THE ROMAN PERIOD
I. THE ROMAN EMPIRE
A. The rise of Rome
1. Rome settled c. 1000 BC; traditional founding by Romulus, 753 BC
2. Etruscan kings until c. 508 BC
3. The Roman republic (508-27 BC)
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b.
c.
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f.
g.
Birth of the republic
1) Republican form of government; two magistrates
2) Elected by comitia centuria
3) Responsibility in army based on wealth
4) Senate: during monarchy, based on nobility; in the republic, appointed for
life; all former magistrates became senators
Developing governmental structures
1) Struggle between wealthy patricians and common people (plebians)
2) Plebians elected their own officials: tribunes
3) Plebians demanded written laws; 450 BC, 12 tablets
Rome extends her boundaries
1) Rome brought central Italy under control, 290 BC
2) 272 BC: controlled Italian peninsula
Punic Wars with Carthage; est. first provinces
1) 202 BC: Hannibal of Carthage defeated
2) 190 BC: Seleucid Antiochus III defeated
3) 146 BC: Corinth and Carthage taken, destroyed
4) 133 BC: kingdom of Pergamum fell to Rome
Developing internal problems
1) Great size made the empire difficult to govern
2) Greek slaves as tutors made change in society
3) Several slave rebellions caused fear
4) No middle class; growing gap between rich and poor
5) Mass movement to cities; urban problems
6) Republic failed as constitutional govt. lost control of army to the rich
Optimates vs. Populares
1) Equestrians (“knights”) developed as a group
2) Members of senate forbidden to engage in commerce
3) Knights from wealthy merchant class
4) Gracci brothers (influential populares)
a) Tiberius Graccus: tribune; desired more land to be given to the poor;
clubbed to death
b) Gaius Graccus: elected 123 BC; killed in 122 for supporting populares
5) Beginning of use of force
Marius, Sulla, and Civil War
1) Gaius Marius elected tribune in 107 BC; became military commander, had
troop loyalty; developed professional army
2) Sulla became leader of Optimates; proscribed Marius
3) Marius subdued Rome by force
4) Sulla reconquered Rome and became dictator; set tone for emperor
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4. Transition to empire
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b.
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1st triumvirate: Pompey, Caesar, Crassus
Civil war between Pompey and Caesar
Dictatorship of Julius Caesar; murdered 44 BC
Civil war: Caesar’s murderers vs. Octavian/Marc Antony
1) Battle of Philippi (42): Cassius defeated
2) 2nd triumvirate: Octavian, Antony, Lepidus
31 BC: Octavian defeated Marc Antony at Actium
Octavian: great nephew of Caesar
1) Consolidated important titles conferred by Senate
2) Began the empire; became Augustus
B. Roman emperors
1. Augustus (27 BC -AD 14)
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b.
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First emperor; established Pax Romana, “Roman peace;” res gestae (“the acts”) preserves info
Titles
1) Imperator: Commander of Roman legions outside Rome
2) Princeps: 1st voice in Senate
3) Caesar: Family name; later used of emperors
4) Augustus: “exalted” (Greek sebastos, “revered”)
Tiberius (AD 14-37): Adopted by Augustus, deified
Caligula (AD 37-41): Demanded worship of himself; murdered
Claudius (AD 41-54): Expelled Jews from Rome
Nero (AD 54-68): Burned Rome; persecuted Christians
Vespasian (AD 69-79): Began to crush Jewish Revolt
Titus (AD 79-81): Destroyed Jerusalem and temple as general
Domitian (AD 81-96): Persecuted the church; background for Revelation
C. Roman administration
1. Types of provinces
a.
b.
c.
Senatorial provinces: peaceful, no standing army
1) Administered by Senate
2) Governed by an appointed Proconsul (1-year term)
Imperial provinces: border areas with Roman legions
1) Under authority of Emperor as Imperium
2) Legate appointed as military governor
Special districts under direct imperial administration
1) Governed by Prefect or Procurator
2) Taxes through government officials; indirect through Publicans
2. Roman army: leadership integrated into civil service
a.
b.
c.
25 (later 30) legions recruited from citizens
1) Legion = 6000 men, commanded by legate; legion = 10 cohorts
2) Cohorts = 600 men, commanded by tribune; cohort = 6 centuries
3) Century commanded by centurion (career soldier)
Auxillary troops and navy: troops earned citizenship
Praetorian guard: troops in Rome to protect emperor
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II. THE ROMAN PERIOD IN PALESTINE (63 BC - ONWARD)
A. General Pompey took Palestine for Rome
1. Went to Syria to organize territory as Roman province
2. Received emissaries from Aristobulus II, Hyrcanus, people
3. Aristobulus II taken prisoner to Rome
4. 63 BC: Jerusalem taken; Pompey entered temple
B. Direct Roman rule (63-40 BC)
1. Palestine became part of province of Syria
2. Hyrcanus II remained as high priest
3. Aristobulus II and son Alexander cause revolts, 57-55
4. Antipater became procurator (55-43): Idumean (OT Edomite)
a.
b.
c.
Aided Julius Caesar in Egypt, 48-47
Privileges awarded by Caesar to Antipater and Jews
Appointed sons: Phasael over Judea, Herod over Galilee
C. Herod the Great (37-4 BC): son of Antipater
1. Rise to power
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Antipater murdered 43 BC (related to Caesar’s murder)
Herod married Hasmonean Mariamne I; supported Cassius
After battle of Philippi, Herod supported Marc Antony
Herod and Phasael appointed as tetrarchs
40 BC: Antigonus (son of Aristobulus II) seized power
1) Supported by Parthian invasion of Syria
2) Hyrcanus’ ear cut off; Phasael killed himself in jail
3) Herod escaped to Rome; appointed king by Senate
2. Consolidation of power (37-27 BC)
a.
b.
Had opponents murdered: high priest, Mariamne I, Hyrcanus II
After Battle of Actium (31 BC), Marc Antony’s suicide
1) Herod appeared to Octavian
2) Octavian confirmed Herod’s position and added to it
3. Great building projects (27-13 BC)
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b.
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Rebuilt Samaria as Hellenistic city; renamed it Sebastiya
Caesarea (on site of Strato’s tower)
1) Artificial harbor created
2) Roman-style city with theater, hippodrome, etc.
3) Became seat of Roman government
Temple in Jerusalem (beginning 20/19 BC)
1) Doubled temple platform size
2) Rebuilt temple; extensive complex added
Fortress/palaces: Jerusalem, Herodium, Masada, Jericho
4. Paranoia about his reign (13-4 BC)
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b.
c.
Herod’s character: kept Jewish law, killed opponents
Had 2 sons by Mariamne killed; heir Antipater drowned
Died just before Passover, 4 BC
D. Herod’s sons and successors
1. Archelaus (4 BC - AD 6)
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b.
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Appointed ethnarch of Judah, Samaria, & Idumea
Unpopular (Mt 2:22); beset by Jewish rebellions
Deposed, exiled by Augustus to Vienna (Vienne) of Gaul
Territory converted to Procuratorship
2. Herod Antipas (4 BC - AD 39)
a.
Appointed tetrarch of Galilee & Perea
Roman Period
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Herodias: granddaughter of Herod and Mariamne
1) Married H. Boethus; Antiaps married Nabatean princess
2) Antipas married Herodias, Nabatean princess displaced
a) Criticized by John the Baptist (Mt 14:4, etc.)
b) Nabatean king Aretas IV attacked Antipas
AD 39: exiled to Lyon by Caligula
Territory given to Herod Agrippa I
3. Herod Philip (4 BC - AD 34)
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b.
c.
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Tetrarch of Northeast Palestine/Iturea
Rebuilt Paneas as capital, renamed Caesarea Philippi
Jesus retreated to Philip’s tetrarchy
Died AD 34; territory given to Herod Agrippa, AD 37
E. Direct Roman rule over Judea, Samaria, Idumea (AD 6-41)
1. Coponius (AD 6-9)
2. Ambibulus (AD 9-12)
3. Annius Rufus (AD 12-15)
4. Valerius Gratus (AD 15-26)
5. Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36)
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b.
c.
d.
Brought Roman military ensigns into Jerusalem
Built aqueduct to supply Jerusalem
Ruthlessly quelled riots in Judea (Lk 13:1), Samaria
Forced to appear in Rome; perhaps committed suicide
6. Marcellus (AD 36-37)
F. Herod Agrippa I: grandson of Herod the Great (AD 37-44)
1. AD 37: Acquired Abilene and Philip’s tetrarchy
2. AD 39: Caligula added tetrarchy of Herod Antipas
3. AD 41: Claudius made him king of all Palestine
4. Popular because he favored Pharisaism; messianic overtones
5. Died of sudden illness, AD 44 (Acts 12:20-23)
III. THE LATE ROMAN PERIOD IN PALESTINE
A. First Jewish Revolt Against Rome
1. Causes/Beginnings
a. Nero took Hellenizing stance toward Jews; riots in AD 66
b. Procurator Florus demanded 17 talents from temple
1) May 66: riots in Caesarea, Jerusalem
2) June 66: sacrifices on behalf of emperor halted
c. Jerusalem/Judea, Idumea, Galilee, Perea in rebellion
d. November 66: Syrian Legate Cestius Gallus besieged Jerusalem
1) Occupied north of city; forced to withdraw
2) Forces scattered; requested aid from emperor
2. Roman general Vespasian appointed to put down revolt
a. Preparations early 67: 2 legions in Syria; Titus from Egypt
b. Spring-fall 67: attacked, defeated rebels in Galilee
c. Spring 68: Perea, western Judea taken
3. Jerusalem under Roman siege: Jewish leadership struggles
a. Nationalistic aristocrats: controlled upper city
1) Former HPs Jeshua IV & Ananus III killed by Idumeans
2) Simon bar Giora of Gerasa
Roman Period
a) Idumeans switched alliance to aristocrats
b) Summoned to Jerusalem; became military dictator
c) Struggled with zealots in temple mount
b. Zealots: controlled temple area
1) Menachem, son of Judas of Gamala
a) Took Masada; fought in Jerusalem
b) Made messianic claims; killed by temple officials
2) John of Gischala: headed resistance movement in Galilee
a) Fled to Jerusalem; took temple area; led zealots
b) AD 68: ordered election of high priest from people
3) Eleazar Simonis: defected from John, defeated
4. Final Roman assault on Jerusalem delayed by civil wars 68-70
a. Galba declared emperor by senate, 8 June AD 68
1) General in Spain representing Roman nobility
2) Nero took his own life on 9 June AD 68
b. Vitellius: declared emperor New Year’s 69 by German legions
1) Supported by troops in central, western Europe
2) Marched on Rome
c. Otho: a general, popular with praetorians
1) 15 January, AD 69: declared emperor in Rome; Galba slain
2) Defeated in battle by Vitellius; committed suicide
d. Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian)
1) 1 July 69: declared emperor by Egyptian prefect, troops
2) Vitellius executed 21 December 69
5. AD 70: the Fall of Jerusalem
a. Titus began siege in April against stiff resistance
b. Northern city wall breached
c. 10 August: temple enclosure taken, temple destroyed
d. Upper city taken, burned a month later
6. Masada: the Zealots’ last stand
a. Zealots held out in Herod’s isolated fortress on Dead Sea
b. AD 73: Jewish defenders committed suicide rather than be taken
B. After AD 70
1. “Sanhedrin” (Beth Din) reconstituted as religious body at Jamnia
a. R. Johanan ben Zakkai secured permission from Vespasian
b. Interpretation of Bible became more important than temple
2. AD 116-117: Jewish insurrection began in Cyrene, Egypt
C. AD 132-135: Second Jewish Revolt
1. Hadrian: rebuild Jerusalem with temple of Jupiter on temple mount
2. Revolt led by Simon bar Kockba (“Son of the Star”)
a. Documents, evidence of massacre in Judean wilderness caves
b. Documents include letters to/from Simon “bar Koziba”
3. Results
a. Revolt crushed; Judaism oppressed; Aqiba martyred
b. Jerusalem rebuilt (135) as Aelia Capitolina; Jews banned
4. Beth Din moved to Galilee, eventually settled in Tiberius
a. The Mishnah: Rabbinical codification of the oral law
b. Tannaitic Midrashim (“investigations”): biblical commentaries
c. Tosephta (“additions”): Halachic additions to Mishnah
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