysed
between
athletes
showed less
also
women athletes
and
When comparing
participation.
more positive
than the non-dancers.
The collected
a more positive
were
were
group
and used psychological
regression
expressed
athletes
body
postural
matched
investigated
questionnaires,
multiple
other
The investigators
University.
variable.
Gwyon (1985)
one group
years;
The dancers
(1986)
Overman
and
a State
5)
had a significantly
and body image between black
being
spontaneity,
on the
and eighteen
non-dancers.
among the four
2)
She compared two groups of adolescent
sixteen
students
directness,
contact.
training
The dance students
sixth-formers.
distortion
ballet
females.
aged between
full-time
of
were
in
4)
intimate
for
there
and detectable
inner
reactivity,
and 6) capacity
self-acceptance,
1)
self-actualisation
3)
existentiality,
that
concluded
to the therapy,
changes attributable
measures
females
They
class.
digestion,
appetite.
Ward and McKeown (1988)
aerobic
were
dance exercise
41 college-aged
Cathexis
scale.
investigated
the
effect
programme on body cathexis.
females
who responded
The anthropometrical
variables
to
of a ten week
The subjects
a 28-item
were height,
Body
weight,
20
six
separate
site
appropriate
skinfold
group
or
significant
were
that
days a week will
dance exercise
(1988)
competitive
and self-concept
concept
of
found
were
fitness
programme.
2.1.6.
Summaryof Body Image
A review of literature
bodies,
their
of
shape,
This,
size
on the
individual's
defined
1970).
ego,
almost
other
perception
of
his
The concept
instrumentation
the
concept
to
Kolb
terms
of
"images"
body
qualities
concept,
1958).
for
with
correlate
an
his
1970; Landis,
and the
the concepts
added to the
This
has made the
to measure body image difficult.
of body
have been used
terms
and "schema".
image
assign to
been
has
image
body
not
of
confuse
(1975)
self-
of
and Cleveland,
(Rose, 1966; Fisher,
and body image,
interchangeably.
the
standards,
body may not
fitness
co-operative
own personal
can be an erroneous
by many researchers
body boundary
wit ha
individuals
and attractiveness
hand,
factors
that
(Fisher
There has been a tendency
interchanging
define
of their
body characteristics.
actual
well
in terms
The other
has indicated
both
showed that
programmes enhanced
positively
correlate
as
girls
and co-operative
The results
ability.
physical
to
competitive
fitness
and co-operative
high school
using
of
programmes on self-concept.
on two
on body cathexis.
effect
effect
for
The results
programme operating
in Australia,
the
with
analysed
differences.
an aerobic
have a minimal
and calf).
subjects
and
scores
anthropometrical
investigated
subjects,
cathexis
biceps
into
divided
or
Marsh and Peart
fitness
body
the
and measurements of
example,
subsequently
positive
cathexis
indicated
(for
muscle circumferences
The total
negative
measurements
confusion
by
inability
to
development
Many studies
of
have
21
used questionnaires
and check
lack
uniformity
has
and Burt,
1967;
of
Stunkard
instrument
led
lists
body image in
Estimation
the
1973) to
(1978)
Apparatus
has allowed
1962;
The definition
has clarified
field,
psychological
This
use an inappropriate
hypotheses.
operant
body image by Kessler
postural
(Gottesfeld,
some researchers
Grinker,
to measure their
measure body image.
to
the
of
of
place
and her use of the
Slade
of the measurement of
replication
body image.
(1973)
Harris
involvement
in
physical
development
outside
of the
body image is
articulated
body image is
postural
the
involvement
in physical
on body image. Hunt (1964)
poorly
activity.
articulated
body
Several
studies
has postulated
image will
(Schultz,
not
image
scores
improved in physical
by different
fitness
programmes.
measure changes
subjects.
in
postural
Some of the
failed
matched subjects to provide a base-line
to show that
any obtained
to a physical
fitness
on
and
exposed
end of the
who have a
children
participate
in
instrumentation
physical
1969;
that
can
be
reviewed attempted to
body image using
studies
on being
1988) have indicated
in the literature
the
an accurate
1961; Cremer and Hukill,
measured
None of the studies
that
is very much dependent
that
Ward and McKeown, 1988; Marsh and Peart,
body
of
At the other
activity
of
much dependent
dependent
activity.
that
development
suggested
very
development
of necessity
to the wide spectrum of physical
continuum,
demonstrated
have also
studies
Furthermore,
stimuli.
have
has enhanced the
activity
body image. Harris's
positive
(1973)
Kane
and
adult
women as
to use a control
group or
for all
necessary
subjects,
improvement in body image scores is due
programme.
22
This
investigate
study will
body image and personality
of
matched
exercise
regime
by the use of a control
and will,
demonstrate
subjects,
the
affects
between
the complex relationship
in
how involvement
group
a vigorous
between body image and
relationship
personality.
This
study
SEA, which
internal
over
measure the
the
requires
cues and the
ensures
systems,
subject
image of
To complement
time.
which
will
which
that
are
the
the
to
rely
part
of
measured. By using these two instruments,
will
control,
results.
no experimental
has been developed
SEA, an abacus will
kinaesthetic
bias will
the
the
upon immediate
mainly
her body which
subjects'
an itegral
body image by using
postural
also
be used,
and proprioceptive
body image,
which the subject
interfere
with
are
also
herself
the obtained
23
2.2.
OVERVIEWOF SOMATOTYPE
Man may be a single
build.
Whilst
it
Greece that
this
individual
our
to disease
Shakespeare's
the
example
Falstaff,
whilst
Harry
These descriptions
that
is muscular
may be stereotypes
believe
people
Hotspur
be the
to
If
one
between body type
of his characters,
and sociable
and action
behavioural
founder
an individuals
rotund
but they
this
between
body shape.
relationship
the
body
cause of
BC), the
that
of his
Casius,
to
relationships
in the pen-pictures
brooding
deal
may be the
(336-420
result
the
plays,
lean
build
He suggested
was the
is described
and temperament
of
our
days of Ancient
the
a number of
and body types.
susceptibility
for
proposed
in
varied
from
Hippocrates
personality.
temperament
examines
diversity
physical
all
may add a great
has been suggested
modern medicine,
of
we are
differences
ethnic
heterogeneity,
but
species
the concepts
reflect
action
orientated.
of
a person's
physique.
1920,
In
Ernst
Kretschmer,
implemented
the
personality
and physique.
work
with
the
of
the
traditional
most
and manic
different
study
scientific
two
(schizophrenics
markedly
first
a psychiatrist
Kretschmer
depressives)
trichotomy:
He referred
relationships
-
1. the muscular
2. the rounded-visceral
3. the light
slender
of
that
in Germany,
relationship
had observed
common categories
physiques.
body-temperament
of the
working
they
in his
between
hospital
patients
mental
seemed to
back to earlier
and decided
have
concepts
to
adopt
a
24
He then
a series
used
characteristics
checklists
hospitalised
his
of
the
length
relative
or depth of chest;
angle;
bone.
These body measurements
illness.
patient's
form
"Physique
and Character"
had extreme
on the
(thin,
type
Kretschmer's
"athletic"
the nature
of
heavily
built,
ageing
factor
the
middle
age,
overweight,
psychosis.
to categorise
applied
the
(1983)
Wells
to
continued
Most individuals
taxonomy.
frail,
asthenic
fat
manic
would
main they
holing
criticisms
play
Schizophrenia
illness.
typically
categories;
types.
problems
of
constitution).
skeletal
or mixed
further
the
deal
arise
are,
in
average or indeterminate".
of things,
typologies
were
were
is they
a great
and possessed
classification
of pigeon
In hindsight,
(that
body type"
hand schizophrenics
"dysplastic"
book
depressives
manic
"pyknic
the
against
Kretschmer's
He then made two further
"obvious
sort
cut;
clear
and wrist
of these extreme body types only
of people.
that
in
narrow and of a light
and the
from this
in
other
clasification
to a minority
suggests
were
to the abdomen; rib
tabulated
results
development
visceral
whilst
asthenic
The
and
patients
of elbow joints
were then
by what he labelled
characterised
fat);
of
thorax
thickness
width
depressives
manic
of the
bodily
the
measurements of the
bodily
The following
schizophrenics.
were taken;
of
describe
to
a major
is generally
part
free,
population
the time for
But Kretschmer's
physique
In modern
in
most commonly occurs
average
pioneering
and behaviour.
and the
schizophrenic
depressive.
are the most fat
when the
be made of Kretschmer's
could
the
the
psychiatry
onset
of
mental
in young people,
when
on the other
hand
whilst
is
rotund
becoming
rotund
and
the onset of manic depressive
work was the
first
attempt
25
In
the 1940's a psychologist,
University,
Harvard
Kretschmer's
Although
developed
the scientific
standard
nude position,
weighed,
A cluster
made which
could
of the somatotype.
for
be expressed
and in
posed
three
variables
The
to
in
the
in
various
measurements were
anthropometric
as ratios
by
The subjects
and diameters
the
components
cases produced
all
was offset
and backview.
height
combined
The three
positions,
side
of seventeen
The method
manner,
three
frontal,
measured
body sites.
objective
in
photographed
were
individual.
this
of the investigation.
and quantification
subjects
were then
were 400 undergraduate students.
of the normal population,
control
based on
somatotyping
a method of
work. The subjects
not typical
H Sheldon, working 'at
William
height
in
an actuarial
of
the
a highly
estimate
which were employed to make
up the somatotype were: 1. Ponderal Index (height/cube
2. Trunk Index (a ratio
root of weight)
of the upper torso
[thoracic
trunk]
to
primarily
from the
measurements not only lead to an overall
score for
[abdominal
lower
torso
front
view of the standard
trunk])
derived
photograph
3. Mature Height.
These physical
each of
the
different
areas of the body;
components,
but
also
provided
ratings
for
five
head, neck
chest,
trunk
arms, stomach
trunk,
The three
named:-
legs.
primary
components which made up the somatotype were
26
1. ENDOMORPHY
degree
the
the
of
roundness
of
concerns
which
to put on fat.
inclination
and the
physique
frame. The hands and
but a small skeletal
abdominal cavity
large
There is
feet are on the small side.
2.
MESOMORPHYdevelopment
there
tends
broad
with
be
to
a
shoulders
skeletal
massive
and
muscular
good
development.
3.
ECTOMORPHY
the
-
skeletal
bones are
the
dominant
linearity
component is
is maximal in proportion
For classification
one to
is most marked.
were assigned
subjects
the
each of
components,
a three
ratings
in
following
the
Sheldon
ectomorphic.
they
The three
could
photographs
instead
at the various
The next
personality
sequence;
and his
substitute
of
from
derived
actually
measuring
by
the
the
and
mesomorphic
by using
three
subjects'
grids
standard
diameters
sites.
in
step
and to
investigation
the
investigate
was extracted.
Sheldon in his observations
number of traits
the
measure
list
a
was scanned and
was added variables
which
to physique.
The
reduced by examining for overlapping
of those traits
A total
Sheldon postulated,
list
to
between physique
relationship
had found to relate
was carefully
be of no significance.
was an attempt
literature
To this
dimensions and the elimination
these,
found that
measures
to a
were conventionally
endomorphic,
co-workers
and temperament. The personality
of 650 traits
figure
a score from
then be identified
could
listed
Height
one referring
with
minimum and seven a maximum. A subject
number code.
When
and frail.
to weight.
purposes all
seven for
light
of
50 traits
seemed to
which were deemed to
were abstracted
represent
phenomenathat had been dealt with by the original
all
and
the specific
650 traits.
27
A group
of 33 subjects
through
one year
the
and in
activities
resultant
scores
clusters
of traits.
included
twenty-two
Three
the
study
with
of twenty
that
were finally
The first
individual
comfort,
in this
in their
is
feelings
The
The digestive
food,
of
and
third
score
on this
desire
for
small
An
others,
component
concealment.
youthful
enclosed
The
"
in
score
of
muscular
and vigorous
in
physical
callous
appearance,
Action,
cerebrotonia.
towards
noisy,
power,
and
An elevated
and the
inhibition,
restraint,
individual
in appearance, afraid
areas.
and its
to such an individual.
was labelled
implies
seems to
by love
aggressive,
claustrophobia.
importance
component
is
over-mature
to
given
need for
and
an easy
A high
somatotonia.
love
people,
is king,
tract
accompanied
and a strong
are of first
conscious,
The
by general
Sheldon suggests "The personality
The individual
activity.
domination
in
clusters.
and is generally
to others,
ordinarily
risk-taking,
courageous,
in
three
for
and gluttony
relations
with.
component
physical
final
A
resulted
appears to define the primary purpose of life.
adventure,
and these
are summarised in Table 1.
The second component was called
the
subjects
component is characterised
around the viscera.
welfare
this
found
items.
each of the
selected
sociability,
person to iteract
centre
discover
to
component of temperament was named viscerotonia.
high
affection
one hundred
for
traits
fifty
were
and the
traits
order
were
original
everyday
The subjects
in
clusters
their
fifty
each of the
major
of
theselection
traits
interviews.
inter-correlated
were
inter-correlation
for
scale
in
observation
numerous clinical
on a seven point
rated
of
medium of
for
and they were studied
was selected
is
secretive,
of people,
He or she reacts
self-
and happiest
over-quickly,
sleeps
28
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29
poorly,
and prefers
individual
solitude,
particularly
attempts to avoid attracting
consistently
Such an
when troubled.
attention
to
him or her self.
The three general dimensions, together with the twenty defining
for
traits
each dimension,
is an elaborate
the
primary
rating
Scale
make up the
for
procedure
for
Temperament that
at scores for
arriving
Sheldon recommends in using
components.
each of
the Scale that
where possible:
"Observe the subject
many different
series
of
closely
situations
less
not
for
at least
as
possible.
twenty
than
with
him in a manner best suited
to
the
temperaments
principals
the
traits
sheet and assign
as
possible
interviews,
and revisions
satisfied
that
adequately
considered
all
of
to the situation,
interests
Repeat
of
and evaluated.
the
The subjects
graduates.
defined
in
observation,
significant
the
until
Scale
of
have been
"
who were college
Temperament after
each subject
in this
the temperament variables
Table 2.
reasonably
out a study of two
students or college
dimensions
temperament
as
the
were rated on
and then
finding
turn
observations,
Over the next five years Sheldon (1942) carried
hundred male, white subjects
two
the
.......
traits
sixty
and
on as many of the
of ratings
the
a
interviews
analytic
a rating
....
in as
Conduct
each interview
After
........
score
and
a year
many months
The most
was somatotyped.
study was the high correlations
and the physique variables
of
between
as shown in
30
TABLE 2
CORRELATIONBETWEENPHYSIQUECOMPONENTS
COMPONENTS
AND TEMPERAMENT
Viscerotonia
Somatotonia
r
Cerebrotonia
r
Somatotype
(n=200)
(n=200)
(n=200)
Endomorphy
+0.79
-0.29
-0.32
Mesomorphy
-0.23
+0.82
-0.58
-0.53
+0.83
Ectomorphy
These results
-0.40
would seem to suggest that
between temperament and somatotype.
than we expect to find,
of great interest.
some questions
regard the product-movement correlation
degree
to
two
of the order
their
constitute
expressions
essentially
common components
reached
not
basic
higher
techniques
levels
factors
than
......
in personality,
be expected,
should
made up
expression.
obtained
common
of
of +0.80 would suggest
levels
respective
If
have
we
the
correlations
for
then
with
we are but measuring the same thing
of its
The results
at
we were to
as we measure them,
and temperament,
morphology
If
and
As a measure of the
are
variables
correlations
elements,
that
which
is a relationship
Sheldon suggests: -
"These are higher correlations
they raise
there
r
may
of
already
the
are
two
at different
"
from the many studies
Sheldon
and
which
his co-workers completed over many years would seem to underpin a
31
relationship
between
investigation
would seem to postulate
The somatotype
basic
the
is
external
measures
determinants
in
large
by Sheldon,
conducted
in
correct
significant
behaviour
of
upon the
based
part
(1967) and Rees (1968,1973)
Lindsey
or approximating
body phenotype.
observable
eminently
that: -
biological
through
Sheldon's
For
physique.
viewed as a means of estimating
and unchanging
(Morphogenotype)
studies
temperament and
his
are
"that
convinced:
that
assertion
between physique
association
on examining the many
there
is
Sheldon
is
highly
a
Hall
and personality",
and
Lindsey (1973).
In
recent
years
Sheldon's
one of
successors
has been RW
Parnell
(1958) who has worked with
many variant
Parnell
has included
measures in his assessment of
"phenotyping"
three
measures
undergraduate
in
Birmingham
other
(1968)
description
is
of the
present
classification
is
classification)
expressed
and
in
a
it
three-
sites
of
this
of Oxford
and
Many
technique.
to add
have been investigated
Heath
by
devised
somatotype method was
now the
In the Heath-Carter
practice.
Carter
and
at three
of phenotyping.
In the 1960's a modified
Carter
taken
universities
establishment
more data to the technique
and
from the
from women to children
subjects
bone measurements,
were used on two thousand and sixty
students
initial
the
The
photographs.
weight,
and skinfolds
These techniques
calipers.
three
measures included height,
circumference
muscle
as the standard
as well
anthropometric
with
anthropometric
groups.
subject
current
method
Method the somatotype
morphological
similar
does
use
numerical
to
an
open-ended
rating,
popular
is defined
as a
The Heath-
conformation.
Sheldon's
in
(a three
It
scale.
consisting
digit
of
is
three
32
numbers (components)
sequential
The somatotype
dimensions,
four
involves
the
measures of biceps
measurements
the
at
sites
subscapular
and suprailiac.
A somatotype
the subject
by the following
method:
subscapular
triceps,
for
calculated
F-scale
is
then the
are added together,
and suprailiac)
on the
value
closest
is
rating
and
and calves,
biceps,
of
bone
weight,
component (endomorphy) the three skinfolds
To obtain the first
(triceps,
height,
measurements of
muscle circumference
skinfold
in the same order.
always recorded
and the
circled
for
rating
that
column is recorded.
Mesomorphy (second
height
subject's
the
is
figure
before
from
only
right
the
the
circling
average
of
the
appropriate
figure
which
dealing
calf
only with
the
respectively
girth
in
the
measurement
that
the point
columns,
for
are
skinfolds
calf
is the nearest
figures
circled
to the exact
row nearest
and the
the
each bone diameter,
and the
girth
by marking
obtained
Then, for
skinfolds
bicep
row. Next,
is
scale.
in the
The tricep
appropriate
the
on the height
circled
measurement.
subtracted
component)
diameters
is
and girths
is marked. The number of columns by which the average deviates
or left
columns,
from the marked height
right
or
left,
component and the closest
To obtain the third
are
moved from
rating
value
the
and this
four
number of
in the
second
is circled.
He' ht is found
Wi1ght
1968) and recorded by circling
component, ectomorphy, 3
from a nomogram (Heath and Carter,
the closest
is counted
value in the L-scale
and the rating
for that column is
recorded.
The values
metrical
for
each rating
scale
are recorded
after
'anthropo-
somatotype' at the bottom of the form. The ratings
of each
33
at zero and have no end-point.
component are theoretically
Slaughter
They observe
method.
associated
is
(1976)
Lohman
tend to support the Heath-Carter
and
that
height
with
significantly
weight.
Sheldon's
closely
related
body morphology
Heath
(1963)
observed
controversy
than
enthusiasm,
the
about
techniques,
The Heath-Carter
physical
Bale,
and
of
one that
Rowell and Colley
training
and findings
diverse
of
thus
distance
of
running
that
the most successful
less
body fat
subject
intensity
(endomorphy)
somatotype.
the
and quantify
this
method of
similar
enabling
the anthropometric
marathon
performance.
The
Heath-Carter
indicated
The results
female marathon runners
as
runners
were those who had
and were high on the component of ectomorphy.
of elite
of
more
groups.
female
Meleski and Malina (1985) investigated
and physique
as
method,
aroused
about
can use,
was used in the study.
method of somatotyping
not
have been posed
making
(1985) investigated
characteristics
determinants
has
and many questions
many researchers
with
is
as body composition.
somatotyping
subjects,
body
a given
Heath-Carter
as the
as well
that
closely
component
components
method does seem able to classify
to be obtained
results
three
all
methodology
characteristics
somatotyping
for
body mass for
body composition
to
which describes
lean
with
somatotype
first
the Heath-Carter
and weight,
associated
endomorphy is
Sheldon's
while
university
females.
in
season
training
and third
the
(ectomorphy)
body composition changes
The study showed that
only
affected
the
components of somatotype
the
first
in a
minor way.
Adams and Bolowchuk
between personality
(1985)
investigated
the
relationship
and somatotype. Their subjects were one hundred
males aged 17-20 years.
The Heath-Carter
method of somatotyping was
34
used and the
Factor
subjects
were given
Questionnaire.
that
there
although
traits
personality
A
canonical
-
and somatotype,
the result
possibly
method
of
In the
somatotyping.
Dance,
number
of
papers
between
has utilised
which
(1986)
VIII
and Physical
(1986),
in
published
and Borms, are a
the
Heath-Carter
investigated
groups of:
utilised
the
of
on Sport
Watkins
Heath-
the
Proceedings
and Health
by Reilly,
edited
Stepnicka
somatotyping.
revealed
were few and
correlations
Conference
Recreation
III,
Kinanthropometry
data
the
correlations
Kinanthropomtery
of
Commonwealth and International
Education,
these
of
Personality
of chance.
The new science
Carter
analysis
significant
were
Sixteen
Cattell
the
method
of
1. Czechoslovak top athletes
2. University
(men)
students
3. Czech school youth (boys and girls)
(including
sports classes
4. Boys attending
track and field
skiing,
The results
the
handball
indicated
somatotypes
somatotypes
athletes
are less
"a certain
criteria
(for
in some sports
homogenous, whilst
gymnastics,
example gymnastics)
other
-in
homogenous. He stated
lifting".
and
events
weight
the
sports
in top
that
somatotype is a morphological
compared two different
31 females
sports
(including
classes
and tennis).
that
are
"field
for
as,
example
(1986)
in
skiing,
gymnastics and tennis)
athletics,
involved
5. Girls
ice-hockey,
class
pre-supposition"
Heath and Carter
methods of somatotyping
23 males and
the
14
22.
The
between
two
were
used
and
methods
aged
of Sheldon and the Heath-Carter method. The conclusions
the study were that
there was a greater
difference
of
between methods
35
for
young females than young males. This
lack of rating
Sobral
physique,
for females in the Sheldon method.
criteria
et
(1986)
al
personality
at
investigation
several
status,
the
former
are
maturers
maturing
girls
credence
role
in
engage
Sweeney
levels
in psychological
physical
(1985)
of body fat
Gwyon (1985)
that
regime
component
has
rationale
by some (Wright,
that
concluded
perspective
been
1977;
additional
which asserts
play
and somatotype)
of Harris
best
which
marathon
ballet
high on the meso-ectomorphic
late
girls.
third
(1973), that
suit
runners
their
tended
and to be in the main ectomorphic
found that
The
a
well-being.
activities
found
that
a training
and the
exercise
from the writings
is evident
It
(1983)
the somatotype
(obesity,
factors
maturing
somatopsychic
Tucker
1981).
of Carter
normally
and out-moded
1978).
must be afforded
somatic
critical
the
simplistic
and Calhoun,
Selby
that
Whilst
late
somatotype is dependent on
(endomorphy)
component
as too
challenged
and that
changes,
with
while
(Carter,
than early
the
somatotype
endomorphy,
the findings
would suggest that
first
(ectomorphy).
to
of
differ
girls
Regarding
as more ectomorphic"
are more ectomorphic
education
hypotheses
the
traits.
replicated
age of college
physical
maturing
have been appointed
study
body composition
affects
One of
morphological
The literature
the
female
year
between
relationships
menarchial
and late
early
recognised
from this
results
the
with
University.
"that
was
to
first
were
Lisbon
respect
investigated
and strength
women. The subjects
students
is probably due to the
dancers
components.
in
full
time
people
physique.
to
have low
in morphology.
training
were
36
2.2.1.
Summary of Somatotype
The literature
would indicate
the choice of sports participation.
predetermines
(1985) and Sweeney (1985) postulated
Colley
e,
ý omorphs.
are
(1978)
-Harris
factor
any other
determines
Sheldon (1947) the link
has suggested
the choice
interest
to the sports
Investigations
Carter
who are
There
paucity
of
(Parnell,
the effect
body weight,
due to participation
investigate
traits
relationship
somatotype
little
It
of
subjects
of
There
subjects.
and
et
Heath-
the
classify
qualifies
is
a
quantifies
activities.
women and
sedentary adult
on the
components of the
three
have measured changes
changes in body fat
in a vigorous
exercise
of a training
and lean
programme.
regime on the
the changes which occur in them.
somatotype and
womenhas not been of much interest
would also
and
of the Heath-
1986; Sobral
between the Heath-Carter
knowledge concerned with
between
that
the effects
of adult
researchers.
seems to
has been of
use groups
to
groups
and in particular
The inter-relatedness
other
to
Many investigators
components and monitor
personality
Since the days of
the application
attempt
of exercise
somatotype.
study will
more than
physique
which
somatotype "normal"
in body composition,
three
sedentary
literature
research
Heath-Carter
marathon runners
1958; Stepnicka,
has been little
study will
investigate
This
that
of people who engage in physical
somatotypes
This
psychology
method have tended
method "normal"
Carter
that
psychologists.
self-selecting
1986).
Bale Rowell and
of sports.
which have studied
somatotyping
physique
between somatotype and personality
be an area of constitutional
al,
an individual's
that
sports
body
be pertinent
psychology that
image
is
to
to the body of
the relationship
investigated.
This
between physique and body image needs to be explored
37
because individuals
many
decision-making
investigated
among physical
the physique
studied.
use their
the
processes.
relationship
education
Kane
Although
between
students,
and personality
The control
bodies as a frame of reference
of sedentary
relationship
adult
group in the study will
has
and somatotype
personality
the similar
(1971)
in
between
women has not been
also
enable
to measure subtle changes in components of somatotype.
the study
38
2.3. OVERVIEW
OF PERSONALITY
The study of "personality"
fellow
his
personality
beings
since
itself
is
and Aristotle,
man's
variance
men will
Lindzey
"An
the
their
role
behaviour
and attempt
when confronted
the
with
to
The word
Greece.
"persona",
a mask,
in theatre
to role
Hippocrates,
scholars
observations
on the patterns
of
how different
predict
Hall
same situation.
and
(1978) state:
individual's
is
personality
of persons under different
be used to describe
example it
by the effectiveness
assessed
he
which
or she is able to elicit
with
variety
word
works by the great
describe
in
react
from
of
man's observation
Ancient
of
as they moved from
The classical
Plato
days
the
derived
donned by Greek actors
productions.
has intrigued
circumstances.
by the observer
from a
positive-reactions
Personality
a behavioural
pattern,
can
for
could be said that a person could be: -
a) an aggressive personality,
b) a submissive
c) a fearful
personality,
or
personality.
These describe the attributes
or quality
that
is highly
typical
of
the subject. "
The varied behavioural
patterns
men come to
in which different
terms with other people or other problems are the very essence of
personality.
It
has been suggested that
and yet typical
individual.
efforts
consists
at adjustment that
On the one hand, personality
unique or individual
things
personality
aspects
are carried
out by the
can be equated to
of behaviour
about a person and distinguishes
of the varied
which designate
him from other
the
those
people.
A
39
simple
definition
typical
would be that
and deeply
characteristic
observer's
standpoint,
measured.
Hall
consists
concretely
describe
the
of
of
(1978)
a set
individual
dimensions
that
utilized".
Personality
of
being,
occupy
a
deems to
dimension
of personality.
central
into
put
This
motion.
act
person's
quality
norm for
his group and highlight
enduring
'Trait'
qualities
(1959)
Guildford
relatively
or
of
with
narrow
as a general
habit,
often
individual
throughout
consistent
personality
over
would be the
than a sum of separate
Cattell
a
how the
the
process
to
one
be the
-
from others.
A personality
of
trait
range
of
of
his
contraction
quality
as
in
of
which characterises
and is
activities
time.
traits,
may
or
self-confidence,
is a particular
sum of these
to
"traits".
differs
or cheerfulness
period
of
comparing
individual
term".
trait
a wide
theory
determined
such as a conditional
such as assertiveness
the
subscribe
is
or
variables
is any distinguishable
attitude
response to a sound. A personality
the
is
what
of
terms
comparison
that
terms
an analytical
another,
way in which an individual
as a specific
behaviour
in
that
"A
trait
-
states:
"Personality
within
only
a person's
is thus a very broad general
be as inclusive
terms
position
is
by the way it
that: -
in
qualities
When one person is compared with
is
From the
or descriptive
scores
studied
the
measure
an individual.
postulate
can be defined
observer
what is most
can be defined
personality
and Lindzey
comprises
personality
The
although
individual's
it
is more
qualities.
says: -
"Personality
may be defined
do when placed
in a given
as that
situation".
which tells
what a man will
40
Most individuals,
interactions
enduring
their
with
personality
for
The search
that
behaviour"
is
if
question;
concerned
of
is
personality
the
or
primarily
individual,
to give
unique
Most personality
testing
with
primarily
Data Sheet.
detect
World War II
to
with
Woodworth made a list
on
in
a
to detect
having
maladjusted
The test
non-intellectual
interview
being
soldiers
without
processed.
in the
orectic
a
as
was' presented
the
a
was not
would touch
a psychiatrist
was valuable
appropriate
for
out
because it
impossible
was
task
of
recruit.
At the present time a psychometrist
cognitive,
concerned
numerous symptoms were singled
each individual
to assess an individual's
and
Army wanted to
States
so many individuals
filled
interview.
to interview
psychiatric
duly
in-depth
able
inventory
recruits
further
be
meaningful
first
list
Men who reported
it
are inventories
The
spaces.
can it
which
interview.
and the
questionnaire
observable
has been measured by the
United
of symptoms which
screening
assess
was the Woodworth Personal
the
an individual
proposition
practical
to
to break down in combat. To subject
who were likely
soldiers
The
individual
the
assessing
During
recruit
each
questionnaires
individuals.
classify
of
unity
a fundamental
the
interpretation?
to
overt
to
or criteria
attempt
with
poses
common standards
self-administered
attempt
personality
measured against
use of
some unifying
the essential
expresses
personality
The measurement
responses.
for
a search
uniqueness.
The measurement of
"typical
is
structure
as his
the person as well
of
some sort
which can be measured or appraised.
structure
or characterisation
principle
have achieved
environment,
personality
development and present
of their
as a result
would use personality
characteristics;
qualities.
tests
that is his non-
There is such a "plethora"
41
tests
of personality
would be a standardised
testing
are stated
tested
with
if
two test
only
could
the same results
is
a numerical
needed instead
indication
the
of
are
A test
is
independently
working
The
a subject
It
scores
a standardised
two
of
assessment
that
is
A score
performance.
how well
of
"score";
is
of a test
a subject's
the
subjects
same way.
which a score provides.
between
all
of
the same group of subjects.
with
of
with
the procedures
all
administrators
a description
of
differentiate
characteristics
in
term in the definition
because of the precision
to
an individual
provides
meant that
same questions
standardised
second important
is
it
of a test
definition
in advance in such a way that
the
obtain
that
situation
By standardised,
a score.
the first
that
available
also
performs
us
allows
The
subjects.
procedure
be
could
summarised under the conditions:
(i)
to be used are identical
the stimuli
for
respondents
all
and are always presented in the same fashion.
(ii)
there
responses,
(intuitive),
or informal
can be assigned
anticipated
there
formal
either
responses
(iii)
norms, or frequency distributions
are available
to
of
so that
within
an
and behaviour correlates
of
be useful
in
a specific
place
range.
are useful
personality
the responses to be observed.
These conditions
characterising
condition
test
taker
personality
concerns
the
dimensions
three
suggest
assessment
variety
by the
and observed
of
relevant
examiner,
that
could
procedures.
responses
and might
The
first
made by the
be termed
the
degree of response structure.
Most paper and pencil
Multiphase
Personality
inventories
Inventory)
(Minnesota
MMPI
the
such as
can be regarded as rather
highly
42
structured
with
to respondent behaviours,
respect
since the only
responses to be made and observed are indications
'false'
'true'
or
to a series of personal statements.
Rorschach's ink blot test,
as
of
relatively
examiner
in
unstructured
generally
behaviour
on the other hand, would be regarded
observes
the
present
a wide range of respondent
and records
and considers
all
them
of
the
because
sense
be relevant
to
response
material.
The second dimension
degree
the
which
responses,
relevant
formal
Projective
The third
is
to which
the test
understanding and prediction
The term
"validity"
precise
and refers
between
certain
test
The position
is,
construction
permit
behaviour.
but
is
it
more
of a demonstrated relationship
a
and
particular
and the
possesses,
non-test
importance
of
three
these
of
on each
of the
instrument
and more,
the stimuli.
In general,
established
the
or
usefulness.
some degree,
in,
of
that
-
Thus the number of validities,
a test
strategies
range
will
response
to
assessment devices: -
a larger
of the instrument
of an assessment instrument
or
range of
to the development
usefulness,
determine the test's
method of selecting
to,
person.
available.
norms available.
to
similar
is
differ
a smaller
of some of his non-test
responses
that
these relationships
approaches
with
taker's
to the existence
relationships
dimensions
is
of the
characteristic
valid
techinques
dimension is the usefulness
the extent
are
norms
lend themselves
do not have formal
responses generally
procedures
such as the MMPI, with
more readily
norms.
formal
published
inventories,
Structured
of
to
assessment
on which
by the method of
to the
particularly,
there are three major
construction
of
formal
43
(1) rational-theoretical
(2) empirical
(3) internal
consistency
(1) Rationally
derived
constructing
stimulus
congruent
it
with
Pictures
assess
(Blum,
Test
Lanyon and Goodstein,
(2) The basis
for
basis
empirical
consistency
stimuli
of
believing
that
items
correlated,
where
are the
Sixteen Personality
confirm
to
responses
tests
are
of
closely
internal
the
of
large
a group
variables
which
number of
respondents,
or
related
test
and
inter-
variable.
indices
then
as
are
used
fulfil
Eysenck Personality
the previously
Inventory
stated
Cattell
and the
Factor Questionnaire.
before
it
personality,
basis
a fairly
Eysenck Personality
that,
an
should work in the
the test
on the
e. g.
defined
The two personality
the
is
there
functioning.
of personality
In
test.
personality
are assumed to tap the same psychological
Such statistically
criteria
items,
to
according
author.
be administered
might
those
the
The Blacky
theory.
derived
be
to
personality,
can be EMPIRICAL, i. e.,
be developed
might
of
approximates
a theoretically
manner described by the test
(3) A test
view
that
within
best
or
selecting
be devised
also
theoretical
1950)
a test
for
might
concepts
by
SEEM to tap the behaviour
that
A test
a particular
would
developed
are
materials
investigation.
under
and
tests
is
it
is
necessary
Inventory,
possible
to
it
different
(Eysenck
and Wilson,
aspects
review of the current
describe
have some sort
represent
and some sort
to
Eysenck and Wilson
or
of
measure
model to
of concept to encapsulate that
literature
1975).
model's
In Eysenck's case a
(Eysenck, 1960) convinced him that
44
there
was strong
important
signally
dimensions
intraversion,
-
(2) neuroticism,
emotionality
Diagrammatically,
Eysenck's
indicating
are
which
four
remarkably
Ancient
the
of
is represented
to
the
basic
tendency
personality
'temperaments'
four
and Eysenck
Eysenck
the
of
which originated
scheme of personality
I).
These
two dimensions.
the
zones of
(Figure
Greeks
and
or stability-instability.
model of personality
similar
Galen-Kant-Wundt
traditional
were two clear
and
extents
defining
cross,
scales
there
of personality:
(1) extraversion
by two scales
with
the view that
for
support
(1964)
that: -
maintain
"It
is an empirical
total
common
Cattell's
results
studies
have also
those postulated
these
by
traits
the
in
resulted
Inventory
1968) the form of Eysenck's test,
Maudsley Personality
to
Inventory
However, the EPI incorporated
from a practical
The
EPI
similar
personality
very
close
to
(EPI)
(Eysenck and Eysenck,
is a development of the earlier
(MPI) (Eysenck, 1959; Knapp, 1962),
therefore
modifications
and neuroticism.
rendering
it
more
point of view.
has
experimental
is,
very
give
factors
which had also measured degrees of extraversion
(1)
"
and Guildford's
second-order
be
by Eysenck.
The Eysenck Personality
useful
can
which is the major
personality,
1961)
observed
........
has been found
and Scheier,
of the
proportion
produced
testing
Eysenck's,
(Cattell
a large
in terms of these two factors.
scheme for
to
alternative
for
that
variance
between
correlations
accounted
fact
two
treatment
possible.
parallel
without
forms;
retesting
memory factor
after
interference
45
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46
(2)
The EPI items were reworded so as to be intelligible
of low levels
to subjects
of intelligence
even
and/or education
for
(many of the MPI items had been found too difficult
such subjects).
(3)
There
was a correlation
icism
on the MPI which,
significant;
between-extraversion
though small,
item
modified
and neurot-
remained marginally
removed it
from the
a -falsification
"scale
selection
EPI.
(4)
Unlike
the
MPI,
the
which
may
be
used
"desirability
(5)
EPI includes
to
exhibiting
subjects
eliminate
response set".
The retest
of the
reliability
the MPI; even after
several
EPI is
higher
than that
of
remains in excess of
months it
0.85.
(6)
Eysenck claims that
EPI's
validity
as
behaviour manifestations
To summarise,
sions
the
of
namely
(NEUR).
Neuroticism-Stability
High
extraversion.
impulsive
and
frequently
taking
indicative
of
scoring
emotional
individuals
have difficulties
in
part
tend
in
EX scores
having
uninhibited,
group
activities.
to
experiences.
4
4.
to
social
indicative
be
a normal
outgoing,
and
High NEUR scores
over-responsive
state
after
and
of
contacts
and over-reactivity.
be emotionally
returning
are
tend
many
inconsistency
to
(EX)
Extraversion-Introversion
High
dimen-
independent
two pervasive,
individuals
scoring
the
of
of personality.
EPI measures
personality,
instrument
descriptive
a
of the
evidence is available
direct
are
High
and to
emotional
47
Cattell
Sixteen Personality
The important
of
is
the
The source trait,
variables
observable
of
traits.
Surface
traits
interaction
fundamental
to
observer,
trait
the stimulus
with
of
determines
the
The
go together.
be
to
stucture
are termed
elements
thought
are
of source traits
traits
the
he
traits.
and surface
which largely
variable
seem, to
clusters
is the
Cattell
that
apparent
In
for
which
model
work
empirical
between source traits
is an underlying
personality,
surface
By extensive
trait.
to distinguish
attempted
(1959) structural
Cattell's
concept within
personality
overt
Factor Questionnaire
surface
by
produced
the
and hence
situation,
are not stable.
his
investigations,
primary
Cattell
raw data
his
obtained
from numerous sources:
(1) life
records
(2) self
completion
(rating
of individuals
by trained
observers)
questionnaires
(3) interviews
(4) performance.
The data was then factor
for
traits,
source
behaviour.
behind
relatively
).
analysed,
these
traits
Sixteen
are
factors
the
major
causal
influences
dimensions
which . are
independent or uncorrelated are namedby Cattell (Table
.ý
Thus, up to a certain
individual
position
to identify
which helped Cattell
along
one of these
analysed his original
specific
or higher
order factors.
by Cattell
as :-
primary
factors,
behaviour measures to obtain
just
factors
factors
are typical
as primary
his
does not affect
(1965) further
Cattell
These second order
second order
by
an
occupied
the position
dimensions
dimension.
on any other
"These
point,
or
factors
second
are described
organisers
are
factor
in
of
turn
48
TABLE 3
CATTELL'S SIXTEEN PRIMARYFACTORS(CATTELL, 1963)
LOWSCOREDESCRIPTION
HIGH SCOREDESCRIPTION
FACTOR
Outgoing, warmhearted, easy(Cyclothymia)
going, participating
A
Reserved, detached, critical,
(Schizothymia)
More intelligent,
(Higher
bright
capacity).
B
Less intelligent,
concrete
(Lower scholastic
thinking
mental capacity).
Emotionally
stable, faces reality
calm (Higher ego strength)
C
Affected by feelings, emotionally less stable, easily
upset (Lower ego strength).
Assertive, independent, aggressive
(Dominance)
stubborn
E
Humble, mild, obedient, conforming (Submissiveness)
Happy-go-iucky, heedless, gay
(Surgency)
enthusiastic
F
Sober, prudent, serious,
(Desurgency)
taciturn
Conscientious, persevering, staid
rule-bound (Stronger superego
strength)
G
Expedient, a law to himself,
(Weaker
by-passes obligations
superego strength).
Venturesome, socially bold, uninhibited, spontaneous (Parmia)
H
Shy, restrained, diffident,
timid (Threctia)
thinking
mental
abstract
scholastic
Tough-minded, self-reliant,
realistic,
no-nonsense(Harria)
Tender-minded, dependent, overprotected, sensitive (Premsia)
L
Trusting, adaptable, free of
jealousy, easy to get on with
(Alaxia)
Imaginative, wrapped up in inner
urgencies, careless of practical
matters, bohemian (Autia)
M
Practical,
careful, conventional
realregulated by external
ities, proper (Praxernia).
Shrewd,calculating, worldly,
(Shrewdness)
penetrating
N
Forthright, natural, artless,
sentimental (Artlessness)
0
Placid, self-assured, confident,
(Untroubled
adequacy)
serene
liberal,
Experimenting, critical,
analytical, free-thinking
(Radicalism)
Qi
Conservative, respecting established ideas, tolerant of
difficulties
traditional
(Conservatism)
Self-sufficient,
prefers
iecisions, resourceful
(Self-sufficiency)
Q2 Group-dependent, a 'joiner'
an
(Group
follower
adhersound
ence)
uspicious, self-opinionated,
(Protension)
fool
to
and
pprehensive, worrying, depressive
(Guilt
proneness)
roubled
own
Controlled, socially precise
self-disciplined,
compulsive
(High self-concept control)
ense, driven, overwr ught, fretful
High ergic tension)
Q3 Casual, careless of protocol,
untidy, follows own urges
(Low integration)
Q4 Relaxed
49
organisers
of
Naturally,
behaviour.
pieces of
specific
are broader in their
these second order factors
influence
than primary factors".
These second order
two fundamental
factors
complement Eysenck's
dimensions
of
Extraversion-Introversion
it),
call
Q1 and Q2 in
factors
labelled
are
"Pathemia"
or
Eysenck
personality
immaturity
emotional
suggests
factors
outside
as candidates
that
there
the
for
this
twenty
past
years
searching
are two personology
a credulous
prediction
only
field
Q3
Q4 is
three
major
which present
These
type of analysis.
and NEUR (neuroticism/
and P (psychotism).
claim
of
value.
that
the
assumption
of selected psychological
been an issue of controversy.
credulous
names are
He goes
and Physical Activity
performance is a function
either
order
work at the higher order end emerges with
Cattell's
Personality
For
second
factors.
very similar
2.3.1.
and are
corticalertia;
are
the cognitive
as opposed to stability
on to say that
little
versus
it)
versus subduedness.
(1965)
emotionality)
two
to
prefers
calls
The technical
are EX (extraversion-introversion)
factors
there
The other
system.
These are
as Cattell
as Cattell
Q3 and Q4.
Promethean will
themselves
his
the same
defined.
are
Exvia-Invia,
(or anxiety,
and neuroticism
labelled
called
(or
personality
for
work,
Morgan (1978) states
camps, with
view
psychological
data
performance,
whilst
the
physical
traits
has long
basically
that
many researchers
a sceptical
or
that
of
are
sceptics
the
claiming
premise.
The
for
the
useful
argue
that
is
of
50
(1970) is credited
Kroll
in
the
area of
listed
Kroll
In
activity.
personality
Singer
et
it
to
which
for
rely
inadequacy
of
traditional
to
clinical
anything
like
(Cooper,
operational
definitions
many of the
of
personality
classification
and
on
of
on
attention
and in
and/or
the
particular
Harris
the
mirror
in
participation
an
performance.
Many studies
activity
have used the
of subjects: -
vs non-athletes
sportsmen
(c) athletes
of differing
abilities
(d) athletes
from various
subgroups.
research was conducted in the personality
psychologists
sport
focussed
and physical
(b) team and individual
Most of this
findings
investigations
reported
personality
on the
but,
in many studies.
sport
(1981)
Kane
Many of the criticisms
1962),
a
measurements of
results.
have
activity
inadequacies
relate
(a) athletes
multiple
only
has been undertaken
purposes".
classifications
investigating
sports
that
conflicting
research
physical
that
states
following
offer
predictive
and
methodological
attempt
Rushall (1970)
objective
with
have
who
researchers
come up with
trait
that
contend
has not produced coherent and unequivocal
personality
(1973)
to
and
and sport
personality
They 'suggest
studies
to
continue
"Considerable
-
whole,
while
for a
the possibilities
Other
to
In Table
performance.
was
abandoned.
(1977).
al
conclusion,
states:
Kroll
have been able
personality
of
comprehensive paper
premise have included Martens-(1975),
interpretations
definite
dimension
1976
be
should
advocated this
and sports
options which highlight
between the
physical
and
personality
five
relationship
with the earliest
have failed
participants.
to control
The rugby
or
domain and
the factor
soccer
player
of the
who would
51
TABLE4
FORTHE POSSIBLERELATIONSHIP
MODELS
OF PERSONALITY
TO INVOLVEMENT
IN
SPORTANDPHYSICALACTIVITY
MODEL
DESCRIPTION
1. Commonpreliminary
Those individuals
core
traits
personality
and Attrition
only those
and attrition
individuals
ersitics
with suitable
charact-
persist.
There is a commonpersonality
Interests/
Final
sports.
characterbut through modi-
intially,
fication
Dissimilar
and par-
No commonpersonality
istics
3. CommonInitial
specific
select
in specific
ticipate
2. Modification
with
among beginners
Interests
but through
and attrition,
pation
dissimilar
pattern
partici-
veterans
possess
characteristics
personality
Veterans in sport possess personality
traits which are completely opposite
to rookies.
4. Neophytes Opposite to
Veterans
to involve-
is unrelated
Personality
5. No relationship
ment in sport and physical
activity.
Notes:
1.
Popular
stereotype
personality
4.
this
reflects
alternative
introverts
is
that
show a
select
sports
while
sports.
preference for individual
in
dissimilar
be
In this alternative
beginners
sport
would
extraverts
2.
which
team
profiles
in
Performance
characteristics
may
become
particular
but veterans would be similar.
dramatic
may result
of an individual,
extraverts
sport.
to
changes
to the extent
meet
the
in
personality
that
requirements
introverts
of
the
52
be classed
tennis
or track
player
an individual
this
sport
No researcher
on the
under
not
attack
traits
in
and approaches
As a result,
behaviour.
It
'trait
psychology'
the
and
conceptual
in
in
problem
have
personologists
failed
dispositional
important
To
predict
Kane (1981)
approaches
the
proposes
in an attempt
personality.
a
the
old
The
important
sports
of
the
determinant
it
is
the relationship
and the performance situation.
number *of
to define
most
more successfully,
alternative
a more vital
The one most favoured
is
on the
cognitive
perceptions
in a given
situation.
In the
centres
person
personality
that
importance
to adopt an approach which considers
between the individual's
situational
most
as a signficant
behaviour
a more
research;
the
recognise
models
approach.
personality
environment of the immediate situation
behaviour.
to
of
role
between
has been the
to
the
(1975)
distinguish
but
personal
to explain
by Martens
newer
sport
the
alternative
sensitive
is
theory
theory,
emphasise
an effort
to
distinction
make this
Trait
and minimise
was claimed
had failed
which
who only
an unsound
of personality
psychologists
to
is
a number of
have been proposed
and dynamic concept
in
it
behaviour
sports
of
the
up among sport
theory.
automatically
explaining
factors.
situational
on trait
so much because
personality
dispositions
of
individual
the
control
whether
which has flared
has been the attack
failure
established
from
major controversy
psychologists
factors
to
as
in one sport.
The other
vital
be classed
has attempted
hand,
other
differs
participant
participates
because
may, in the summer, be a
and would therefore
athlete,
sportsman.
phenomenon or,
multi
in the winter
as a team player
the
models
and
and dynamic concept
interactional
and interpretations
same paper Kane points
model
of
out
53
the increasing
that
completely
consistent
Eysenck.
demonstrated
that
for
account
the
of
Peterson
(1967)
et al.
States
Team.
Olympic
swimming, diving,
riding,
and field
The team sport
events.
present
in
participate
in
of the 1964
sports
included
gymnastics,
and track
individual
canoeing,
were from the teams who
subjects
The Cattell
finals.
indicated
and the results
individual
in
traits
and women who were involved
The
fencing,
to the subjects
16PF was
that
women
dominant
and
than women who participate
in
are
sports
but are more introverted
aggressive,
and the
the personality
competed in the Women's AAO basketball
who
but the
situation
were 38 women athletes
The subjects
sports.
administered
or the
investigated
in team sports
women who participate
United
The
evokes behaviour.
that
individual
always
will
employed alone.
characteristics
personality
and
convincingly
in concert
taken
than either
variance
been
has
be not the trait
answers would seem to
situation
and traits
states
it
that
Cattell
of both
viewpoints
claims
more of the
interaction
the
with
(1976)
Morgan
is
emphasis upon the person and the situation
more
team sports.
football
athletes
using
30
the
and
outstanding
multi-
Aptitude
for
in this
of sports
participation
for
factors
study,
scholastic
they divided
athletes,
and 30 non-athletes.
accounted
Test,
differentiate
to
Controlling
30
comparison of
the
using
attempted
football
tudinous
in a personality
non-athletes
non-athletes.
the Scholastic
athletes
and
Inventory,
Psychological
athletes
(1969),
and Littlefield
Berger
their
non-outstanding
They concluded that: - "....
affecting
it
personality
is difficult
alone on personality.
California
between
aptitude
sample into
football
because of
which were not
to assess the effects
"
54
Investigators
groups
of
have posed the question
respective
sports
gravitated
towards
Two studies
Lukehart
differ
in an attempt
these
eleven
subjects
subsequently
did not.
Of those
The groups were retested
found to differ
group
neither
from the
at the
in football
a change
and
five
in football,
than the
outset
non-
on the neuroticism
end of the season and were
in
As expected,
dimension.
on the extroversion
experienced
They administered
to participate
more extroverted
organised
or non-athletes
to participate
electing
in
on
to 33 males. Twenty one of
but the two groups did not differ
participants,
still
athletes
from the outset.
elected
Firstly,
investigation
participated
whether
and
difficulties.
concept.
a pilot
Inventory
Eysenck Personality
were significantly
scale.
to evaluate
dimensions
on personality
the Junior
this
males who had never
school
first
because of inherent
conducted
in
participation
different
were
investigate
to
(1969)
their
of
they
sports
various
have attempted
high
sports,
because
or
and Morgan
junior
because
differ
athletes
sub-
of whether various
over
a three
longitudinal
study
personality
month period.
(1971)
Tattersfield
investigating
the effect
in a competitive
conducted
of the development
years
East.
The competitive
part
High
School
Personality
were administered
competitive
and control
in
personality
profile.
their
scores
education
Questionnaire
Both the
total
throughout
on extraversion
groups
Both
North
Cattell
The
programme.
and
the
annually
Junior
to
both
showed significant
groups
the
a boy who was
boys were each matched with
Personality
Inventory
12-14
boys
106
aged
were
223 swimming clubs
in the normal physical
involved
of personality
The subjects
environment.
who were members of
taking
a five-year
significantly
but the competitive
Eysenck
groups.
changes
increased
group did not show
55
any significant
independence,
of
change. The results
significant
(1958),
is
Ogilvie
competitive
fencers
in a study
level
top
than
the
low level
competitors
as very reserved,
A study
by Schurr
procedural
and
comprehensive,
et
No single
from non-athletes,
type,
yet
well
on Cattell's
when the athletes
sport
Described
the
as
a
it
investigation,
and
according
differences
were observed.
'stereotypical'
or
For example, team sport athletes
more extraverted
athletes;
overcome
were categorised
for athletes.
individual
to
athletes
personality
be
the
categorise
distinguished
profile
conformed to 'traditional'
to
to
16PF - both athletes
A number of findings
found
found
Study,
more dominating
appeared
analysed
a number of interesting
profiles
female
and nuturance.
problems.
personaltiy
level
autonomous and individual
(1977)
designed,
1956 males at college
sports
al
the
anxious.
Preference
affiliation
methodological
well
non-athletes.
for
The
sport.
of 30 national
They attempted
personality
changes than
and less
self-sufficient,
a below average desire
were
that
were significantly
competitors.
those of Ryan
support
competitive
using the 16PF and Edwards Personal
the
to
(1970),
et al
that
tested
in
participation
showed a
group
group showed more marked personality
Williams
'with
study
group in becoming more extrovert
control
fencer
of this
control
(1966) who have stated
and Tutko
through
shaped
the
whilst
group showed
group showed no change in the
gain. The competitive
a significant
level
the control
changes on anxiety whilst
individual
and more dependent
sport
athletes
than
were found to
be less anxious and more independent and objective.
The researchers
questioned whether the results
would have been
as inconsistent
if,
had been emphasised.
as in their
of previous
study,
studies
16PF second stratum factors
56
A recent
between personality
significant
physical
it
self-esteem
Theory
was hypothesised
favourable
(1985)
Adams and Botonchuk
revealed
Sweeney (1985)
and marathon
findings
(1972)
investigated
running
of this
using
study
i. e.,
performance
was a low
score
investigated
the
of
adolescent
females.
full-time
ballet
the
administered
differences
non-dancers,
scores.
effect
in
the
but
to those
Two groups
of
and
Eysenck
Personality
personality
the
dancers
a
for
on the
group
good marathon
Gwyon (1986)
There
Inventory.
to
have
were
no
were
of the dancers
higher
in
engaged
non-dancers,
of
of
personality
females
characteristics
tended
The
of Morgan and Costill
adolescent
training,
tupe.
Inventory.
NEUR scale.
training
analysis
between personality
the requisite
on the
ballet
Technique
somato-
and global
relationship
that
relationship
and ectomorphy,
Eysenck Personality
the
most
were one hundred
L (protension)
were similar
(1983);
and Mikel
the
the
16PF. A canonical
(premsia)
I
subjects
the
by the Heath-Carter
the Cattell
and endomorphy and Factor
display
would
The subjects
between Factor
significance
stable
investigated
and somatotype.
administered
of
lifting).
males aged 17-29 who were somatotyped
and were then
framework
properties
extraverted,
regime (weight
in the lifting
between personality
that
of the
viewpoint
motivational
that
and
performance
and body concepts
self
and body cathexis,
the credulous
and the
that
conclude
Drawing from a conceptual
controversy.
on Eysenckian
strength
of
predictors
trait/performance
with
especially
relationship
him to
extraversion
credence must be afforded
additional
based
enabled
and performance
traits,
psychological
are
by Tucker (1984) of the
investigation
and
extraversion
57
2.3.2.
Personality
and Physical Fitness
The changes in
because
(1965)
involvement
of
interest
personality
to sports
in
15% of his sample.
and 600 yard
For personality
the A-S Reaction
Study
Tillman
traits
boys and examined the personality
of the top 15% and lower
were used.
have been of
regimes,
Using a young population,
psychologists.
only the pull-ups
fitness
varying
386 senior
studied
which may occur
characteristics
It
should be noted that
Test
run of the AAHPERYouth Fitness
he employed Cattell's
dimensions
of Allport
Preference
and Kuder's
16PF,
Record -
Form C.
In
terms of personality
more dominance.
exhibited
found the upper 15%
Tillman
traits,
He concluded
that
Q4 (composed versus
more extraverted.
On Factor
the lower
group appeared to be tense,
fitness
He also
and precision.
found
trait
occur with
Cattell's
Factor
two sub-groups;
fitness
physical
control
group
nine-month
programme in
who continued
improvement
was found
to
the
in
have changed
Record
their
the
This,
ascendence-
however,
fitness,
divided
regular
not
the lower group
a strenuous
and a
classes,
programme
After
a
resulted
in
a
which
the experimental
on only
i. e. -1.81
did
versus dominance).
normal
significantly
measurements,
Kuder Preference
to
programme,
physical
more accuracy
group who followed
addition
with
fitness
physical
trait
Tillman
an experimental
signficant
personality
Study.
E (submissiveness
On the basis of these findings,
into
liking
in
were
of the 16PF,
tense)
a difference
on the A-S Reaction
submission
fit
the physically
the
one of
on the clerical
Form
C.
A
high
-
group
28
score of
score on this
trait
denotes interest.
Though Tillman
of physical
fitness
demonstrated that
subjects
tended to be tense,
there
with a low standard
is no agreement that
-im
58
has a direct
exercise
physical
that
maintains
relaxation
that
physical
(1978),
Michael
improves
exercise
the
organism's
hormonal effects
through
stress
in which
hand,
other
influencing
adult
descriptive
of
38 years,
businessmen at the University
alumni
Analysis
data
the
of
differences
between the
personality
characteristics
belief
personality
that
finds
it
early
in one's
the
Cureton's
of
chronic
fitness
between regular
of albumin,
bilirubin
a serum blood
explain
profile
bilirubin
albumin,
in
which are
an average age
with
and
physicians
significant
that
readily
constantly
assume that
differences
higher
more
the
personaltiy
the stability
basic
of
the
than
acceptable
he
Consequently,
changing.
effect
of
75 males who had participated
retested
and a
formed
are
patterns
life.
Investigating
one
to
reasonable
activity,
of Iowa.
He suggests
is
factors
Check List
resident
revealed
groups.
is
physical
of 300 adjectives
faculty,
to
was restricted
emotional
the motivating
His sample,
traits.
of personality
daily
regular
system.
vigorous
consists
stress.
of
withstand
the Adjective
using
The Check List
questionnaire.
into
in
participation
forms
that
to
ability
She
is undertaken.
other
on the nervous
data from 60 adults
collected
it
theorises
Brunner (1969), in an investigation
depends on the
exercise
relieves
exercise
on the
of
(1960)
Scott
on relaxation.
as a result
and the conditions
type of exercise
suggests
effect
irregular
eight
exercisers
(SMA 12/60)
found
significant
and non-exercisers
in terms
phosphatase levels.
Using
and the 16PF, he noted that
and serum alkaline
exercisers.
in
years previously
He
programmes.
and serum alkaline
these observations,
exercise,
(1971)
Jette
phosphatase
Though he found it
he hypothesised
that
levels
difficult
were
to
the lower levels
59
serum
of
alkaline
phosphatase
compressive or tensile
effect
of chronic
indicative
physical
the
of
on the
activity
system.
skeletal
When comparing personality
generally
results
Habitual
but,
profiles
concurred
he
exercisers,
exercisers
his
be
might-
with
found,
to
contrary
of non-active
other
less
findings,
other
subjects
findings.
researchers'
were
than
anxious
the
his
non-
non-exercisers
in
to
the
study appeared more extraverted.
Ismail
and psychological
physiological
who participated
in
demonstrated
distinct
that
and low-
high-
fit
in
participation
Questionnaire,
rigid
or
subtle
differences
but
permanent
as formerly
may
occur
a
that
result
not
traits,
stability.
personality
assumed.
as
suggest
personality
in a study of 50 such subjects
"......
between
exist
data
the
also
of emotional
that
programme,
programme influences
conditioning
concluded
changes
middle-aged men
fitness
physical
Further,
parameters
pertaining
of 'normal'
status
individuals.
a physical
Young (1971),
a study
personality
in the direction
particularly
in
four-month
a
physiological
only
(1971),
and Trachman
using the 16PF
On certain
as
dimensions
increased
of
be
may not
physical
fitness".
and Young (1973) compared univariate
Ismail
results
in
identifying
and at the conclusion
was capable
analysis
fitness
groups.
initially,
multivariate
best
Factors
of,
factors
personality
between two extreme physical
differentiating
to,
the
a fitness
of differentiating
and multivariate
fitness
between high
M and C were significant
supported
the
groups prior
programme. The univariate
univariate
and low
discriminators
while Factors 0, Q2 and M were significant
analysis
(16PF) for
finally.
results
The
and the
60
power of Factors C, M0 and Q2 was identified
discrimination
and finally.
initially
(1973) investigated
Young and Ismail
factor
on the second- and third-stratum
56
middle-aged
Orthogonal
In general,
programme data
with
and it
initially,
in
that
fitness
physical
that
was clear
In one factor,
programme.
fitness,
physical
distinguishing
terms
factors
were
in
contrast
to
in
characteristic,
of
initially
Thus,
the problem
chial
factor
forms
data
Neuroticism
rotation
were also highly
hierarchial
factors
Of particular
and its
were
stratum
were found to be related
factors
regardless
of the forms of rotation.
fitness
had taken
initially
by
third-stratum
showed
that
the
results.
similar
and the
extracted
hierar-
from
vs Extraversion
interest
analyses,
physical
one
stable.
physical
was concluded that
the
interesting
fitness
correlates,
of
yielded
and were named Introversion
vs Stablity.
only
become homogenous
again
solution
was not
substan-
namely the fitness
the subjects
finally,
of
both
age, appeared to be the
The analysis
and
solutions
Two distinct
initial
of
since
fitness.
physical
and oblique
orthogonal
it
emphasis
was dominated
at the post-testing
while
both
factors,
the structure
yield
The post-
two
which may have been due to the treatment,
place
to
were extracted
modifications.
a shift
data
programme.
found
were
some apparent
orthogonal
fitness
a
same factors
revealed
using
and personality
solution
of
the
with
analyses
loaded
tially
in
forms
and finally,
initially
structures
participants
and oblique
results.
similar
male
the nature and stability
fitness
of the physical
rotations
and oblique
of
both
is
and
was the fact
as observed in the
the
that
second-
to both third-stratum
From the initial
related
data
to personality
61
dimensions,
at
especially
(second and third
levels
hierarchial
strata).
Young (1979)
investigated
the
programme on the personality
The
and depression.
anxiety
a ten-week
of
questionnaires
which
on age, to form a young group and a middle-aged
improvement
aged group showed significant
to
compared
scores
the
investigated
of
effect
personality,
Clark
et
week jogging
(1986)
al
The subjects
minutes
and were retested
results
indicated
Mutrie
benefits
females
sedentary
tested
times
in a feeling
which included
of
the
relieved
anxiety
week for
four
lowering
phenomenon that
the most significant
to
weeks. The
of anxiety
benefits
The
in the 1984
interviews
the
from regular
and
running
and reductions
in
highlighted
the
study
psychological
from running were perceived more frequently
age group.
twenty
the psychological
of depression
and tension.
The
of well-being.
respondents
feelings
aged 20-45
pre-regime.
per
was a significant
reported psychological
questionnaires
feelings
All
on
a twenty-four
of
of running in males and females participating
Glasgow Marathon.
derived
effect
Jones (1986) investigated
and Knill
found
were
at the end of the twenty
increase
and a significant
nine
run three
there
that
the
psychologically
to
required
were
subjects
were
measure
control.
investigated
on thirty
regime
females.
to
used
improvements
mindness and self
psychological
was
on
programme
undergraduate
Inventory
(1984)
al
et
dance
university
significant
and
and depression
Johnson
aerobic
groups
The middle-
group.
on anxiety
group.
an
of
Personality
California
years.
young
characteristics
personality
The
the
measured
into
were then divided
The subjects
exercise
of 32 women subjects.
characteristics
administered
were
subjects
effect
benefits
to be
by the over 35
r
62
Mourn (1988) investigated
and females
a two year
over
Steptoe
et
The subjects
and
of
intensity
list.
placebo
The
B
Group
received
with
exercise
eight
aerobic
for
had no treatment
which
exercise
weeks
exercise
four
exercise.
Inventory
and the
the aerobic
or
the effect
introduced
four
received
strengthening
were
Mood States.
three
exercise
with
four
after
and
after
to
stengthening
C
Group
weeks.
All
weeks of
eight
and
the
weeks.
stretching
Beck Depression
subjects
reported
effect
on the
Summaryof Personality
This
review
personality
sport.
weeks of
had the most significant
exercises
exercise
of depression.
reduction
2.3.3.
of
the
assigned
stretching
measures
Profile
high
introduced
of
with
seen
investigated
eight
aerobic,
The psychological
that
the
weeks and then
included
attention-placebo
randomly
exercises
aerobic
programmes on depression,
were
Group A received
volunteers.
intensity
were
(1988)
exercise
subjects
and stretching
high
in
a ten-week
of
adult
training,
not
Mutrie
eight-week
groups;
strengthening
effect
benefits
but
conditions.
fitness.
and
mood
exercise
the
aerobic
condition
different
three
in exercise.
groups;
Psychological
exercise
attention
four
to
in
an increase
reported
participating
investigated
on a regular
on two occasions
programme on 109 sedentary
moderate
moderate
subjects
through
were assigned
waiting
regime
a questionnaire
the
(1988)
al
conditioning
training,
All
period.
on 2000 males
of exercise
an exercise
given
were
well-being
psychological
aerobic
in
who participated
The subjects
basis.
the effect
traits
of
the
pertinent
literature
may be influenced
The changes in
personality
through
would
suggest
participation
have been demonstrated
that
in
among
63
(1971). These studies clearly
in competitive
demonstrate that boys who participate
in the latter
sport,
extraverted
than their
individual
and team sports
Peterson
sport
(1967)
et al
participants
case for
non-participant
et al
difficult
(Berger
some authors
because
that
to
the
assess
have shown that
there
was that
the multi-sport
of
team
The criticism
studies
affecting
effect
in
personality.
participant.
and Littlefield,
many factors
of the
these
to monitor
control
in
and dominant.
are more extraverted
was not an in-built
contrast,
(1977)
are more
Participants
differ
to
appear
and Schurr
five years,
colleagues.
Morgan (1978) made when reviewing
that
In
and Morgan (1969) and Tattersfield
by Lukehart
younger children
1969)
report
it
personality,
sports
is
on
participation
personality.
Over the past decade the literature
that
standards
of
personality
traits.
shown that
highly
fit
individuals.
shown
that
physical
Tillman
fit
1986;
Johnson
1988;
Steptoe
demonstrated
et
that
in particular
al,
Cattell
study will
in
occur
and Knell
Mutrie,
Jones,
1988)
in a vigorous
than less
women. There is little
et al,
Moum,
1986;
exercise
regime,
use the Eysenck Personality
in an exercise
(Clark
unequivocally
and a reduction
Questionnaire
who
people
have
has psychological
of well-being
Sixteen Personality
of participation
of adult
1988;
activities,
as an increased feeling
This
Mutrie
participation
aerobic
changes
programmes. Many authors
1984;
al,
(1973)
have
Young
and
are more extraverted
personality
et
on
effect
(1971)
have
(1971)
Trachman
Young
and
and
in conditioning
participate
have a significant
(1965) and Ismail
individuals
Ismail
subtle
fitness
would seem to demonstrate
benefits
and
such
in anxiety.
Inventory
and the
to determine the effects
programme on the personality
evidence pertaining
traits
to the effect
64
of physical
to
related
exercise
emotional
and low fit
stability
personality
participation
in
investigated.
This
the
measurable
orientation
between
demonstrated,
clearly
men differ
female
in terms
significantly
in
participating
that
(1973)
Young and Ismail
conditioning
a
would undergo
subjects
changes.
The relationship
been
after
is no evidence
programme, there
similar
Although
young populations.
suggest that high fit
of
and that which does exist-is
on personality,
a
study
concepts
of personality
body image and personality
and
conditioning
will
of
in
has not
particular
the
effect
programme
has
not
examine the
an individual's
and body image.
effects
manifest
of exercise
of
been
and
psychological
65
2.4.
OVERVIEW
OF EXERCISE
Over the past five
years
Britain.
In our streets,
any type
of weather
life.
Exercise
towns,
the
this,
in
looking
of
and books
could
and benefits
books
fitness
that
been
their
Much of
and health.
because
have become confused
regime.
present
part
the
creation
"experts"
of
of
have
videos
and fitness
jargon
scene
about
in a regular
which accrue from participation
health
gear.
as disinformation
be classed
and
training,
exercise
who claim
The mass of pseudo-scientific
exercise
the elixir
to weight
and
personalities
professionals
and exercise
for
"designer"
enhance one's
programme will
many people
one can see the jogger
from aerobics
numerous
business
showing
advice
the risks
courses
in Great
have mushroomed in cities
clubs
to them in their
flock
accompany
produced,
exercise
and health
diverse
and the patrons
To
day and night,
pounding the streets
clubs
offering
"boom" has developed
the exercise
is
which
has lead
whose knowledge about the science
to
at
the
of exercise
would be deemed questionable
A resume of the
are acute and chronic
body by involvement
are the short
activity,
benefits
of exercise
would suggest
responses to the physiological
in exercise.
there
that
systems of the
The acute responses to exercise
term changes which take- place during
the exercise
for example: -
1. increase in heart rate
2. increased cardiac output
3. haematological
4. elevation
The chronic
responses
of systolic
responses
associated with habitual
to
blood pressure.
exercise
physical
are
activity
the, long-term
changes
and they include: -
66
1. cardiovascular
for example lower resting
adaptations,
heart
rate
2. metabolic adaptations
3. respiratory
adaptations
4. body composition
The chronic
factors
changes,
to
responses
fat.
body
loss
of
a
in particular
are dependent
exercise
upon a number of
which include: -
1. the type of training
2. the frequency
of participation
of the programme (it
intensity
3.
activity
is
should work at 70-80% of their
4. the
duration
recommended that
subjects
maximumexercise heart rate)
of each training
(a minimum of-twenty
session
minutes)
5. the duration
of the exercise programme
6. the subjects
initial
Pollock,
Sinai
of
Foster
Medical
less
of fitness.
(1978),
Ward
and
Centre
in a study
in Milwaukee,
less
and utilising
for
50% of
than
developing
an intensity
duration
five
three
to
book
"Why
days per
Exercise"
dynamic
of
week.
state
exercises
required
for
exercise
are running,
maximum effect.
jogging,
near
than ten minutes
less
oxygen
maximal
that
oxygen uptake,
(1986),
develop
large
They suggest
cycling,
that
a
performed
activity,
and Davies
involving
healthy
which would include
continuous
to
are
uptake
for
fitness
prescription
Ashton
programmes
exercise
50% and 85% of maximal
15-60 minutes
of
fitness,
between
of
for
and maintaining
They recommend an exercise
adults.
the
at the Mount
conducted
that
suggest
two days per week working
than
inadequate
level
in
their
cardiorespiratory
muscle
the
swimming,
groups
best
rowing
forms
are
of
and brisk
67
"there
Ashton and Davies also state
walking.
regular
is
running/jogging
is no doubt that
form of cardio-vascular
an excellent
exercise".
2.4.1.
Womenand Exercise-
In general,
are basically
(1973)
no different
"For
says: -
involving
than those
participation
in vigorous
follow.
to
females
most
route
feminine
image is a much safer
investigations
acute
the
conducted
to
risks
becomes the
acceptable
socially
There have been numerous
physiological
changes on the
and chronic
all
of
activities
the
practice".
on the
But as DH Harris
avoidance
physical
have not been as extensively
athletes
of males.
Conforming
easiest
both
and training
the responses of females to exercise
including
changes,
male
but
athlete,
female
studied.
Compared to the average adult male the adult
female is: -
(1) 3-4 inches shorter
(2) 20-30 pounds lighter
in body weight
(3) has 10-15 pounds more adipose tissue
(4) has 40-50 pounds less fat-free
bone
(mainly
muscle,
weight
and organs).
Moody et
al
(1972)
investigated
programme on the body composition
girls.
Forty female subjects
groups
subjects
fifteen
(on the basis
the
effect
of
high
school
of normal and obese
of 30% body fat),
normal
and obese.
The
for
days
four
a
week
programme on
weeks. The obese group demonstrated significant
relative
into two
aged*16-18 years were divided
engaged in an exercise
in body weight,
a jogging
fat and increases
reductions
in body density
and lean
68
body weight.
Subcutaneous fat,
as assessed by skinfold
thickness,
decreased markedly. The normal group showed no change in any of the
body composition parameters other than skinfold
thickness.
Gwinup (1975) conducted a study to investigate
walking
loss
weight
When a
occurred
certain
was increased.
per
level,
moderately
on the
week for
the
whilst
detraining
to
assigned
was
loss
(1976)
lean
control
group
At the
body weight
remained
frequencies
group whilst
control
the
increased
was
then
a
returned
of training,
found that the group
in their
study Weltman et al
female students;
group trained
ergometer.
thirteen
were the
three days per week
The experimental
maximum oxygen uptake
group had similar
increased
and
the remaining six subjects were used as a
group. The experimental
six weeks on a bicycle
increases
regime
females aged 18-25 years
20%. In a similar
(1976) used nineteen university
for
There
times
three
exercise
four days per week decreased body fat
V02 approximately
control
ergometer
of seven weeks when the lean body weight
different
which trained
experimental
and a control
had significantly
Lesmes et al (1976) using 32 untrained
their
an
The subjects
group
stable.
of
with
students
participate.
the
weight
of young women.
university
end of
day.
per
the effect
body composition
an experimental
no
when walking
investigated
to
that
and
occurred
of
levels.
to pretraining
undertaking
maintained
group rode a bicycle
group's
period
30 minutes
volunteered
seven weeks.
experimental
exceeded
but untrained
active
The experimental
indicated
more weight
18-25 years
randomly
findings
walking
Smith and Stansky
age range of
group.
walking
of
and detraining
training
Sixteen
until
amount
at a lower
stabilised
were
obese women. His
on eleven
the effect
group showed
of 10.6% whilst
scores pre and post treatment.
the
Krahebuhl
69
(1978) used thirteen
et al
The physical
19-23 years.
hour sessions
per week for
15-20
of
consisted
training
remainder
of the session
a slight
increase
of
intensity
and the
There was
training.
but
in maximal oxygen uptake
The programme
running
was devoted to weight
White and Young (1978)
programme
exercise
of
composition
years
in
no improvement
the
that
in
jogging,
of
The
in
young
the
group.
heart
significantly
and submaximal
and resting
and submaximal heart
and body
was only
decreased
rate
rates
decreased
a
a slight
variables
increased
capacity
vital
and
showed
group
The card io-respiratory`
group
young
and
women aged 21-32
there
whilst
week
calisthenics
aged
middle
body fat
of a twelve
function
and 15 middle-aged
respectively.
for
decrease
the effect
on cardio-respiratory
15 young
decrease
significant
investigated
consisting
activities
recreational
showed
low
one
body fat.
percentage
34-57
hours.
of sixteen
aged
of three
programme consisted
a total
minutes
female subjects
sedentary
untrained
significantly,
in the middle
aged
group.
Rockefeller
and Burke
(1979)
investigated
week aerobic dance programme on 21 college
The subjects
sessions.
participated
The results
Johnson
et al
frequency of aerobic
(1984)
of a ten
women aged 19-24 years.
for three days per week for
forty
minute
decrease in body weight
showed no significant
but there was a significant
the effect
increase in maximumoxygen uptake.
investigated
the
effect
of training
dance on oxygen uptake and body composition.
The subjects were 23 sedentary females aged 18-31 years enrolled
two aerobic dance classes.
related
minutes
The subjects
trained
their
70%
of
at
in
age
heart rate for 30 minutes in week one, and progressed to 90
in the thirteen-week
programme.
Group 1 trained
twice
70
Group 2 trained
weekly whilst
increased
percentage
(1986)
and Morton
The subjects
responses.
who trained
Fifteen
three
of the
four
with
the
investigated
women's rugby
increases
(1988)
for
education
majors.
training
running
intraseason
Eight
and post-season.
regime;
the
national
calibre
The findings
found
indicated
be
to
improvements
group.
involved
and Shelton
in
in
a
other
maximum oxygen
attributed
in
themselves
(1988)
studied
collegiate
were measured pre-,
that
of
The findings
the authors
changes
subjects
and
in submaximal
participants
This
rugby players
body composition
body fat
subjects.
and greater
Vercruyssen
and sprints.
body mass and
at a midwest university
female
physical
than
programme the
and maximum oxygen uptake
body fat
uptake
the control
of nineteen
reported
all
the
throughout
No significant
have less
sports
percentage
were
were found for
body composition
lean
improvements
they
in that
in
in
significant
and Knowlton
those
twelve-week
thicknesses
squad consisting
to
similar
gymnasts.
end of the
decreases
group;
acted as a control
and habits
activity
skinfold
Fitzgerald
and cardio-respiratory
each session.
in any of these variables
Sedlock,
week
45 minutes
and maximum oxygen uptake.
rate
of a twelve
per week for
There were also
significant.
the
in
decrease
aged 18-30 years
normal
together
sum of
the
between the
females
demonstrated
group
body density,
mainly
the effect
studied
At the
study.
experimental
heart
and
were 25 sedentary
times
their
maintained
course
to
a greater
from the same population
subjects
were
difference
dance programme on body composition
aerobic
fat
body
percentage
body fat.
Williams
the
in
Group 2 displayed
was that
a week. Both groups
times
The only
maximum oxygen uptake.
two groups
they
decreases
significant
exhibited
three
female
mid-
the most significant
71
change occurred from pre-season to post-season with up to 1.5 kg of
body weight loss.
On the other hand, percentage body fat decreased
from pre- to mid-season and mid- to post-season,
significantly
the
mean being equal from 21.4%, 17.4%-and 13.4% respectively.
authors
postulated
decreases
in
that
decreases
than actual
body weight
2.4.2.
the most pronounced changes observed were
fat.
body
subcutaneous
significant
in body fat
This
occur
over a period
of time more
loss.
on the
reviewed
body composition
fall
On the one hand Moody et al
et
(1984)
al
exercise
decreases
in
hand, Krahebuhl
were no body compositional
there
findings
These contradictory
which
the
subjects
demonstrated
have
on a regular
training
intensity
ten weeks will
of
at
a few investigations
in the main among young people.
partipation
sedentary
adult
in
a controlled
women who live
shown that
on body composition;
the
On the
training
Pollock
subjects
least
Johnson
and Burke (1979)
al
et
times
heart
other
showed
subjects.
in
regimes
(1978)
have
in
participate
who
three
60% of the training
show significant
have
body weight.
due to
that
basis
dichot-
changes among their
a week,
rate
for
at
a
at least
changes in body composition.
Many researchers have conducted their
and only
(1986)
in
participated.
unequivocally
exercise
are
two distinct
effects
and increases
on women's
Lesmes (1976),
(1978) and Rockfeller
et al
exercise
into
(1975),
following
have the
body fat
of
and Morton
and Williams
regimes
effect
to
appear
would
omies.
of
that
suggest
would
Summary of Exercise
The literature
that
The
in North America,
studies
have been conducted
This
study will
physical
in England,
measure the effects
conditioning
in north-west
and
England.
programme on
The programme
72
have a content
will
of vigorous
aerobic
graded jogging programme, and all
sessions to ensure that
including
activities
as
be monitored during
subjects will
own individual
they are working at their
intensity.
The control
and habits
activity
(i. e.
increased
increased
personality,
(1973)
interest
levels,
physiological
manifest
are observed
among adult
changes
men in
to see not only if
if
It
fat,
to
be possible
to
image
and
body
psycho-physiological
found
by Young and Ismal
Study..
It
will
be of
males and females demonstrate psycho-
changes, but also whether different
manner.
will
postural
Purdue
changes
can be attributed
similar
as those
their
in
normal
body
percentage
they
programme.
their
physiological
decreased
ascertain
themselves
If
the study.
a conditioning
and also
physiological
a similar
fitness
in
the
correlate
changes
throughout
lean body weight)
participation
be asked to maintain
group will
cultures
react in
73
Null Hypotheses
Hypothesis I
There
postural
be no
will
body image,
Apparatus,
differences
significant
as measured by the
Slade
between a group of non-exercising
of
measures of
Russell
Estimation
women and a group of
womenwho have taken part in a twelve-week conditioning
Hypothesis
II
There
postural
programme.
be
will
no
differences
significant
body image, as measured by a novel
between a group of
have taken part
Hypothesis
There
measures
of
(an Abacus),
apparatus
women and a group of women who
non-exercising
in a twelve-week
of
conditioning
programme.
III
be no
will
differences
significant
of
measures of
somatotype, as measured by the Heath-Carter method, between a group
of non-exercising
a twelve-week
women and a group of women who have taken part
conditioning
in
programme.
Hypothesis IV
There
personality,
the
Cattell
will
be
no
differences
as measured by the Eysenk Personality
Sixteen
Personality
group of non-exercising
part
significant
in a twelve-week
Factor
measures of
of
Inventory
Questionnaire,
and
between a
women and a group of womenwho have taken
conditioning
programme.
SECTION3
METHODSAND PROCEDURES
74
SECTION3
METHODSAND PROCEDURE
3.1.
Subjects
The
subjects
Liverpool
with
volunteers
classes
an age range
who were
the
would
through
several
individual
education
It
The experimental
for
twelve
hours,
the
that
approximately
All
take
would
relationship
would last
be
the
part
in
so as not to discriminate
working
women or mothers
children.
session
Subjects
to
group
sessions
with
discuss
assigned
were
experimental
session
to
on their
on a regular
Subjects
either
group.
the
for
data
control
to
three
regime
a week
against
a
the end of the
physiological
willingness
basis
be
were offered
the experimenter-at
the
would
Weekend and
hours were made available
feedback
an
times
three
evening
15-minute
on
an exercise
was by appointment.
of small
between
conducted
subjects
hours
one-and-a-half
testing
for
group and a control
an experimental
if
They were informed
would
was explained
group
weeks.
and
were asked
subjects
investigating
a study
two
and
to two groups;
lasting
all
would be on two occasions,
basis.
assigned
exercise
of
were
subjects
adult
body image and personality.
the testing
testing
City
in the
All
years.
procedure
for
volunteer
one-and-a-half
for
18-37
of
recruited
recruitment
between exercise,
that
women who lived
and by word of mouth.
During
they
50 adult
were
obtained.
group
or
the
part
in
the
take
months.
75
The demographic characteristics
in age, occupation or marital
significantly
3.1.1.
Instrumentation
The
subjects
were
the time of agreeing
V02 max test
to
patients,
for
a period
(a full
tested
status.
that
Since
to ask all
hours
they would be undergoing
entailed
and Klaucy
(1974)
the body image estimation
affects
1.5
had been informed at
what this
of
Crisp
Human Performance
the
Each subject
explanation
was decided
of
come to
to participate
each subject).
it
to
asked
University.
food consumption
that
do not differ
and Procedure
Laboratory at Salford
given
and experimental
shown in the Appendix . The two groups
are
group
of the control
to
prior
in the same procedural
to refrain
subjects
All
testing.
a
had been
have shown
of anorexic
from eating
subjects
were
way: -
1.
Reception
2.
Personality
3.
Subjects then rested quietly
and preparatory
test
assessment questionnaires
in the supine position
for 15
minutes
4.
Body
image
(Slade
assessment
Body
Size
Estimation
Apparatus)
5.
Body image assessment (Abacus)
6.
Real size measurement
7.
Rest for 5 min supine position
8.
Anthropometric
9.
Ismail Fitness Criterion
3.1.2.
Personality
somatotype)
measurements.
Assessment
To assess the subject's
questionnaires
measurements (including
personality
were used: -
the following
two personality
76
1. The Eysenck Personality
was used to
following
sixteen
Postural
Apparatus
estimation
was used to
bar supported
(SEA) adapted
apparatus
measure the
body image distortion.
postural
(see
overpage).
-
as published:
Estimation
size
(1973)
Russell
it
two movable lights
mounted on a calibrated
moved along the track
a manual control
of
face,
darkened
the
room with
apparatus.
the
along
bar
instruct
the
position.
This
she wanted the
that
decision.
for
15 minutes
given
and hips.
waist
the
subject
The switch
was held
gave the subject
to be,
The subjects
prior
the following
the
lights
provided
were rested
to the test.
instructions:
Before
-
in a
out
carried
eliminating
were
maximum advantage
and it
of the width
in
the
in the
the
testing
need to
desired
in deciding
her the time
reclining
of
lights
the
movement of
subject,
when the
is
these
position
155 cm from the centre
controlling
experimenter
lights
her estimation
standing
by the
can be
by depressing
asked to
The test
up
The bar has
The lights
track.
is
to
corresponding
chest,
freely
move
can
bar
motor controlled
The subject
of
of a horizontal
at a chosen height.
by an electric
switch.
at a distance
her
to be fixed
and
and quality
quantity
The horizontal
on a tripod.
from Slade
The SEA consists
and down enabling
lights
technical
their
with
Body Image Assessment
(1) Slade Russell
The visual
the
was used to obtain
traits
personality
titles
and popular
3.1.3.
of each subject.
(1970) 16 PF Questionnaire
2. Cattells
and the
introversion-extraversion
assess the
neuroticism-stability
(Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964)
Inventory
where
to make
position
the subjects
were
77
Trait
or
Factor
Technical Title
(Popular Title
in Parentheses)
Designation
1A
Schizothymia- versus- Cyclothymia
(Aloof, Cold - versus - Warm, Sociable)
2B
Low "g" - versus - High "g"
(Dull,
Low Capacity - versus - Bright,
Intelligent)
Low Ego Strength - versus - High Ego Strength
(Emotional,
Unstable - versus - Mature, Calm)
3C
4E
Submissiveness - versus - Dominance
(Submissive, Mild
Dominant,
Aggressive)
versus
Desurgency - versus - Surgency
5F
(Glum, Silent
- versus
Enthusiastic,
-
Talkative)
6G
Low Super Ego Strength-versus
7H
(Casual, Undependable versus
Persistent)
Conscientious,
Threctia - versus - Parmia
(Timid, Shy versus
Skinned)
Adventurous,
Thick
-
8I
Harria - versus - Premsia
(Tough, Realistic
Sensitive,
versus
Inner Relaxation - versus
Protension
-
9L
(Trustful,
10
High Super Ego Strength
M
Praxernia
Adaptable
- versus
(Conventional,
11
N
12
0
13
Q1
14
Q2
15
Q3
16
Q4
- versus
Alaxia
-
Effeminate)
Suspecting,
-
Jealous)
Practical
Unconcerned)
Bohemian,
versus
Naivete - versus - Shrewdness
(Simple, Awkward versus
Polished)
Sophisticated,
Confidence - versus - Timidity
(Confident, Unshakable
Anxious)
Insecure,
versus
Conservatism - versus - Radicalism
(Conservative, Accepting
Critical)
Experimenting,
versus
Group Dependence - versus - Self-Sufficiency
(Dependent, Imitative
Self-Sufficient,
versus
Low Integration
Control
Self-Sentiment
versus
(Lax, Unsure - versus
Controlled,
Exact)
Low Ergic Tension - versus - High Ergic Tension
(Phlegmatic, Composed versus
Excitable)
Tense,
-
Resourceful)
78
All
us have a picture
of
body looks
for
like.
full
length
this
reflection
that
imagine
part
to
of
the
the
of
WIDTH of
I will
call
move the
lights
so that'the
from
points
be repeating
will
at a distance
body.
to the width
corresponds
idea
light
to
of that
light
body.
We
Take as much time
six times.
each part
body
area
other
of your
the
the
out
the
part
a
idea of
your
the lights
your
your
and you will
facing
you are standing
by positioning
parts
between
that
like
picture'is
I want you to indicate
mirror.
corresponds
various
eye of what our
I want to see what that
Try to
you.
in our mind's
as you like.
Each site
times;
was measured six
three
times
moving outward from the centre of the bar,
inwards from 100 cm apart,
The height
the
height
of 24 trials
a total
bar was adjusted
of the
body size
the distance
widths
and three times moving
of the horizontal
particular
by the
was recorded
After
giving
experimenter
the lights
with
being
per subject.
to correspond with
Each trial
measured.
a subdued torch
using
to
record
between the lights.
the trials
across
the
the subject's
were completed
four
body
parts
were
actual
body
measured using
an
anthropometer.
(2) Abacus -A
The postural
novel
Novel Body Width Dimension Self-Assessment Procedure
body image of each subject
body width
dimension
abacus. This consisted
an inch apart.
self-assessment
of two six-foot
Four rods with
was estimated by use of a
eight
device,
measuring
an
in
hooks
screwed
stands with
pointers
(two on each rod) were
79
used to estimate
of the four
the widths
arms length away from the horizontal
stood at their
The subjects
body sites.
rods which were
lengths of the subjects: -
then adjusted to the appropriate
1. Face (across the zygomas)
2. Chest (from axilla
3. Waist
(narrowest
4. Hips (widest
The subjects
point)
point)
were
of their
using the SEA apparatus
inwards
from
estimate
was recorded
3.1.4.
The
four
was followed;
from the centre
moving outwards
and instructed
blindfolded
then
to the widths
pointers
to axilla)
100 cm apart,
The same procedure
sites.
three
times with
of the rods,
giving
to move the
a total
and three
of
as
the pointers
times moving
24 trials.
Each
by the experimenter.
Somatotype
assessment
the
of
somatotype
involved
the
following
anthropomorphic measurements
1. Height (with shoes)
2. Weight (in
3. Muscle girth
5. Skinfolds
The sites
and tee shirt)
shorts
biceps
-
(using
and calves
Holtain
Caliper)
selected were:
(1) biceps, over the mid point of the muscle belly with the arm
resting
(2) triceps,
on the subject's
thigh;
over the mid point
upper arm hanging
(3) subscapular,
just
of the muscle belly
with
the
vertically;
below the tip
of the interior
the scapula, at an angle of 450 to the vertical
angle of
80
(4) suprailiac,
just
The body fat
percentage
Durnin
Heath-Carter
from the
rating
somatotype
rating
corresponding
circled
rating
height
marked on the
in
the
from that
subtracted
in
the
diameters
this
in
represents
which
the
is
left
from
rating
value
closest
of the body with
following
(1968)
the
using
and
is
by summing three
assessed
The
suprailiac.
and that
circled,
closest
column's
height
is
a figure
is
second component) - The subject's
For each bone diameter,
scale.
skinfold
and the
is
before
the
circled
the
the
only
from
measurement
the
derived
figure
of
result
columns,
values
exact
subtracted
circling
to
the
the
the
point
from the
is marked. The number of columns by which
either
counted.
the
is
skinfold
nearest
Considering
mean of
calf
girth,
to
nearest
measurement
of the calf
only
is
row which
girth,
deviates,
marked initially
or
skinfold
each subject
Carter
is
F-scale
on the
each case.
and girths
mean value
right
for
and
component)
row_ which
appropriate
subtraction
All
form.
appropriate
biceps
the
of
first
The triceps
measurement.
that
skinfold
and recorded.
Mesomorphy (the
circled
Heath
subscapular
value
hand side
right
was calculated
by
triceps,
(1967).
four
on a stool.
modified
Endomorphy (the
skinfolds;
mid
with the foot
the first
and Rhaman's tables
seated upright
A somatotype
using
was estimated
measurements were taken
method
the
on the floor.
measurements using
the
in
crest
over the mid point of the muscle belly
resting
the subject
iliac
the
line;
auxilliary
(5) calf,
below
four
is circled
to right
or left,
One then moves that
in
the
from the height
number of columns
second component rating.
and recorded.
The
81
the third
To obtain
from a nomogram (Heath and Carter,
value to the L-scale
the closest
3/weight
component, ectomorphy,
is found
1968) and recorded by circling
and the rating
for that column is
recorded.
for
The values
'anthropometrical
have a high
to
fitness
were obtained
(R2=0.881;
for
each individual
(1965).
The criterion
et al
out of
selected
variables
found
scores
of Ismail
the criterion
after
are recorded
Score Measurements
Fitness
fitness
Physical
scale
at the bottom of the form.
somatotype'
Ismail
3.1.5.
each component rating
52 collected
value
predictive
items.
based on
of six
consists
The criterion
physical
when assessing'
R=939) they were:
1. Exercise pulse rate
-1.329
2. Percent lean body weight
4.880
3. Max 02 uptake ml/kg lean body mass
2.502
4. Submaxmin vol vent/kg
5. Resting
diastolic
6. Resting
pulse
body weight
blood
-119.017
1.310
pressure
1.310
pressure
Constant
A variety
conditions
which consisted
61.9
and respiratory
of cardiovascular
under various
variables
demanded by the laboratory
were measured
test
protocol
of: -
a)
five minute rest period in reclining
b)
submaximal exercise
warm-up exercise
Sweden)
was
task
which
position
involved
at 450 kpm on a bicycle
a three
ergometer
minute
(Monark,
82
maximal exercise
c)
involving
task
kpm each two minutes until
loads of 150
incremental
maximal heart rates
age-related
were achieved.
d)
cool down period of two minutes at 450 kpm
e)
recovery
were determined
Heart
rates
using
the standardised
Respiratory
test
exercise
order
using
determine
to
rate
of
in the expired
the
of
the
gas exchange
air,
of
in
yielded
the maximum
(max V)2
of body weight
power or a
of oxygen supply to the
is
such,
as
and
systems,
working muscles by the cardio-respiratory
measure
in
percentages of
a measure of aerobic
for the delivery
measure of the capability
used
stages
analyses for the relative
ml. kg. mm-1). Thus max V02 is
often
all
ventilatory
per kilogramme
oxygen uptake capacity
most
in
Measurement Chart)
a Beckman Metabolic
oxygen and carbon dioxide
the
during
at rest,
and following
were measured during
maximal
(VE1) which, after
litres
pressures
phases.
variables
(by
technique
conditions
exercise
position
and blood
electrographically
auscultatory
warm-up and exhaustive
cool down and recovery
in reclining
of two minutes
period
cardio-respiratory
endurance
fitnesss.
3.1.6.
Exercise Conditioning
The exercise
programme was conducted at Huyton Leisure Centre for
hours three
one-and-a-half
duration.
description
Programme
Depending on
of
the
times a week, and was of twelve weeks
the
individual's
programme, in
a
ability,
sequential
follows: 1. Jogging for warm-up (10 min maximum)
2. Progressive calisthenics
(35 min maximum)
the
order,
general
is
as
83
3. Progressive
running
4. Recreational
Following
at least
the
activities
individual,
(30 min maximum)
hall,
in the sports
calisthenics
0.5 mile.
(15 min maximum)
The distance
and the
varied
distance
ran for
each individual
according
range observed
to the ability
in the
last
of
three
0.5
between
the
programme
was
and 1.5 miles.
of
weeks
The
volleyball,
experimental
sessions.
recreational
swimming
group
consisted
activities
and tennis.
managed
a
Each of
of
the
95% attendance
basketball,
subjects
at
the
in
the
exercise
SECTION4
RESULTS
84
A
crrTTAM
RESULTS
The descriptive
and
body
image
statistics
in Tables
utilising
the
measured prelevel
0.05
4.1.
t-test
of
significance.
of
form in Figures
were
appropriate
performed
numbers
various
programme are identified
at the
in
all
have been displayed
results
to
order
of
parameters
Furthermore,
data,
the
the
are
subjects
of
groups
changes in the
significant
psychological
analyses
with
and post-conditioning
interpretation
graphical
two
the
Statistical
5-13.
student's
freedom;
of
for
variables
presented
degrees
for the physiological,
assist
the
in
2-24.
General Characteristics
The age, height,
body weight,
changes in the non-exercising
body composition
and somatotype
groups are presented
and exercising
in Table 5 and Figures 2-10.
The non-exercising
weight
and have more body fat
programme
measures.
percentage
body fat
measures,
were not statistically
lean
and gained
the
non-exercising
body weight,
group
changes in the exercising
The body weight
of
on these
body weight
whilst
weight
there
and percentage
in
changes
no
were
changes during
pattern
significant.
the conditioning
of somatotype
endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy
Figures 6-10. Initially,
the non-exercising
body
These anthropometric
measures.
in the changing
and
In the post
significant.
group were statistically
and body fat
programme are reflected
ratings
group lost
in
differences
the
in body
group in the pre-
than the exercising
However,
the exercising
fat
heavier
group tended to be slightly
detailed
in
tendency
a
showed
group
85
endomorphy and lower mesomorphy ratings
higher
toward relatively
than the exercising
group,
groups were not statistically
in
changes
toward
tendency
in
conditioning
post
4.2.
and the elevation
in endomorphy
level,
the
little
with
toward
no
or
group,.
the
pattern
of
reduction
of
exercising
trends
as a
as well
shöwed a general
in
resulted'
of muscularity.
Ismail Fitness Score
The means, standard
variables
score.
are
deviations
by beta
multiplied
There were no significant
on the six
variables,
pre-programme
..
in
Thus,
The
ectomorphy.
a reduction
mesomorphy rating
rating.
changes
and
p<0.05
programme results
body composition
rotundness
the
at
an elevated
ectomorphy
towards
showed no
subjects
mesomorphy
endomorphy,
was significant
which
change
the non-exercising
group showed a trend
exercising
rating
their
The post-conditioning
significant.
showed that
programme results
between the two
but the differences
in decreasing
differences
Fitness
were
Ismail
increased
(p<0.01).
The exercising
Score for
There
were
group
"maximum oxygen
the group was
no
significant
between the two groups at pre-programme on the Ismail
Score; however, the post-programme results
significant
exercising
results
scores on the variable
in the variable
Fitness
on the
score
programme
Fitness Score (p<0.05).
and the final
criterion
there was a significant
and as a result
increases
the
give
fitness
on the
differences
demonstrated significant
of the
errors
between the two groups
post-conditioning
decrease in the Ismail
significantly
differences
The
"maximum oxygen uptake",
uptake"
to
weights
and consequently
scores.
showed significant
and standard
group,
differences
and
the
between
magnitude
the
of
indicate
non-exercising
the
changes
there
and
was
86
statistically
(p<0.01).
significant
for
The results
Ismail
the
Fitness Score are shown in Table 6 and Figure 11.
4.3. Personality
Data
The means,
personality
Higher
the
in Tables
Inventory
for
non-exercising
the exercising
the
the
of
emotional
stability.
scale
both
at
the
scale
of
and post-
pre-
The mean values
group.
denoting
programme,
conditioning
For both groups the mean values
of the
programme tests
neuroticism
for
from a mean of 11.28 to 9.64 at the
group decreased
conclusion
programme
12-20 respectively'.
on the
were observed
of the
errors
and post-conditioning
Personality
programme tests
version
pre-
and standard
7-10 and Figures
mean values
Eysenck
the
at
variables
are presented
deviations
standard
EPI were almost
identical,
Comparable scores on the lie
the extra-
and the
post-
both groups.
decrease'for
showed a slight
for
greater
(psychotism)
scale
of the EPI were
observed for both groups at pre- and post-programme tests.
and final
The initial
errors
for
presented
Personality
both
groups
graphically
are
in
Questionnaire.
Factor A (aloof
in
presented
Figures
17-20 for
testing.
and standard
8-10,
and are
the Cattell
Sixteen
Tables
No mean sten scores were observed on
and cold vs. warm and sociable)
post-programme
non-exercising
deviations
means, standard
On both
group indicated
that
occasions
it
at either
the
pre- or
means for
was the more stable
the
of the
two groups.
At both prehad above normal
and post-programme
means on Factor
means of the exercising
tests,
B (dull
the non-exercising
group
intelligent).
The
vs.
group were observed to be normal.
Both
87
groups increased their
5.36-5.88,
post-test
and
respectively.
C (emotionally
On Factor
the exercising
Both
groups
vs. mature and calm) both
found
were
to
E) on their
but on the post-
increase in their
group showed a slight
(Factor
aggressive
unstable
had normal sten scores,
groups at the pre-test
tests
from 6.52-7.00
sten scores,
be markedly
mean.
more dominant
and
than their
post-programme tests
pre-tests.
F (glum and silent
On Factor
the pre- and post-programme occasions,
the
norm, whilst
the pre-test,
the
and talkative)
vs. enthusiastic
at
both groups had means above
group had a sten score of 6.04 at
exercising
which was reduced to 5.56 at the post-test.
Both groups tended to have means below the test norm on Factor
G (casual vs. conscientious),
At
both
the
both initially
the
and post-programme
pre-
and finally.
non-exercising
(shy
Factor
H
scored above average on
vs. adventurous)
an adventurous group. The exercising
4.76,
score
of
sten
a
indicating
occasion,
which increased to 5.20 at the post-testing
that
the treatment
may have had an effect.
the mean of the non-exercising
the normal range. The exercising
within
indicating
group at the pre-programme had
In the case of Factor I (tough and realistic
effeminate)
group
found
be
to
was
group
group at the pre-test
sten score of 5.16, which decreased to 4.84,
and
vs. sensitive
had a
an average score, on
the post-programme testing.
On Factor L (trustful
jealous)
and
and adaptable vs. suspecting
both groups scored above average. This could possibly
to
the
alien
trauma of
territory
visiting
to all
be attributed
the Human Performance Laboratory,
subjects.
an
88
The
non-exercising
(conventional
vs.
unconcerned)
means on
M
they were slightly
that
suggesting
Factor
than the exercise group, who were found to fall
more unconventional
the normal range in pre- and post-testings.
within
N (simple
Both groups on Factor
were found to fall
and polished)
the fitness
after
higher
had
group
The
Factor
sophisticated
the normal range before
within
and
programme.
group
exercise
0 (confident
pre-test,
and awkward vs.
and unshakable
insecure
vs.
but both groups had similar
have a higher
to
were observed
mean on
at the
and anxious)
mean scores on the post-test,
which were in the normal range.
On Factor
critical)
Q1 (conservative
and accepting
both groups at the pre- and post-tests
means for the norms of this
for each group, both initially
On Factor Q3 (lax and unsure vs. controlled
mean values were observed for
no change for
relatively
of
6.52
the non-exercising
excitable)
Q4 (phlegmatic
hand, the exercising
value at the pre-test,
post-test,
programme.
showing that
but this
and exact)
similar
group,
with
but a slight
group had a high mean value
and composed vs.
which only decreased slightly
On the other
and finally.
group.
the non-exercising
on Factor
Q2 (dependent vs.
both groups (4.88 and 5.04),
decrease to 4.80 for the exercising
At the pre-test
had above normal
test.
Above normal means are observed on Factor
self-sufficient)
and
vs. experimenting
tense
and
to 6.28 in the post-test.
initial
had
an
group
had decreased significantly
high mean
at the
they were more composed post-conditioning
89
4.4.
Body Image
body image index for each part was obtained from the
A postural
ratio:
Body Image Index
= Perceived Size
x 100
Real Size
Perceived size was determined for each body by taking
the
Out Trials
three
for
trials
part
the "Total"
for
the six trials
the
"In"
"Out"
the
a calibrated
90-110 range.
(1978) that
is
testing
is
followed
(1978).
here,
In this
their
that
all
(1975),
In their
control
their
their
for
study,
if
study
sum index
within
the
and below 90
has been assumed by Kessler
in
point
defining
an index
Slade and Russell
had estimated
subjects
IQ
and non-distortions
index
range has been
range seemed
considering
(1976)
in
a
100 was defined
The use of this
study,
but rather
normality
of only
the 90-100
Garner et al
group of anorexic
falling
as the
between distortions
group subjects
indices
of the
accurate
is not a discrete
reasonable for the purposes of this
of
sites
image (for
It
accepted as the range of accuracy.
Blanchard
of the four
as over-estimation
established
discrimination
lost.
be
would
of the body
size"
body size
defined
body size
accurate
as accurate,
study,
of body image.
The convention
range.
the width
Above 110 is defined
as under-estimation
or "real
In
caliper.
SEA and Abacus)
the
and the mean of the
score,
The actual
scores.
For the purpose of this
both
score and the mean of each of the
by measuring
was obtained
body with
for
the mean of
the findings
White
Quinn
and
and
(1973) noted that
within
this
range, but
had estimated well
between 127 and 158.
all
outside,
90
The means, standard
deviations
and standard
for
errors
the
body image as measured by the SEA are presented in Table
postural
12 and as histograms in Figures 21-22.
Overall,
in
simiilar
differences
both
groups,
between them.
Waist,
both
outside
the accepted
the
pre
mean
pre-
"Chest
value
lower
testings.
Out"
On the
index
but
score,
test.
but this
"ascending"
were
three
sites
(In)
and high
all
pre-
index
of
a
the
at
tended
subjects
to
and post-programme
subjects
are
index score on
on their
slightly
mean scores
group on
113.44
to
post-
and post-
pre-
body widths
when the
recorded
lights
for
the
subjects
have lower
and standard error
scores for
of Face, Chest and Waist,
body mean scores on their
but
all
hips.
The means, standard deviations
the postural
all
in estimating
programme had difficulty
an accurate
and
scores
the exercise
again
sites
Chest
Face,
group had an accurate
four
On all
for
site,
increased
fundamental
demonstrated
increased
on both
mean scores
any
of
tests
On the "Hips"
testing.
sites
except
this
study are essentially
reveal
who displayed
Again the exercising
programme
not
three
range,
trial,
106.5,
index
"Out"
their
do
and
and post-programme
of
post-programme
have
in this
the body image indices
body image as measured by the Abacus are presented in
Table 13 and as histograms in Figures 23-24.
All
subjects
on their
"Face" site
tended to have high mean
values which were outside the accuracy index on all
On the Chest site,
'values on their
Index,
pre- and post-programme tests
but on their
The exercising
the non-exercising
group,
"Out" scores were within
on the Total
trials.
group had high mean
on their
Total
Body
the accuracy index.
Index and the Out means, were
91
Both groups again had a tendency to
the accuracy range.
within
chest widths on the ascending trials.
their
over-estimate
Both groups had similar
scores on the Waist Total
group were just
again on the Out scores the non-exercising
index,
the accuracy
scores,
but
within
group had lower mean values
but the exercise
of
98.17 and 104.8 respectively.
for
The pre- and post-programme tests
Total
and Hips Out were within
both
groups were more accurate
both groups on the Hips
the accepted mean values but again
in their
estimation
on the
scores
Out trials.
On all
four
body widths;
when they were asked to bring
scored high over-estimation
4.5.
who attended
an exercise
would
have a less
distortion
the
the
is.
Thus,
it
accurate
a non-exercising
programme,
body image;
postural
as being
narrower
be expected
that
that
or wider
the
they
it
than
of
as measured on the SEA and Abacus would be greater
for
would
group
than
group
non-exercising
scores
conditioning
magnitude
non-exercising
postural
in comparison to a group of subjects
body width
their
would perceive
actually
the pegs inwards they
to the SEA scores.
scores similar
was hypothesised that
group
in estimating
of Body Image
Distortion
It
had difficulty
subjects
all
sites
for
would
body image as indicated
the
group,
exercising
have
by the
a
less
range
and that
well-articulated
of
the
individual
Abacus.
SEA
the
and
on
of the distortion
The means and standard deviations
each body part
for
non-exercising
and exercising
shown in Table 14. The mean distortion
were summed to obtain
scores for
subjects
are
body
for
part
each
scores
the sum of the means. In this
calculation
the
92
direction
was taken into
of the distortion
distortion
was in the direction
it
assigned a plus score, and if
it
estimation
therefore
In order
was in the direction
by the addition
to obtain
the
it
was
of an under-
it
of whether
was an under-
each body part
difference
the
highest
was calculated
lowest
and the
The sum of the range was obtained
trials.
responses over the eight
of the sum
sign.
of each subject
between the
the
or over-estimation,
ignoring
scores
amount of distortion
This consisted
was calculated.
of the means of the distortion
A range score for
of signs.
a measure of the total
magnitude of distortion
by taking
of an over-estimation
if
was assigned a minus score. The sum of the means was
affected
regardless
i. e.,
account,
by summing the range scores of each body part for each subject.
In Table 14 the means, standard deviations
for
scores
Direction
higher
at the
pre-
group.
means on all
means for
SEA are
non-exercising
tests
than
Both groups at the post-programme
four
exercising
at
the
The
group
are
those
test
of
the
decreased
means on the Face site were similar
and post-programme tests.
of Chest, Waist and Hips, the non-exercising
mean scores
shown.
sites.
both groups at the pre-
their
the
and post-programme
The Range of Distortion
sites
by the
as measured
groups
Distortion
of
exercising
their
both
and standard error
and
pre-
group. Again it
post-programme
was observed that
On the
for
three
group had higher
tests
than
the
both groups decreased
mean values at the post-programme test.
The Range Scores for
both groups were significantly
at the post-programme tests,
the greater
decrease in their
with the non-exercising
mean value.
decreased
group showing
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FIGURE2
104
Exercisers
E
of the Non-Exercisers and
Pre- and Post-Conditioning Programme
General Characteristics
1150
0
Co
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C7
w
I 100
1 50
10
HEIGHT
FIGURE3
POST-
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As above - Weight
m
U,
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C7
W
30.
WEIGHT
PRE
--
POST
-
STUDY
GROUPS
PRE/POST
NON
EX
1
PRE/POST
EXERCISERS
105
FAT
BODY
FIGURE 4%
ale
I. 0
0
m
PRE
FIGURE5
POST
LEAN BODYWEIGHT
Z;
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2-c-l
POST
PRE
PRE/POST NON EX
FIGURES4&5General Characteristics
of
the Non-Exercisers and Exercisers Pre- and
Post-Conditioning
Programme
PRE/POSTEXERCISERS
106
FIGURE6
SOMATOTYPE
ENDOMORPHY
OF NONHEATH-CARTER
ANDEXERCISERS
EXERCISERS
PRE- ANDPOSTCONDITIONINGPROGRAMME
SCORES
M
-v
Rý
rn
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co
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108
FIGURE 7
(ECTOMORPHY
RATING
CARTER
HEATH
-
2.0
8
2
1.0
8
4
2
- PRE-
FIGURE8
- POST
-
(MESOMORPHY
RATING)
HEATH
CARTER
-
S
1
6
5
4
3
2
- PRE--
NONEXERCISERS
O
EXERCISERS
POST
Figures 7&8Heath-Carter
Somatotype
Of Non-Exercisers
Preand Exercisers
Programme
and Post-Conditioning
PRE
108
MESOMORPHY
Y
10
0
;TOMORPHY
ENDOI
fIIIIIIII.
III11
_10
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POST
06X
MESOMORPHY
*
EXERCISERS
NON
Y
10
0
OMORPHY
ENDO!
10-
1III1t111I1t
FIGURES9 AND 10
Somatocharts (Heath-Carter) of the Non-Exercisers
Programme
Exercisers Pre- and Post-Conditioning
and
109
FIGURE 11 - PHYSICAL FITNESS SCORESBASEDON THE ISMAIL ET AL
CRITERION OF NON-EXERCISERS
AND EXERCISERSPREAND POST- CONDITIONINGPROGRAMME
HI
M
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110
FIGURE 12 - EYSENCKPERSONALITYINVENTORY
(! )
W
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v
NEURQTICISM
SCALE
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
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2
1
a PRE»
11POST»
FIGURE13
EXTRAVERSION
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111
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112
ERS
FIGURES 15 AND 16 - EYSENCKPERSONALITYINVENTORYPRE- AND POSTCONDITIONING PROGRAMME
113
SCORES
LI
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114
SCORES
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115
SCORES
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116
SCORES
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117
180
180
170
170
160
160
150
150
140
140
130
130
120
120
110
110
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
7n
TOTAL
FACE
IN
OUT
160
150
150
140
140
130
130
-----d
120
120
110
110
100
100
90
90
80
80
7n
w
7n
TOTAL
WAIST
-----"
TOTAL
CHEST
160
IN
OUT
a-j
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IN
OUT
---'---+
1xx
6
TOTAL
IN
OUT
HIPS
PRE
NON
EXERCISE
PRE
FIGURE21 - BODYIMAGE(SLADE-RUSSELL)
PRE-CONDITIONING
PROGRAMME
118
z10
200
190
180
180
170
170
160
160
150
150
140
140
130
130
120
120
110
110
100
100
90
90
80
An
M
70
FACE
IN
OUl
GNE31
TOTAL
160
160
150
150
140
140
130
130
120
120
110
110 --- -
100
100
90
90
80
80
TO
70
WAIST
-----
TOTAL
TOTAL "
PRENON
EXERCISE
PRE
IN
OUT
HIPS
TOTAL
OUT
IN
.
IN
FIGURE22 - BODYIMAGE(ABACUS)
PRE-CONDITIONING
PROGRAMME
0Ul
ýM
119
180
6AA
170
170
160
160
150
150
140
140
IOU
r.......
130
130
44 aaraay
----a
i. ---~--
120
120
110
110
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
7n
a
TOTAL
FACE
IN
TOTAL
CHEST
OUT
ion
OUT
ten
iuu
150
luu
150
140
140
130
130
120
120
110
110
100
100
90
9.0
80
80
-7n
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-in
TOTA
L
WAIST
'-"-'
IN
IN
OUT
TOTAL
IN
HIPS
POST
NON
FIGURE 23 - BODY IMAGE (SLADE RUSSELL)
EXERCISE
POST
POST-CONDITIONINGPROGRAMME
OUT
120
210
200
190
180
180
170
170
160
160
150
150
140
140
130
130
120
120
110
110
100
/-J//zY
100
90
80
80
70
TOTAL
Mt
OUT
IN
w...
cntsI
I
160
150
140
140
130
130
120 ------
120
110
110
100
100
90
90
80
80
7o
70
TOTAL
IN
POST
NON
POST
EXERCISE
OUT
TOTAL
OUT
IN
t%
IOU
150
WAIST
-----
90
--------
HIPS
TOTAL
IN
FIGURE 24 - BODY IMAGE (ABACUS)
POSTCONDITIONING
PROGRAMME
OUT
121
Face were similar
both groups. Again at the other three sites
for
mean scores at the pre-
group had higher
the non-exercising
means observed for the
of Distortion
In Table 15 the Direction
post-programme tests
the
than
exercising
There
group.
and
was a
mean value at the post-
tendency for both groups to decrease their
programme test.
means at the four
On the Range of Distortion
were observed to have similar
the
was used to
among 34 anthropometric,
relationships
and body image variables
Coefficient
Matrices
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation
determine
both groups
mean values.
Analysis of Correlation
4.6.
sites,
selected from the original
personality
56 variables
at
pre- and post-programme tests.
An attempt was made to present the
most meaningful
among the
relationships
Therefore
selected
illustrate
such relationships.
4.6.1.
Correlation
Anthropometric,
Table
data.
Personality
16 contains
for
variables
Matrix
both
significance
with
50 subjects
to
on
Groups
Both
-
for
the pre-programme
0.96.
With
to
from
ranged
-0.74
of freedom a correlation
of 0.273
is
required
for
level.
0.05
the
at
Among the anthropometric
0.61
order
of the 34 selected
the inter-corrrelations
coefficients
interest.
Pre-Programme Data
the
and Body Image Variables
groups of
The correlation
48 degrees
for
of
in
discussed
are
coefficients
variables
estimated
variables
percentage
measured, weight correlated
body
fat
Heath-Carter
endomorphy component of
the
Fitness
-0.27 with weight,
Score correlated
and 0.96
somatotype.
-0.59 with
with
the
The Ismail
percentage
f
122
body fat,
factor
with the EPI extraversion
0.34, with
sociable)
mature
and calm),
and jealous),
controlled
and exact).
C (emotionally
Factor
L (trustful
Factor
with
suspecting
measured, the EPI neuroticism
variables
with
-0.34
vs.
and accepting
0.28.
Among the personality
correlated
and cold vs. warm and
Q1 (conservative
Factor
and critical)
factor
the
psychotism
and
-0.24
the 16PF Factor A (aloof
and with
experimenting
factor
vs.
and adaptable
Factor
Q3 (lax
The EPI extraversion
factor
and with
vs.
unstable
vs.
and unsure
correlated
0.29
with Factor A, with Factor E (submissive and mild vs. dominant and
aggressive)
0.27
enthusiastic
and talkative)
Factor
with
and
vs. sensitive
(phlegmatic
0.52
0.63.
Waist
of inter-correlation
for
0.58.
This
shows that
the
coefficients
All
variables
coefficients.
the
anthropometric,
showed similar
for
the
similar
Q4
with Chest Total
there
is a degree
variables.
the post-programme
personality
inter-relationships
and post-measurements
inter-relationships
pre-programme correlation
(Separate matrices were calculated
groups because pre-
Factor
ranged from -0.66 to 0.96.
Amongthe anthropomorphic variables
were observed as commented on in
the
of the 34 selected
inter-correlations
both groups of 50 subjects
data. The correlation
matrix.
0.51 and with
0.21 with
correlatd
amongst these 34 selected
Table 17 contains
variables
Face Total
with
The Hips Total
Total
vs.
those measured by the SEA,
and composed vs. tense and excitable)
and with
silent
0.26 with Factor I (tough and realistic
and effeminate),
Waist Total
and
0.56.
Amongst the Body Image variables,
the Chest Total correlated
(glum
F
image
and
body
and
correlation
for pre- and post-
independent.
not
are
123
Table 18 shows the correlations
magnitude
distortion
of
0.93.
Among the direction
significantly
distortion
the
correlated
level
similar
at
the
and the
scores
sites
to
were
A
significance.
of
for
0.17
from
four
all
level
p<0.05
the magnitude
of
The inter-correlations
range scores.
of direction,
scores
ranged
can be observed
of significance
scores
three
coefficients
of distortion
SEA
as measured by the
and range scores
The correlation
pre-programme.
of distortion,
of the direction
magnitude
of
and range show an inter-
I
which can be seen to be significant.
relationship
Table
i
distortion,
the inter-correlations
of distortion
magnitude
4
image
19 contains
as
measured
by
and range scores
Abacus
the
of the direction
programme.
The
for
the
of
body
correlation
i
i
range from 0.251 to 0.77.
coefficients
r
s
in
t
i
i
i
the
SEA table
significant
In
are
observed;
all
The same trends
correlation
Tables
correlation
This
S
t
coefficients
are shown. Virtually
high degree of
at the p<0.05 level.
are significant
inter-correlation
amongst the variables
When the same variable
each subject,
of univariate
a repeated
of Variance
is measured on several
measures design
should
occasions
for
be used.
The
repeated measures design is one in which two measurements
are obtained
scores).
results
of variance.
4.7. Repeated Measures Analysis
simplest
for
each subject
The data
is
then
(e. g. pre-
analysed
with
and post-programme test
a paired
t-test.
advantages of using the repeated measures design are firstly
w
i
are
20-21 show the post-programme body image data as
should be borne in mind when interpreting
analysis
coefficients
level.
the
p<0.05
at
Abacus
SEA
by
the
and
respectively
measured
all
as observed
The
that
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130
it
fewer experimental
requires
subjects,
differences,
on their
control
hypothesis
from the experimental error.
measures of analysis
by transforming
combinations
transformation
is
linear
and then analysing
the variables
In
difference
the
the null
tests
of variance
differences.
their
of
due to differences
i. e. variability
between subjects can be eliminated
Repeated
is
there
that
and secondly
the
the
t-test
paired
between the values
for
each
subject.
Table
for
22 contains
the
general
The
whilst
the exercising
differences
significant
at
programme differences.
again
group
and
the. non-exercising
pre-
and
Height
are,
their
group showed no
and
post-programme
group were observed
to have highly
pre-
between
p<0.001
their
differences
Body Fat,
the
at
and post-
pre-
There were no significant
showed
variance
of Weight showed significant
group on Percentage
the non-exercising
of
groups
Age
of
between
differences
analysis
both
of
variables
between the groups;
significant
measures
However, the variable
non-significant.
measures,
repeated
characteristics
post-programme.
differences
the
changes again
for
but the exercising
level
p<0.05
this
on
variable.
Table 23 the
In
Endomorphy component for
decrease
the
in this
p<0.05
Ectomorphy,
the exercising
component,
level.
On the
and it
other
there
between pre-
was statistically
significant
at
two components,
Mesomorphy
and
were
between pre-
differences
tests.
In Table 24, showing the
that
group showed a significant
both groups had no significant
and post-programme
The
components are displayed.
Heath-Carter
highly
Ismail
significant
and post-programme
Fitness
Score,
for
was observed
both
groups
The non-exercising
group
differences
results.
it
131
showed', a
statistically
significant
their
scores
p<0.001 level.
the
at
group had a significant
ficant
in
decrease
significant
increase in their
scores, which was signi-
at the p<0.001 level.
between their
extraversion
decrease
significant*
programme tests
differences
In
the
at
Table
level.
There
difference
between their
statistically
significant.
in Table 27. On the first
for
estimated
both groups,
and
measures of Chest-In,
scores',
exercising
the
group
p<0.05
non-exercising
level.
level.
the
Again
group
It
E for
the
showing a slight
scores,
were
was a significant
post-scores,
at
group
levels.
the
on the
at
ascending
decrease
and
p<0.001
Waist
On the
ascending
showed differences
was observed
on the
whilst
showed a significant
exercising
p<0.01
group again on the
level
the
p<0.05
at
decrease
group showed a decrease
non-exercising
only
but on the Face In measurement
The non-exercising
both groups
non-
at
although
the
and
Factor
group there
non-exercising
pre-
shown
and post-programme
showed a significant
between their
and post-
as measured by the SEA, are displayed
decrease at the p<0.01 level.
Chest Total
pre-
measures of the Face, Total and In, there
for
the
a
showed
groups
both groups.
was for
factors,
pre-
The Body Image estimates,
were no differences
for
p<0.05
were no significant
are
difference
group. No other
non-exercising
p<0.001
between their
16PF variables
significant
both
scores
p<0.01
26- the
on NEUR at the
again
in their
both groups
for
scale
on the Lie Scale (psychotism)
statistical
their
tests
and post-programme
pre-
On the
'level.
the
was
The exercising
The EPI Components in Table 25 had differences
the
which
Total
between their
waist
that
measures
measures of the
the
scores
scores
decreased
in
to
at
the
the
Hips Total
132
group decreased their
and the Hips In that again the non-exercising
manner at the p<0.01
in
to
a significant
scores
prepost-programme
and p<0.001 levels
respectively.
Table
in
Abacus
the
are shown
using
The Body Image estimates
28. It
significant
for
are
i. e.
measurements,
the
All
for
significant
shown to
statistically
level;
all
four
the
level;
were not
group.
The exercising
from
be increases
statistically
group were
measures which
were
On Face Out measurements
Chest
Total
the
at
the
p<0.05
These measures were
at the 0.05 level.
and on the Hips Total
observed
on the
level.
significance
body parts
between tests.
p<0.001
to
p<0.05
ascending
between the
occurred
and post-programme
pre-
significant
was at
at
scores
the non-exercising
have three
the
which are
on the
group
decrease
a
where
Face In,
changes on all
other
differences
statistical
non-exercising
and post-programme
pre-
it
the only
was observed that
to
pre-
post-programme
scores.
4.8.
Principal
Principal
Components Analysis
component analysis
the orignal,
replacing
(the
variables
each other.
inter-correlated
Principal
the data by
is used to simplify
with a set of new
variables
The components are extracted
such that
each component
in order accounts for the maximumremaining variance possible
the constraints
amount for
The
weightings
a large
Principal
is
most useful
proportion
when the
of the total
first
variation
Components can be interpreted
of the original
variables
under
(orthogonal).
that components be uncorrelated
The technique
with
Components) which are uncorrelated
few components
in the data.
by examining
in the components.
the
133
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TABLE26
MEASURES
OF ANALYSISOF VARIANCE
REPEATED
PREAND
ANDNON-EXERCISERS
PSYCHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
OF EXERCISERS
(CATTELL16PF)
PROGRAMME
POSTCONDITIONING
PRE
CATTELL 16PF
VARIABLE
X
F RATIO P VALUE SIGNIF.
POST
SD
X
SD
A. Non-Exerciser
4.88
1.58
4.60
1.91
1.090
0.306
NS
Exerciser
B. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
C. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
5.16
6.52
5.36
5.32
5.60
1.51
1.52
1.95
1.46
1.62
4.80
7.00
5.88
5.40
5.96
1.72
1.52
1.94
1.32
1.42
1.620
2.370
2.690
0.107
1.690
0.210
0.136
0.114
0.746
0.205
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
E. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
F. Non-Exerciser
5.80
5.72
5.60
2.48
2.32
1.64
6.60
6.44
5.68
2.56
2.08
1.64
5.260
3.010
0.137
0.031
0.095
0.714
*
NS
NS
6.04
1.48
5.56
2.00
2.540
0.123
NS
4.56
4.36
5.16
4.76
4.16
5.16
6.44
6.28
5.36
4.96
5.76
1.38
1.41
1.48
1.68
1.82
1.82
1.38
1.24
1.49
1.53
2.00
4.56
4.52
5.20
5.20
4.84
4.84
6.76
6.00
5.60
4.76
5.52
1.60
1.94
1.67
1.74
1.97
1.91
1.27
2.05
1.78
1.17
1.74
0.000
0.354
0.045
2.140
3.770
1.060
2.620
0.700
0.850
0.750
0.683
1.000
0.557
0.832
0.156
0.064
0.311
0.119
0.410
0.365
0.390
0.417
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
5.76
1.60
5.40
1.78
1.250
0.273
NS
4.80
5.48
6.64
6.64
5.64
5.08
4.88
5.14
6.52
6.04
1.69
1.52
1.64
1.87
1.69
2.11
1.60
2.04
1.20
1.58
4.96
4.92
6.88
6.48
5.84
5.36
4.76
4.80
6.28
5.56
1.98
1.89
1.63
2.17
1.78
2.41
1.65
1.76
1.61
1.49
0.324
2.290
0.633
0.151
1.000
0.701
0.137
0.429
0.570
1.600
0.574
0.143
0.434
0.701
0.327
0.410
0.714
0.519
0.457
0.218
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Exerciser
G. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
H. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
1. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
L. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
M. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
N. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
0. Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
Q1.Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
Q2.Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
Q3.Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
Q4.Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
NS: P>0.05, *: 0.01<P<0.05
138
TABLE27 REPEATED
MEASURES
ANALYSISOF VARIANCE
SLADERUSSELLAPPARATUS
AND
BODYIMAGECHARACTERISTICS
OF NONEXERCISERS
EXERCISERS
PREAND
T CONDITIONING
PROGRAMME
PRE
X
FACE- TOTAL
F RATIO P VALUE SIGNIF.
POST
SD
X
SD
Non-Exerciser
137.46 18.46
131.75 21.4
1.64
0.212
NS
Exerciser
127.92 24.23
128.74 13.0
0.213
0.648
NS
FACE-OUT
Non-Exerciser
124.12 17.24
128.5
20.81
1.05
0.315
NS
Exerciser
117.07 22.51
125.07 27.72
3.98
0.057
NS
150.75 24.96
138.75 27.57
135.04 24.56
132.39 33.38
8.21
0.85
0.009
0.366
**
NS
130.44 17.53
116.48 16.24
124.34 16.63
114.87 13.87
6.12
0.622
0.021
0.438
NS
117.89 17.78
106.54 14.92
119.22 15.39
113.44 14.60
0.226
2.39
0.638
0.135
NS
NS
143.06 19.72
126.40 19.66
128.76 20.44
116.34 14.31
15.76
9.20
0.001
0.006
***
**
132.53 14.06
120.86 14.07
124.97 12.48
121.43 12.12
5.50
0.046
0.028
0.831
NS
122.63 16.26
114.42 15.85
122.21 12.06
119.71 12.76
0.128
1.34
0.723
0.257
NS
NS
142.35 14.42
127.33 15.46
127.73 15.13
123.16 13.26
16.63
2.19
0.000
0.152
***
NS
119.88 12.68
113.26 15.15
113.87 10.44
112.03 12.53
7.52
0.223
0.011
0.641
**
NS
111.48 14.01
106.87 14.76
109.99 9.74
111.70 13.09
3.27
0.131
0.083
0.720
NS
NS
128.77 13.79
119.67 17.52
117.76 12.90
112.33 13.13
15.67
2.44
0.001
0.131
***
NS
FACE - IN
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
CHEST - TOTAL
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
CHEST- OUT
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
HEST- IN
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
WAIST- TOTAL
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
WAIST- OUT
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
AIST - IN
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
HIPS - TOTAL
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
HIPS - OUT
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
HIPS - IN
Non-Exerciser
Exerciser
NS: p>0.05, *: 0.01<p<0.05, **:
0.001<p<0.01, ***:
p<0.001
139
TABLE28
ANALYSISOF VARIANCE
REPEATED
MEASURES
PRE
ANDEXERCISERS
ABACUSBODYIMAGECHARACTERISTICS
OF NON-EXERCISERS
AND POSTCONDITIONING
PROGRAMME
ABACUS
X
ACE - TOTAL
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
ACE - OUT
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
ACE - IN
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
HEST- TOTAL
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
HEST - OUT
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
;HEST- IN
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
DAIST- TOTAL
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
DAIST- OUT
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
DAIST - IN
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
TIPS - TOTAL
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
HIPS - OUT
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
HIPS - IN
Non-Exercisers
Exercisers
POST
PRE
SD
X
F RATIO
P VALUE SIGNIF.
SD
175.95 25.87
152.02 28.47
170.66 26.67
161.31 39.53
0.938
3.81
0.342
0.063
NS
NS
144.84 29.70
123.22 25.18
153.33 29.34
141.08 41.53
2.66
0.116
NS
15.34
0.001
***
31.32
39.31
188.02 33.76
181.55 41.24
7.121
0.016
0.013
0.900
NS
117.35 18.78
107.64 11.67
116.47 17.07
109.44 16.95
0.639
0.423
NS
7.26
0.013
*
105.17 18.45
93.90 16.55
108.57 17.15
100.98 19.92
0.508
0.178
0.483
0.676
NS
NS
129.51 24.26
121.26 12.42
124.34 21.64
117.89 17.71
2.91
0.106
0.101
0.747
NS
NS
121.08 16.02
115.95 15.64
120.3 17.5
116.23 19.7
0.013
0.495
0.909
0.488
NS
NS
107.11 18.09
98.17 21.19
111.35 18.09
104.82 23.25
0.086
0.771
NS
0.756
0.393
NS
135.05 20.36
133.74 17.47
129.14 21.46
127.66 20.85
1.43
2.04
0.243
0.166
NS
NS
110.8 14.94
109.61 10.56
111.32 14.87
113.39 13.33
0.792
5.46
0.382
0.028
NS
*
14.95
15.55
102.94 13.99
100.54 15.92
0.443
0.464
0.512
0.502
NS
NS
121.45 13.34
123.60 12.55
119.68 17.97
126.5 13.58
0.005
2.42
0.941
0.132
NS
NS
206.7
180.7
96.96
95.63
NS: P>0.05, *: 0.01<P<0.05, **:
0.001<P<0.01, ***:
P<0.001
140
Principal
(a)
Components Analysis was used in this
investigate
to
inter-relationships
study: -
amongst the
original
variables
(b)
to identify
in
This
the major direction
(i)
personality
(ii)
body image
(iii)
somatotype
to
order
look
analysis,
is
to
canonical
which is not used here because it
is highly
to departures
sensitive
between these components.
correlations
technique
statistical
correlation
at
an
alternative
from normality
in the data.
Each subject can be given a principal
is given by the following
PC Score
=
in: -
of variation
components score and this
formula: -
Pý
wi
xi
i=1
p variables
weightings
sum over
wi
all
and the
p variables
for
value
deviation
from the mean for
Principal
Components Analysis
that
the
the
of
product
variables
xi
of
the
as
expressed
variable.
entails
the weightings
calculating
wie
In
Table
factors
personality
Principal
variance,
29 the
Component
the
highest
So PC1 represents
(positive
extraversion
neuroticism
of
the
factor
component coefficients
EPI and the
16PF are
1 (PC1),
which
accounts
negative
weighted
score
(negative
PC1 score)
extraversion
PC1 score).
score.
principal
People
on the
who
EPI will
have
for
the
On
displayed.
25.5% of
the
is the extraversion.
scored
have
for
a low
vs. neuroticism
highly
score
on
the
on the
141
Component 2 (PC2), which accounts
On Principal
total
variance,
that
subjects
scale
high
with
and are also
image,
for
is
body image,
for
that
body image perception.
of overall
i. e. people
Component 1 (which
illustrating
the- variance)
is overall
ability
do well
or badly
either
body
Body Image I
All
contained.
on Principal
between subjects
source of variation
their
SEA, are
and 5
variance.
component coefficients
loadings
50.7% of
in the data
trend
of total
30 the principal
have positive
accounts
on the
observed
Components 3,4
Principal
aggressive.
as measured by the
variables
'is
scores on PC2 are high on the neurotic
account for a small proportion
In Table
loading
positive
of the EPI and Factor E of the 16PF, suggesting
factor
neuroticism
high
a
19.5% of the
for
the
major
The biggest
to estimate
body
at all
image tests.
(PC2)
2
coefficients
component
Whenthe principal
the
face variables
and hips
waist
subjects
positively
have negative
trials
loaded,
This
weightings.
in
had difficulty
whilst
the chest,
indicated
estimating
that
face
their
but on the other body parts managed to be more accurate in
widths,
their
on all
are all
are examined,
estimations
account for a small proportion
being often
subjects
and hips,
4
3
and
components
or vice versa. The principal
of total
indicate
but
would
variance
less accurate when estimating
the face, waist
but tend to be more accurate when estimating
their
chest,
or vice versa.
In Table 31 are displayed
for
body image as measured by the Abacus.
loadings
positive
the
the principal
major
whilst
the
trend
large
again,
in
the
variation
as in Body Image I.
data
is
of
overall
between subjects
component coefficients
All
Body' Image II
have
illustrates
that
This
body image perception,
is
overall
ability
to
142
estimate
for
body image.
their
a relatively
components
small
tend
Principal
have high
to
negative
loadings
subjects
over-estimating
on their
chest,
of the total
proportion
on the
on the
face,
three
body parts.
This
illustrates
face widths
or vice
In Table 32 the principal
Heath-Carter
the
was done to replace
somatotype
Principal
are
Component 1
illustrates
a high positive
versa.
the three
for
loading
variables
76% of
of
coefficients
The analysis
shown.
accounts
but
and being more accurate
component analysis
somatotype
these
loadings
and hips,
waist
All
variance.
positive
other
their
and 4 account
components 2,3
the
the
of
with
one.
variance
and
of Endomorphy and Mesomorphy,
and a negative loading on Ectomorphy.
The principal
component scores for all
subjects were correlated
by the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient
and the correlations
shown in Table 33 . With 48 degrees of
0.273 are required
components it
I (SEA) and Body Image I (A) did
component coefficients
principal
Image I (3) correlated
of
at the p<0.05 level
The principal
were
p<0.05 level;
with
(3);
3.
following
with
The principal
correlation
and a positive
significant.
correlation
the
However, Body
Personality
with
(PC3)
Personality
of significance.
Body Image 2 (I)
Personality
had a positive
have the
(PCII);
with
well
personality.
component coefficients
to
observed
correlate
Personality
with
of
Body Image
was observed that
not
and Body Image I (5) had a positive
(4) all
freedom correlations
at the p<0.05 level.
for significance
Among the principal
are
at
correlation
(Abacus)
Image
2
Body
of
with
p<0.05
at the
2, Body Image 2 (5)
Personality
component
the
correlations
positive
of Somatotype
level
with
Body Image 1 (2),
(SOMA)
Body Image 2
but was not
143
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146
TABLE32
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS
ANALYSIS OF HEATH-CARTERSOMATOTYPE
% VARIANCE
ACCOUNTED
FOR
1
76.25
2
17.65
ENDOMORPHY
0.759
0.611
MESOMORPHY
0.336
-0.660
-0.556
0.434
ECTOMORPHY
147
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148
4.9.
Analysis
Discriminant
Discriminant
groups (treated
is
by the
different
not significantly
singly,
are
others.
At
between
groups,
the
fact
that
discriminants
useful
same time,
many variables
but
is
redundancy
finds
linear
there
between
although
some variables,
and post-treatment
pre-
nevertheless
or
groups).
vs. untreated
complicated
which variables,
in discriminating
are most useful
combination of variables,
This
is used to find
analysis
when considered
when combined with
significantly
may vary
because they
inter-
are
correlated.
Discriminant
analysis
of between - to within
which maximise the ratio
The absolute
loadings)
when they
differences
indicate
of the discriminant
values
in scale
the
have
variables
- groups variance.
(variable
coefficients
been standardised
to
importance
of
for
compensate
among the original
and variability
relative
of
combinations
variables,
in
variable
each
discrimination.
Groups
with
weighted
negatively
discriminant
scores,
of weightings
untreated
group),
variables
i. e. discriminant
from
this
analysis
groups
Group
non-exercising
to
tend
will
scores
or
values
measured
have
negative
are sums of products
and measurements.
The data
discriminant
high
characteristically
program.
were
2
group)
study
was analysed
For the
deemed to
be Group
(pre-exercising
vs.
purpose
group)
the treated
group,
using
SPSS-X
the
of this
the
study,
1 (pre-non-exercising
and
Group
Group 4 (post
3
(post
exercise
group).
The standardised
of the anthropometric
canonical
discriminant
function
coefficients
data are shown in Table 34. The high positive
149
loadings
are indicative
group have a high
treated
are
observed
Somatotype
component
Percentage
Body Fat
In Table 36 it
discriminating
Group
Mesomorphy.
4 are
The untreated
and Weight.
group
Score and the
Ismail
on the
weighted
of
on the Ismail
weightings
The
treated
mean).
group
positive
be highly
to
(in Table 35 the
of treatment
of the effect
low
also
on
have low
groups
Score.
Fitness
is illustrated
that the variable
power between the untreated
with the most
groups and the treated
groups is the Ismail Fitness Score.
For
the
standardised
negative
Factor
on Cattell's
weighting
personality
The untreated
are shown in Tables 37-38.
coefficients
high
domain,
personality
group have a
E. The untreated
group
L,
Factors
16PF
the
and
had high weightings on the EPI Extraversion
M, 0 and Q4.
In
Table
discriminates
treated
the
groups
untreated
is
low score
group's
The Body Image estimates
are
loadings
whilst
highly
Total;
other
from
the
Tables
the
weighted
best
variable
which
treated
groups.
due to the fact
largely
that
The
at the
Abacus
SEA
by
both
the
and
as measured
40-41.
treated
coefficients;
groups had positive
The untreated
group
had negative
group were observed to score highly
treated
in
in
the
programme they were less tense.
end of the conditioning
displayed
Q4 is
16PF Factor
39 the
Hips
Total,
group had highly
(SEA)
on the variables
Waist
In;
Hips
Out;
Face
Out;
Waist
Abacus
the
on
hand, the untreated
The
weightings.
weighted
Face
Total,
Face In.
On the
coefficients
on
the SEA Hips Out, Face In and Face Out; and on the Abacus on Chest
Out, Face Total
The
variable
and Chest In.
which
groups and the treated
by the SEA.
most discriminated
group in Table
between the
42 is Chest In,
untreated
as measured
150
TABLE34
ANTHROPOMETRICDATA
STANDARDISED CANONICAL DISCRIMINANT
-
FUNCTIONCOEFFICIENTS
FUNCTION I
VARIABLES
Weight (kg)
-0.459
Lean Body Weight (kg)
0.343
Percentage Body Fat
-1.556
Endomorphy
-1.476
Mesomorphy
0.345
Ectomorphy
0.175
Ismail Fitness Score
0.955
TABLE 35
CANONICALDISCRIMINANT FUNCTIONSEVALUATEDAT GROUPMEANS. GROUPS
1,2,3
VS. GROUP4 (TREATED GROUP) (ANTHROPOMETRIC)
N
FUNCTIONI
GROUPS
1,2,3
75
-0.338
GROUP
4
25
1.016
151
TABLE36
ANTHROPOMETRIC
DATA -
STRUCTURE
MATRIX POOLEDWITHIN GROUPS.
CORRELATIONSBETWEENDISCRIMINATING VARIABLES AND CANONICAL
DISCRIMINANTFUNCTIONS.
(VARIABLESORDERED
BY SIZE OF CORRELATION
WITHIN FUNCTION)
VARIABLES
Ismail Fitness Score
FUNCTION I
0.833
Endomorphy
-0.413
Percentage Body Fat
-0.334
Weight
-0.249
Mesomorphy
Lean Body Weight
Ectomorphy
0.065
-0.065
0.015
152
TABLE37
PERSONALITYCOEFFICIENTS
STANDARDISEDCANONICAL DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION
153
TABLE 38
AT
GROUP
PERSONALITY
FUNCTIONS
EVALUATED
CANONICAL
DISCRIMINANT
MEANS, GROUPS1,2,3
VS. GROUP4
N
0.310
GROUP1,2,3,75
GROUP
4
FUNCTIONI
25
-0.931
154
TABLE39
PERSONALITY
POOLED
WITHIN
GROUPS CORRELATIONS BETWEEN
DISCRIMINANTFUNCTIONS
DISCRIMINATINGVARIABLESANDCANONICAL
(VARIABLESORDERBY SIZE OF CORRELATION
WITHIN FUNCTION)
155
TABLE40
STANDARDISEDCANONICAL DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION
BODY IMAGE COEFFICIENTS
VARIABLES
FUNCTIONI
SLADERUSSELL
Face
Chest
Waist
Hips
Total
-3.644
In
2.018
Out
1.829
Total
-0.271
In
Out
-0.108
0.664
Total
-0.797
In
0.288
Out
0.229
Total
-1.897
In
Out
-0.092
2.350
Total
1.249
ABACU
S
Face
In
Out
Chest
Total
In
Waist
-0.800
-1.551
0.768
Out
1.348
Total
0.386
In
Hips
-0.505
Out
-0.658
0.969
Total
0.491
In
0.193
Out
-1.414
156
TABLE41
BODYIMAGE- CANONICALDISCRIMINANTFUNCTIONS
AT GROUP
EVALUATED
MEANS. GROUPS1,2,3
VS. GROUP4
N
Groups 1,2,3,75
Group 4
FUNCTION I
0.502
25
-1.506
157
TABLE42
BODY IMAGE -
POOLED WITHIN
GROUPS CORRELATIONSBETWEEN
DISCRIMINATING VARIABLES AND CANONICALDISCRIMINANT FUNCTIONS
VARIABLES
FUNCTIONI
(SEA) Chest In
(SEA) Waist In
0.386
(SEA)
Hips In
0.255
(SEA)
Chest Total
0.230
(AB)
Chest In
0.176
(SEA) Waist Total
(AB)
Hips In
0.289
0.170
-0.154
(AB)
Waist Out
-0.152
(AB)
Hips total
(AB)
Waist In
-0.147
144
.
0.130
(AB)
Face In
(SEA) Face Out
(SEA) Face In
-0.129
0.107
(SEA) Hips Total
0.099
(SEA) Hips Out
(AB)
Face Total
(SEA) Chest Out
-0.077
0.056
(AB)
Face Out
(AB)
Chest Total
(AB)
Hips Out
(SEA) Waist Out
(AB)
Waist Total
(AB)
Chest Out
(SEA) Face Total
0.056
-0.053
0.048
-0.045
0.039
0.037
-0.036
0.000
158
4.10. Summary
The results
investigation
of this
and body image changes: -
personality
anthropometric,
(i)
increase
(ii)
decrease in percentage body fat
(iii)
decrease in the Heath-Carter
(iv)
an
in weight
increase
criterion
fitness
on their
of Ismail
component of Endomorphy
a reduction
on the EPI factor
(vi)
a reduction
on the 16PF factor
The association
seem to
as measured by the
of neuroticism
Q4
on the SEA and Abacus estimates
more accurate and their
would
score
et al.
(v)
(vii)
who
programme undergo the following
in a conditioning
participate
demonstrate that subjects
of body image they were
range of responses was smaller.
of the domains of personality
have an inter-relationship
and body image
between the
principal
component scores: (i)
principal
components of body image (SEA) correlated
principal
components of personality
(ii)
principal
components of
with principal
The factors
body image (Abacus) correlated
components of personality
which best discriminated
and exercising
with
between a non-exercising
group are: -
(i)
Ismail Fitness
(ii)
Cattell's
(iii)
Chest In as measured by the SEA.
Score
16PF Factor Q4
group
-
159
Null Hypotheses
4.11.
Hypothesis I
That
there
as measured by the
body image,
postural
Apparatus,
differences
be no significant
will
between a group
women who have taken
Slade
Russell
Estimation
women and a group of
of non-exercising
in a twelve-week
part
of
measures
of
conditioning
programme,
was held tenable.
Hypothesis II
That
there
differences
be no significant
will
of measures of
body image, as measured by a novel apparatus (an Abacus),
postural
between a group of non-exercising
have taken part
women and a group of women who
programme, was held
in a twelve-week conditioning
tenable.
In the case of body image measured by both the SEA and the
Abacus
these
and exercising
exercising
phenomenon
another.
greater
to
that
suggest
would
It
but
analyses
distortion
that
all
difference
group exhibited
data,
the
on all
a trend
a more positive
is
not
the
an "all
in
nothing"
group
groups
tend
statistically
no
was shown in
that
of their
or
have a
and significantly
was demonstrated
conception
data
one body part
Although
two
a non-
of the
or
non-exercising
body parts
widths.
between
between
tenable
may occur
that
body
held
of women. The results
image
postural
range of responses
of the
were
group
was observed
over-estimate
significant
hypotheses
two
the
the
exercise
body image.
160
III
Hypothesis
That
there
as measured by the Heath-Carter
somatotype,
a twelve-week
of
measures
of
method, between a group
in
women and a group of women who have taken part
of non-exercising
level
differences
be no significant
will
conditioning
was rejected
programme,
the
at
p<0.05
of significance.
Somatotype
Heath-Carter
The
decreased
significantly
component
the
on
tests
post-programme
group. The women in the exercising
exercising
Endomorphy was
of
the
of
group were observed
to increase their
scores on the Mesomorphy component but this
not statistically
significant.
was
Hypothesis IV
That
there
Eysenk Personality
Cattell
Sixteen
Factor
Personality
group of non-exercising
Both
groups,
their
statistically
Factor of Neuroticism,
the p<0.01 level
pre-
differences
signficant
between
a
of women who have taken
and post-programme
at the p<0.05 level
and on the Extraversion
decreased
and
programme was held tenable.
conditioning
on
Inventory
Questionnaire,
women and a group
in a twelve-week
part
of
measures
of
as measured by the
personality,
the
differences
be no significant
will
their
had
tests
EPI
the
on
scale both groups at
at the post-programme
scores
tests.
The
most
groups was the
Ismail
Score at the
There was no difference
tests.
the
significant
Fitness
but
pre-programme,
exercising
fitness
(p<0.001)
had
group
score,
whilst
increased
their
at
between the
the
the
fitness
pre-
(p<0.001)
exercise
scores.
group
the
and post-programme
when tested
groups
post-programme
significantly
between
difference
statistically
tests
the
decreased
had
at
non-
their
significantly
SECTION5
DISCUSSION
161
SECTION5
DISCUSSION
The
purpose
this
of
was to
study
between body image and personality,
of
in
participating
in comparison
that
programme.
accurate
the
in their
and articulate
domain,
personality
exercising
be observed
by involvement
that
would be changes in somatotype
Carter
5.1.
women, a group of
programme would be more
body image. In
of postural
by the
as measured
women would
Finally,
changes.
concept
was hypothesised
It
a group of non-exercising
women who engaged in a 12-week conditioning
relationships
domains
these
on
and the effect
a conditioning
to
the
explore
to
EPI and the
undergo
16PF,
some measurable
in an exercise
regime,
there
components as measured by the Heath-
method.
Postural
Body Image
It was found that,
an exercise
inaccurate
had
an
women
programme, non-exercising
body parts and a less well-
knowledge of the width of some of their
articulated
postural
body image. The use of both the SEA and the
Abacus demonstrated that
over-estimate
the size
their
over-estimate
consistent
in
compared with womenwho had participated
in the main tended to
the non-exercisers
of their
face
body parts,
In general,
and chest.
with those reported
and in particular
by Schultz
findings
to
are
(1961), Cremer and Hukill
(1969) and Ward and McKeown(1988).
It would appear from the findings
difficulty
other
in what they perceive
hand, most of
perceiving
their
the
postural
that
(accuracy
non-exercising
many subjects
experience
of perception).
difficulty
had
group
On the
in
body image. There was seen to be a large
162
range of responses by the non-exercising
widths;
it
would appear that
not as well
articulated
conditioning
programme.
their
stages
in a
(1954) stages of
in Piaget's
three
postulated
was
discrete
major
in development: -
1.
the sensory motor stage
2.
the stage of concrete operations,
3.
the stage of formal operations.
As a child
progresses
undifferentiated
state
these
through
concrete
thought,
mode of
of formal operations,
operations
moves from the
it
stages,
sensations
of
which
reflexes,
and
symbolic
crude
in the stage
phase. Finally,
is able to apply concrete
the pre-adolescent
hypothetical
to
includes
which
of the concrete operational
categories
and
the sensory motor stage to the more differentiated
characterises
but
style
of women who participated
style
Piaget
development.
cognitive
of the body
perceptual
particular
as that
We can analyse perceptual
group on all
and
situations
to
manipulate
abstractions.
The cognitive
action,
to
abstractions
internalised
their
task assumes that
of
stages
the
action,
from
to
past
on to a
body image. This
is functioning
at
phase of conceptual development.
actions.
at the body (concrete
no longer required
of their
the body image of each subject
The body image has been built
with
are required to project
conceptualisation
the formal operational
looking
three
the
mental presentations
the SEA, the subjects
object
environment
during
which are detached from the concrete object.
In using
neutral
schema progress
up through
The actual
operations)
interaction
touching,
with the
moving or
are, because of maturity,
in order to do mental "gymnastics"
and concept-
163
on to a neutral
be unable
would
by the SEA if
required
it
and project
SEA. A subject
as the
task
body image,
the
ualise
to
the
perform
she did not have a clear
such
object
perceptual
representation
of her body image.
is investigated
When the body image concept
in order
for
it
to be accurate
needs to be aware of the
formed
as a function
of the
self
from the
The findings
the body to
is
a bounded image which
Interaction
to the environment,
by lower scores on the first
exemplified
requires
have a greater
environ-
separation
movement.
that
women who
as
self-awareness,
principal
components of
body image - SEA or Abacus - which are components associated
body imaging accuracy.
overall
self-awareness
to
opportunity
perceive
It
environment.
and their
enhancing
activates
impact
Physical
property
via
which
feedback
on people
and objects,
with
activity
has a greater
presents
frequently
from one's
the relationship
is
and knowledge
study would suggest
activity
its
'and subsequent
interaction
from this
engage in physical
of
of the world.
rest
in relationship
of self,
function
of the
the individual
and well-articulated,
relationship
The body image by its
ment.
would seem that,
it
the
senses and the
between one's
and leads
actions
to greater
self-awareness.
On the
other
hand,
a more simplistic
for
explanation
observed improvement in body image accuracy with exercise
constructed
It
is
pressures,
in terms of differences
claimed
in perceptual
by some people that
due to,
women are more prone to over-estimate
and shape than men. Among the subjects
said that
this
is an English
characteristic,
could be
style.
for example social
body size
their
of the current
comments made by the womentended to confirm this
the
study,
many
view. It could be
in particular
a north
164
of England trait,
findings
i. e. to under-estimate
i. e. Kessler (1978) could not
of North American studies,
be applied
to
in
upsurge
English
women, for
"looking
good",
The
one's good points.
has been a great
there
although
cultural
differences
this
were somatotyped
the
are
insurmountable.
5.2.
Somatotype
The
subjects
to
according
there
the
in
who participated
Heath-Carter
the
At the
method.
differences
were no significant
study
between the two groups.
were measured at the post-programme
subjects
differences
significant
group
were observed
which
was consistent
Gwinup (1975),
between
the
two
with
Lesmes et al
As a consequence of the
(1976)
Endomorphy component decreased
and Williams
to
programme. These findings
pation
of
adult
to
classes
is
necessary
minutes
the
in
the
order
to exercise
and to
fitness
in
that
ensure
regime.
It
components of
and body weight
loss,
to
three
that
is
the
in
the
end of
the
partici-
Many women
regime.
times
This
study
percentage
fat
per week for
jogging/running
somatotype,
the
"fitness"
in
numerous
and engage
lose
clearly
at
exercise
loss.
weight
(1988).
body fat,
to promote the
significant
diets
al
changes the exercisers
body weight
a vigorous
on various
achieve
unequivocally
are
women in
lives
spend their
in
a reduction
(1972),
increase
an
was
and there
component of Mesomorphy. To complement these
showed a trend
body fat
and Morton
percentage
were
exercising
in
Moody et
of
in the
reduction
The
decrease
findings
the
When
there
tests
groups.
have a significant
to
tests
pre-programme
is
can be achieved
at
and firm
in
the
that
up it
a minimum of 50
an integral
demonstrated
decreases
, demonstrates
part
these
of
changes
percentage
body fat
end of
a 12 week
165
The only
period.
satisfactory
among the
compliance
that
engaged in the programme was the realisation
subjects
changes were taking
5.3.
reason for
these
place.
Personality
Inventory
Eysenck Personality
in order
Questionnaire,
by the use of the
domain was investigated
The personality
Cattell
and the
Sixteen
Personality
the method of Young and Ismail
to replicate
(1973).
in pre-programme tests
There were no differences
of
When the
personality.
was shown that
on the
on the
neuroticism
similar
to the findings
exercise
sports
does
(1971),
of Tattersfield
not
the
affect
claimed
psychologists-have
best discriminated
that
more assertive.
the laboratory
personality
On the 16PF the most
and composed
(1965).
with Tillman
which
on their
second visit
they did not display
of
traits
pre- and post-programme
to the laboratory
This would suggest that
factors
group
humble
indepenent
and mild)
vs.
and
adult
their
on their
are well-established
initial
they were
visit
true characteristics.
women are
researchers would seem to have indicated
personality
as many
Q4 was the coefficient
change between their
E (assertive
on Factor
indicating
domain
between the two groups. The non-exercising
showed a significant
tests
Factor
analysis
participation
lower
had
mean
a
group
score at the post-programme groups, consistent
Using discriminant
appear that,
in an
Q4 (phlegmatic
the exercising
tense and excitable);
would
personality
in the past.
factor
change was on the
It
scale.
it
decreae
showed a signficant
groups
and extraversion
regime
significant
vs.
EPI both
data was analysed
test
post-programme
on the factors
not
as
plastic
to
The
as
in the past. Most people's
by adult-hood.
Many of the
166
questionnaires
are
investigators
three
would
a mental
the
is
brought
personality
are
conditioning
programme,
that
changes
are
display
to
the
all
those
with
They
full
found
In
groups.
the
difference
significant
women,
exercising
discriminator
current
Factor
while
a non-exercising
person-
post-conditioning
16PF Factors
between
discriminating
E
found
group
the
was
be the
to
only
of
results
and post-programme
Q4 was
to
able
(1973).
Young
and
Factor
study,
of
are
in Cattell's
in
growth
can be compared
study
between
useful
between pre-
between
this
groups
C was also
M, 0 and Q2. Factor
these
fit'
a
have in the
they
differences
in
physiological
people
on men by Ismail
study
'low
and
programme 'high-fit'
in
obtained
significant
that
realise
range of traits
a similar
by the
"fitter"
As a result
The results
of
when they
in
changes
participation
may be manifested
but
occurring.
by
about changes
that
obvious
The time
task.
this
to bring
about
achieve
people
domain.
ality
not
is
It
domain.
people
regime would suggest
achieve
weeks would not be sufficient
personality
confidence
needed to
of
a group
of
as
changes
subtle
The meeting
postulate.
toughness
span of twelve
in
to
sensitive
per week to engage in an exercise
times
that
as
not
best
and an exercising
group.
However, different
statistical
and Young. They did
Ismail
analysis
of variance
the authors,
not carry
were entered
into
that
both
programme. In
after
treatment
their
Ismail
groups
discriminant
difficult.
participated
and Youngs' Tables
(post-conditioning
used
were
repeated
out
and only four personality
comparison of the study results
fact
methodologies
measures of
variables,
analysis.
by
chosen by
This makes
Also important
is the
in the conditioning
3 and 4, changes in Q4
be
observed, and
can
programme)
167
in a repeated measures
they may-have been found to be significant
of analysis
of variance.
The relationship
demonstrated
by means of
The link
analyses.
of
between body image and personality
the
areas
of
the principal
components and correlation
and body image has been one
between personality
research
years.
Although
exist,
by correlating
this
has eluded
which
study
to
was able
was clearly
suggest
the
and analysing
EPI and 16PF,
for
investigators
that
scores
such links
do
in
the
obtained
and in
many
image
personality
domain
domain using
the SEA and the Abacus, the measurement of both these
two domains still
the
facet
to
person's
that
total
one form
Personality
separately).
principal
of variance
or repeated
analysis,
may be identified
measurement
of
questionnaires,
interviews
changes which
personality
subjects
studied are inter-correlated.
the results
of
on each variable
these may be highly
show that
components
personality
a
assess
on a single
mush be measured to assess personality,
is some redundancy
so there
not
cannot be measured simply
Many variables
but the correlations
The
variables
(e. g. analysis
tests
variable.
does
measurement
personality
is such a multi-
be borne in mind when interpreting
should
univariate
the
personality.
Many of the personality
This
of
have used
many studies
Personality
to quantify.
body
the
traits,
measure personality
difficult
domain
Although
seemed elusive.
questionnaires
domain is still
by the
By using
information.
underlying
dimensions
of
achieved
by
and characterised.
personality
is
and situtational
best
techniques.
undergoes may be best
being given check lists
moods and emotions whilst
the
inter-related,
ascertained
and asked to note their
they are exercising.
The subtle
by
changes in
168
Five
principal
five
the
components of personality
principal
variables
components
were significantly
components.
However,
from
extracted
the
between
were found
relationships
significant
SEA body image
any of the personality
with
correlated
None of
were studied.
components of body image, as measured by the Abacus, and
principal
personality.
a) Abacus body image component 1 is postively
component 2 (EPI,
personality
N, E+ vs.
body image inaccuracy
overall
version,
body
and
loadings
negative
loadings
with
accuracy
with
image
(Personality
conscientious/persistent.
Cattell's
associated
on Cattell
neuroticism/extramature/calmness,
component 2 characterised
16PF Factors
C and E,
component 3, indicating
on the face and inaccuracy
on the
loadings
loadings
loadings
and Face In,
for
Cattell
multivariate
data
meaningful relationships
the
the
original
important
identified;
interpreted.
of the body on the one hand,
personality
dimensions
significant
on all
by high
E and Q1, negative
N.
collected
to be easily
variables.
characterised
16PF Factors
set
loadings
and negative
component 3 is
on Eysenck E and Cattell
The
between accuracy
self-sufficient/resourceful
Personality
variables.
with
Abacus body image component 2 has positive
other.
on Face Total
positive
of
positive
correlated
an association
on the rest
dominant/aggressive,
other
by
on Eysenck N and E).
personality
traits
is
This
C, E-).
b) Abacus body image component'2 is negatively
and
with
correlated
Principal
identified
complex
for
by considering
all
is
too
components analysis
of body image and of personality
correlations
could
then
allowed
to be
be meaningfully
169
The measurement of postural
Abacus discriminated
inbuilt
limitations
the
subjects
the
Slade Russell
widths
between the
but precision
observed,
body image by both the SEA and the
groups
study
that
Apparatus,
body widths
when the lights
have greater
subjects
other
body parts.
This
when using
estimating
their
their
body image is segmented and not an "all
vision
when knowledge
in a dark
of the
room.
subjects
but can accurately
that
due
indicating
the trial,
such as may occur
would confirm
body
perceiving
study have suggested that
of this
All
body image.
difficulty
difficulty
oneself
on one body width
over-estimate
because of the
This was possibly
throughout
to orientate
or incorrect,
The results
(In).
responses
are moving from near peripheral
than when they can see both lights
inability
measuring
great
were "ascending"
to the fact
body is lacking
for
experienced
Size Estimation
when the lights
a perceptual
range of
measurement was not obtained
of both devices
in this
by the
can
on
estimate
awareness of postural
or nothing"
concept as some
studies have suggested.
This
study
has shown that
body image multi-dimensional,
as the postural
not only
is the concept
but that
within
to
the
previously
component, two other elements in the postural
from these results;
the part/whole
and the articulated/inarticulate
are consistent
tation
one dimension,
such
body image, separate components can be identified
and examined. In addition
postulated
of postural
with the findings
style
identified
accuracy
body image have been
quality
of perception
of body perception.
of Kessler
These
(1978). The instrumen-
used to measure the body image domain would need to have a
more precise
method of measuring body image. Both the SEA and the
170
Abacus demand a perceptual
style
familiar
and which is beyond their
correct
procedures
findings.
were
followed
with
which
experiential
in
order
subjects
are not
knowledge, but the
to
reinforce
the
SECTION6
CONCLUSIONS
171
SECTION6
CONCLUSIONS
ANDRECOMMENDATIONS
6.1.
1.
2.
Conclusions
Significant
differences
body
weight,
percentage
following
the conditioning
Significant
differences
Endomorphy component
the exercising
3.
4.
5.
Fitness
between the two groups
Heath-Carter
the
of
on
Score
Somatotype
on the
following
programme.
Personality
Questionnaire
occurred
the exercising
group.
No significant
differences
by the
Factor
Sixteen
Cattell
Q4 (phlegmatic
and composed
group and
occurred on the personality
Eysenck
differences
factors
but
Inventory,
Personality
group lowered their
No significant
the
on
between the non-exercising
tense and excitable)
exercising
two. groups
Ismail
and the
occurred
differences
as measured
fat
the
programme.
Significant
vs.
between
occurred
score on the neuroticism
the
factor.
occurred between the groups on the
body image domain as measured by the SEA and the Abacus, but
women who participated
accurate in their
in the conditioning
estimation
of body widths and their
responses was smaller than the non-exercising
6.
Two
important
personality
relationships
programme were more
were
group.
identified
domain and body image domain.
range of
between
the
172
6.2.
Recommendations
The
findings
that
suggest
through
a person's
the
perception
her
of
in
articulate
subjects
shape.
The
women in
This
had
because
"leaner"
body shape.
although
link
of
their
be explained
secure,
The premise
many
links
these
of
there
participated
in the conditioning
for
was a tendency
in global
are to be noted then
of the teaching
fact
the
should
If
and the
the
that
socially
"fitter"
their
this
not
and
study
is
statistically
had
who
of
women
group
the findings
demonstrate
of this
be viewed to construct
of physical
factor
and
programme to clearly
self-esteem.
they
by the
were
by
that
neuroticism
be drawn from
to
The active
image
with
by
demonstrated
confident
satisfaction
a highly
body
with
who
study
indicated
Eysenck
on the
could
significant,
sharp increase
this
body shape.
evaluation
become more
adjusted
re-think
"new"
their
her
through
developed
programme
score
group
domain.
group
that
communicated
was a demonstrable
there
personality
are
post-programme
a lower
achieving
which
of
perception
is influenced
of her body weight
conditioning
seem to
would
study
of body image which was clearly
their
at
active
the
concept
sharpened
scale
body
this
of
perception
sensations
participated
their
and conclusions
education
a
study
a radical
in English
secondary
schools.
The basic concept of school is that
created
its
and maintained
culture
by society
by means of purposeful
next generation.
P. J. Arnold,
the Curriculum",
states: -
institution
special
of a
in order to transmit
teaching
aspects of
learning
and
in his book "Education
to the
Movement and
173
"The case for
there
things
are certain
be provided
this
of
curriculum
Physical
subject
which
skills
through
allows
the experiences
whole
person.
the
sketch
been few radical
education
of
years
the
competitive
some form of gymnastics.
edges with
individual
that
can complete
the
of
that
physical
there
have
physical
school's
physiological
intervention
of fitness
has
programme
education
could
to send children
afford
away,
Len Almond at Loughborough University.
has been largely
project
directed
Many new curriculum
based on an individual
This
and fitness.
health
into the school curriculum
activity.
squash
years many schools have taken
components of
vigorous physical
around the
of badminton,
activities
by the Health Education Authority's
have been devised
and
games, swimming, athletics
In the past five
"on board"
habitual
and
teaching
secondary
physical
acitivites
There has been some tinkering
lifeskill
authorities
outdoor activities.
motivated
as the
curriculum.
been the traditional
in
wholesome
acquire
would suggest
changes in the English
could
be defined
in turn
the
education
the
demanding
The main thematic spine of the physical
and,
for
to
children
of movement which
over the past thirty
education
physical
should
physically
for
curriculum
be prepared
allows
A thumbnail
"
school
medium of
education
bodied
whole
the
day should
present
leisure.
of
Through
for
justification
unique
in
or
provided
environment.
the
education
doubt.
in the
children
use
physical
be in
never
social
in mind,
statement
inclusion
be as well
which cannot
with,
to acquire,
we want children
at home or by the general
With
on the broad argument that
rests
schooling
child's
units
response
The physical-education
by
to
teacher
174
has, from 1988, been able to use the manual "Exercise
Challenge"
Sonia
to
McGeorge which
commitment
of
health
physiological
and "Baker"
causes
heart
Heart
and levels
of
education
fitness
cholesterol
changing
the
has tended to deflect
curriculum
focus
primary
of
physical
these
exercise
in
physical
health
related
education
physical
what has been,
many decades,
for
is
that
education,
of
words"
school's
risk
vascular
frequency
of
courses
the primary
regarding
"buzz
The inclusion
into
to enhance their
cardio-
duration,
now the
are
rooms.
componenents
modify
the
physical
have attended
knowledge
zones,
secure
regular
levels
Many teachers
and how to
target
rate
in
fitness
to obtain
disease
unequivocally
participating
status.
days in order
of
factors.
sport
to
children
in order to maximise their
activity
the
has demonstrated
by
the
teaching
of
and games.
While the teaching of sports and games may have been a worthy
goal, many surveys of adults over the past ten years on the reasons
in regular
why they participate
two most clearly
exercise
have indicated
that
the
reasons have been: -
stated
1) the desire to prevent heart attack
2) to lose weight.
The inclusion
of
health
related
of health
teaching
principles
effects,
both acute
components are in
prescription
and chronic,
keeping with
and the physiological
of regular
physical
vigorous
activity.
This
physiological
perceptive
become the most important
subject.
of
The efficacy
propositional
of
physical
education
reason for the functional
of this
teaching
knowledge presented
has now
teaching of the
programme through the medium
in
a discursive
manner can
175
increase
a child's
physical
activity
benefits
to participants
physical
to provide both physiological
"well
being"
it
is
It
behaviour.
environment
the
establishes
we leave
Gordon (1976)
basic
health
his
of
into
research
related
interaction
early
foundation
about our physical
to physical
would suggest
all
of
a sense of
the
with
self
esteem.
(1985) have suggested:
-
people.
by the time
abilities
to do with whether or not we
during adulthood. "
activity
that
He states
cannot be over-stressed
a lack
is
there
between physical
a relationship
esteem across
process
.
have not been
develops
exercise
the
of the
Curriculum.
of exercise
a child's
school has a`lot
are attracted
"It
known that
that
Fox, Corbin and Couldry
establish
benefits
investigate
is evident
"what we feel
stage in
appraisal
esteem. The normal psychological
or self
has been to
exercise
in the National
the psychological
documented,
as well
and psychological
development for the radical
of "movement studies"
Although
of vigorous
logical
be
the
to
next
seem
would
the present curriculum
inclusion
competancy. The capacity
fitness
to
of congruity
and global
self
that
that there is no single
self
concept held by any person. "
The above statement would seem to suggest that
unifying
other
global
self
hand, through
cognitive
concept across all
the vehicle
awareness
enhanced by arranging: 1) positive
feedback on all
2) success experiences
3) good counselling.
fallacy.
is
a
people
of physical
and perceptions
actions
the existence
education,
of his/her
of a
On the
a child's
body could
be
176
The good teacher
effective
health
adult
first
in
with
habitual
biological
health
associated
terms
of
1980; Simons-Morton
typically
that
in the enhancement of a child's
benefits
Dishman,
that
of physical
modality
documented
experience
the ostensible
therapeutic
health
be
may
programme
to
reasons
lifetime
commitment to
physical
education
prevention
exercise
1986).
This would suggest
for
increasing
perfect
to
out
health
that
the
in an exercise
must
other
for
a
the teacher
of
enhancement and disease
a more holistic
consideration,
be
participant
Although
exercise.
psychological
a child's
view of
global
scenario
to improve
growth in self
which should
of
physical
exercise,
model that
on
his
has the
his
of
awareness
the child's
in
education
physical
esteem. The way to facilitate
a psychological
focus
esteem and to increase
self
involvement
education would be
of physical
viewpoint
competancy. The teacher
esteem and through
to utilse
there
the
50% during
should be considered.
an exercise
physical
involvement
fitness,
A new-proposal for the teaching
from
programmes
(Dishman,
be pointed
may be of primary
exercise
of
and
may consider
and
excess
motive
habitual
Baylor
in
rate
six months of involvement
well
are
has been shown
it
but
as an
esteem. The
(Falls,
many therapeutic
a drop-out
self
exercise
1987)
al.,
et
in
participation
although
should use his subject
education
self
lead to
a
these gains would be
would interpret,
for
the
child: 1) fitness
gains
2) success experiences
3) personal growth in body competancy.
An individual
child
should
be set
achievable
demonstrable
goals
177
of being presented with gold standards which are "set
instead
The singling
stone".
As
attention
because of
not
a dual
to play
exercise and fitness
is
esteem
of
out
esteem for
self
the
particular
widespread
has
it
interest
(1986)
it
Gruber
to
but
because
according
engendered,
traditionally
appears
the
in
that
role
Wylie (1979) has"suggested that
equation.
associated
human mental
desirable
with
qualities
which has led many educators
objective
in
the
curriculum,
Campbell
whilst
self
and
states
it
as a primary
(1984)
has elevated
to promote
esteem to the heady status
the maintenance of self
on the
impact
has potential
Law
of the First
of Human Behaviour: -
"This
law suggests that
'demands such
behaviour,
beyond essential
be. regarded
esteem should
motivation
persistence
perception
in
proponent of-the
suggest: -
and
physical
as
an
important
may
turn
As Fox
activity.
psychological
in
effects
children's
affect
a
child's
(1988),
a
leading
of vigorous exercise,
would
-
The improvement of
'provide
to
seem.
-
fitness
-related
targets
potential
'abilities
for-the
would
achievement
or competance motive and these may be reciprocally
to the'enhancement of self
It
of
element
be the prime reason for
and could directly
self
positive
toward
"
good about ourselves.
maximising our chances of feeling
Self
is directed
whether conscious or not,
our
much of
and sleeping,
eating
as
physiological
has been considered
assessment of a child's
for
self
-scores from a questionnaire
tied
esteem. "
many years
by psychologists
that
the
esteem could be achieved by totalling
life
of
spectrum
which covered a vast
178
A. UNIDIMENSIONAL
I
B. MULTIDIMENSIONAL
GLOBAL
SELFESTEEM
Global Self-Esteem
C. HIERARCHICAL
Figure 25 Models of self-esteem
179
Figure
25a
different
Esteem. This has been shown to be an
Models of Self
erroneous
for
concept,
feeling
Perception
both children
to the varied
At the University
has
which
demonstrate
and adults
(1985)
Harter
a Self
has created
that
suggested
a
lives.
of their
aspects
of Denver,
Profile
in
approach, as illustrated
This was a unidimensional
activities.
is
esteem
self
(Figure 25b). Harter has also found that children
multi-dimensional
from as young as the age of seven years
"have clearly
differentiated
school
friendships,
work,
interest
particular
to
competence and physical
of adequacy in
perceptions
behavioural
physical
conduct
and of
education,
sports
appearance".
(Fox, 1988).
This
child's
profile
approach provides
perception
domains.
This
education
to
and allows
should
assess
and help
activities,
her physical
allow
tease
assessment
in
interested
teachers
of
feelings
true
out
a child's
have found that
proponents of this
perception
self
self
profile
technique,
physical
physical
of his
or
our evaluative
the
many researchers
esteem has a hierarchial
model would suggest that
perceptions
self
to be the outcome of
in numerous domains of our lives.
past
two years,
Fox has proposed
Levels
of Physical
Self
summarises his research
The
structure.
we have a global
esteem at the apex which could be constructed
Different
towards
different
competancy.
By the use of this
In
summary of a
independent
children's
to
a purposeful
the
(Figure
25a) which
domain of self
esteem. It
Perception
in the physical
a model of
would seem to demonstrate that aspects of the physical
self
such as
180
body
image,
and fitness
competance
fallacious
domains,
Perception
assess
in
condition,
United
insight
provide
an
physical
self
those
into
self
they
early
esteem
September
The most important
concept that
a British
and should
children's
school
1990. But
as Harter
are keen
many adolescents
great
a
importance
to
on the
whilst
in
domains
those
of
the importance
experience
population
time
present
by attaching
consistently
which
student
secondary
esteem.
physical
a sense of accomplishment,
discount
they quickly
At the
in her research,
areas which provide
"downside"
English
in
perceptions
their
maximise
26).
to
compentance,
sports
a college
using
Self
subscales
in England by Fox and Ashford
demonstrated
has clearly
of
and general
strength
(Figure
is being validated
Profile
to
physical
States
consists
attractiveness,
has been developed
profile
the
bodily
of
inter-
these
five
be
would
The Physical
has constructed
(PSPP) which
Profile
perceptions
physical
This
Fox (1988)
it
that
To investigate
study them individually.
to
related
so inter-related
are
sports
confidence,
movement,
ability,
physical
lack
of
competance
and
failure.
teaching
by physical
about-their
physical
of improving their
educators
is that
children
global
from sports
fitness
factors
conditioning.
For children
physical
need to feel
selves which should have the "knock-on"
self
good
effect
esteem. Fox would suggest that: -
the main components of the physical
result
to their
needs to be applied
competance, physical
such as strength
self
appear to
appearance and
and cardiovascular
"
to be encouraged to develop
competance, the physical
education
and nurture
a sense of
programme needs to be
181
Figure 26 Content and structure of the physical self
Global
Self-esteem
Antecedent
Agencies
Physical Activity
Involvement
Figure 27 A physical self-perception researchmodel
182
that
so structured
throughout
the
is
the
teaching
there
self
that
we should
self
perception
If
our
self
that
this
27)
and interviews
central
by the
use of
may be the
which
correct
and reliable
of valid
of physical
has an important
skills
place in the development of a person. My own view is that
educators should ensure that children
successfully
wide variety
to experience
of physical
activities
of fitness
differ
from non-exercisers.
perception
influence
physical
participate
in a
as many bodily
as possible.
high
a
adult womenwho achieve
The present study has shown that
physical
open
is concerned with the enlargement and enrichment
of awareness then the learning
level
way
profile.
education
orientations
who
would suggest
as our
perception
can be achieved
the
of
understanding
to be used in the development
tools
research
educator
physical
Fox (Figure
on physical
questionnaires
ended
gaps in
in children,
focus
He suggests
point.
large
are
esteem develops
the
of
style
in
as a unique individual.
should view the child
Whilst
process.
factor
important
The other
success
physical
clear
experience
children
learning
their
equation
the
in their
This would indicate
esteem through
and self
link
a strong
the
involvement
Perhaps body image and, in turn,
activity.
the choice of participation
body shape
of their
perception
in physical
between body
in
self
vigourous
esteem, do
activities.
This is best stated by Kane (1973) who says, in the foreward to
DH Harris's
"If
book: -
teachers
appreciate
of
physical
education
the ways in which
the
come to
total
really
personality
183
development
of their
the course of bodily
direction
of physical
students may be influenced
activity,
during
then the momentumand
in
in
education
schools may change
many ways. "
0
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