A Semiotic Analysis of Four Designer Clothing Advertisements
Rebecca Stone
The birth of the science of semiotics can be attributed mainly to the work of two men, the American
philosopher Charles Peirce, and the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. This study of signs can be
related to anything that can be seen to signify a meaning or idea. As a linguist Saussure argued that
language consists of a series of signs, which are used to communicate certain messages and
meanings. He suggested that our understanding and perception of reality is contrived and affected
by the signs that we use in everyday social contexts. This assertion implies that, rather than signs
illustrating and reflecting an already existing reality, they in fact mould our perceptions of reality.
There are three main parts to the structure of semiotics; the sign, what it refers to, and the people
who use it. There are many different varieties of sign and ways of relating to people and
communicating meaning. The conveyance of messages takes place through the development and
use of codes, the form and existence that these take depends on the society and culture within which
they operate. (Fiske 1990:40).
Saussure believed that, firstly a sign is a tangible object which has meaning, and secondly that there
are two, inseparable, parts to every sign. One part of the sign is the signifier, which expresses the
sign. This is usually something which exists in the real, material world. The second component to the
sign is the signified. This is the idea or notion which the signifier evokes when we see and understand
it. Peirce defined the study of semiotics as the "doctrine of signs", in his view the word ‘signs’
indicates anything that "stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity" (Peirce
1958:228 cited in Danesi 1994:4). Peirce’s model of ‘Triangular Relation’ (Danesi 1994:6) can be used
to illustrate his notion of the relationship between the sign, the interpretant and the object.
Peirce regarded the connections between the signs and the referents as potentially infinite. He
believed that it would always be possible to find new meanings and connotations for different signs,
no matter how customary the sign’s usage may have become. Generally, all signs must be viewed
and considered in conjunction with all other signs that are present. This is due to the fact that every
sign only has meaning in relation to the other signs, both those present and those which have been
excluded. Signs can be arranged into different plans and systems, frameworks within which they can
be understood, these are referred to as codes. E.g. denim jeans connote a certain sign which falls into
the code of clothes for manual labour. The code within which a sign is placed will affect its meaning.
There are three types of code; social codes, textual codes and interpretative codes (Chandler WWW).
These are consistent with the three areas of knowledge and understanding that the reader of the
text must possess if he/she is to be successful. Firstly the reader must have knowledge of the world
and society, secondly he/she must understand the relevance of the medium and the genre and
thirdly he/she must be able to relate the two together.
There is often a distinction made between meanings; a connotative signified and a denotative
signified. The term denotation is used in conjunction with the most obvious, straight-forward
interpretation of the sign (Chandler WWW). However, signs will often have connotations, that is
meanings which come from within our own culture and society. These can sometimes be recognised
consciously, but at other times are only apparent when we look for them. For example in many
instances the use of a female model in advertisements is a sign which carries connotations such as
youth, slimness, health etc. When a sign carries positive connotations like these, it can also work as
the signifier of the mythic ‘feminine beauty’. This notion originates from society’s stereotypical views
of the attributes, or positive myths, a woman should possess in order to be deemed sexually
desirable.
Myth can also affect how a sign is read as it can make it function as a signifier on another level
(Bignell 1997:16). Myth is often used in conjunction with existing signs and their connotations in
order to give them an additional meaning, often in a particular social role. Advertising copywriters
use the visual and linguistic signs which they believe support the mythic meanings of a particular
product. Both these types of sign are used in order to generate messages about a product and the
people who use it. In this way advertisements aim to attach particular mythic meanings and
implications to certain products by using already-meaningful signs. Thus advertisements have the
ability to bestow upon different products particular social significances in such a way that they then
function in society as signs connoting the purchaser’s good taste, street credibility etc. In short,
advertisements serve to signify something about their consumers.
"The technique of advertising is to correlate feelings, moods or attributes to tangible objets, linking
possible unattainable things with those that are attainable, and thus reassuring us that the former
are within reach". (Williamson 1978:31). Hence the advertisement not only sells the reader the
product, but also a future image of ourselves as more desirable, happier etc…. Through the process
of being advertised a product becomes a representation of everything the reader desires to become.
"What the advertisement clearly does is thus to signify, to represent to us, the object of desire"
(Williamson 1978:60). It could thus be argued that the most important concept in advertising is the
notion of ‘me’. In order to be successful advertisements need to portray an image of ‘me’ and tell us
how to make it even more appealing, attractive, sexy etc. In this way the product is given personality;
communicating not only information but also image. Due to the fact that it is through the use of the
products advertised that the model signified in the advertisement appears as he/she does, it is the
implication, or connotation, of the advertisement that the audience can become as attractive and
appealing as the model by using the same products.
In the majority of advertisements the models signified always look directly at the audience, making
eye contact. One of the main reasons for this is that it evokes the idea, and notion, of looking at
oneself in the mirror. In this way the advertisers are again implying how easy it would be for the
reader to become the model. Eye contact is particularly useful as a signifier. The eyes have long been
a significant communicator of messages and feelings. For example the length of time for which eye
contact is held, the position of the gaze etc. these all communicate different sentiments. An
illustration of this could be ‘staring’, where the gaze is wide and direct, and eye contact is held for a
prolonged period. This is often seen as aggressive and challenging.
As with eye contact it can be claimed that clothing is also a very important and useful signifier.
Although it is true that the clothes we wear serve, primarily, as bodily covering, for warmth and
protection, at a fundamental level, it can be argued that clothes are, in fact, far more than this. Dress
provides a signifying system which can be used to communicate messages and meaning about the
wearer and his/her attitudes, social status, religion etc. Within the human culture clothing plays an
important role as a powerful source of signification. In putting on clothing people are occupied in
producing images of themselves. These images are made to suit their own needs and, more
importantly, to conform to various ideological and lifestyle codes. In this way, fashion is a "reflection
of cultural values and attitudes" (Danesi 1994:157). It is for this reason that, for the purpose of this
assignment, I have chosen to attempt a semiotic analysis of several printed advertisements
promoting designer fashion houses.
The following four advertisements have all been chosen at random from the same issue (March 2000)
of Vogue magazine. Vogue is one of a group of magazines aimed at women from any ethnic
background, aged between approximately 18-35, who have money to spend on clothes and
cosmetics. The main focus of this magazine is fashion and beauty. This said, however, it is important
to remember that in most cases the magazine is not only read by the purchaser but often by a variety
of other readers, and that "not all the readers will belong to the group of women which the magazine
targets, and some readers will be men" (Bignell 1997:58). Messages are rarely read in the way by
everybody who perceives them.
Often magazines such as this adopt their own identifying slogan which appear on the spine of every
edition. For example, Cosmopolitan magazine carries the slogan ‘Smart girls carry Cosmo’ and the
magazine Company has adopted the slogan ‘For your freedom years’. These slogans themselves are
also signs and connote values and qualities such as; youth, confidence, sociability, worldliness etc. In
contradiction with this, however, Vogue has not assumed such a slogan. The reason for this may
simply be that the name of the magazine is considered significant enough. In the dictionary alone the
word ‘vogue’ is defined as meaning; fashion, style, the latest rage, fashionableness, favour,
popularity and prevalence, to name just a few. In a case where the title of the magazine alone carries
such positive connotations the possibility that an additional slogan is found unnecessary is not
surprising. It is through the use of titles such as Vogue and any accompanying slogans that further
notions of mythic feminine identity are projected. It is important to remember that, as has so often
been advocated, "the function of women’s magazines is to provide readers with a sense of
community, comfort and pride in this mythic feminine identity"(Bignell 1997:61)
Let us now turn to the advertisements in question.
Figure 1 is an advertisement for Ghost clothing. It takes the form of a photographic mid-shot of a
female model taken in the style of the Pre-Raphaelite paintings. Although the model has modern
features and has a different pose, the photograph is evocative of paintings such as ‘Flaming June’ by
Frederic Leighton and ‘A Sea Spell’ by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. This probably has a lot to do with the
similar use of colour and lighting. The photograph has been produced using colours strongly
associated with Pre-Raphaelite art, namely natural and fiery tones, and this helps to create and
evoke inviting feelings of warmth. The richness of colour may also reflect the richness of the material
used by Ghost, who work, almost exclusively, with materials such as "crepe, satin, georgette and
velvet" (Ghost WWW).
The Pre-Raphaelite style is, itself, also a sign. Pre-Raphaelite paintings and their models carry many
positive connotations. They are seen as beautiful, enchanting, alluring and romantic. They have a
certain angelic yet nymph-like quality, and seem unreal in many ways. This nymph-like quality is
further emphasised as the clothes are worn in such a way that they expose the model’s arms,
shoulders and legs in a provocative and enticing manner. By using such messages, Ghost may be
signifying that their clothes are also beautiful, enchanting, alluring and romantic, thus making the
wearer so also. They may be selling their clothes as ultra-feminine, luxuriant and delicate. There is a
certain sensitivity associated with the art of this style which the clothing company may wish to
correlate to their garments, which they publicise as flowing with "no hard lines" and a "fluid
silhouette" (Ghost WWW). Unusually this model is not holding the gaze of the audience but is looking
away, to her left. This gives her a certain aloofness which may also be seen as an element of coyness.
This, again, echoes back to the idea of the original paintings evoking the impression of an angelic,
yet nymph-like characteristic. This makes the model mysterious and interesting – more qualities that
women will pay good money to possess.
The advertisement does not contain a caption of any kind. The only wording used is the name of the
company; Ghost. The topography is indicative of Ghost, using the habitual sans-serif Ghost font in
white. In many respects the style of photograph used reflects the name of the company as it gives
the advertisement the feeling of coming from another time and conjures up images of literal ghosts
in the use of art from another era.
Figure 2 is a double page advertisement for Louis Féraud clothes. The background of this
advertisement is a plain, uniform grey. The colour grey is often used by artists to indicate boredom
and monotony. Further more the picture features no less than five empty birdcages, the doors of
which are wide open.
In the foreground is the model, pictured from approximately thigh height. Her stance suggests that
she has been set free from one of the cages. She is dressed completely in white, a colour often
associated with purity, innocence and freedom. In a prominent position on the front of the top that
she is wearing is a large flower. This encompasses many colours and it could be suggested that there
is a colour for every season of the year. The flower connotes sentiments of freedom, wilderness, of all
things natural and fresh. The fact that there is a colour present which could be used to represent
every season may allude to the fact that Louis Féraud clothes are appropriate for all occasions, be it
spring, summer, autumn or winter.
In certain contexts hair can be a very important signifier. It is often seen to be linked with depicting
the binary opposites of freedom and enclosure (Sarah Richards WWW). In this advertisement the
model’s hair appears to be very natural, it is long, loose and blowing in the wind. This signifies
freedom, naturalness and a certain independent attitude to life. The model’s gaze is not directed at
the audience, but out to the horizon. This may also be linked to the idea of her new-found freedom. It
could be urged that Louis Féraud are depicting, and selling, their clothes as from a non-conformist
designer. He could be seen as offering escape for those who wish to break away from the cages of
convention. The advertisement offers the reader a choice of two possible lifestyles; the uniform grey
and boredom of conformity, or the colours, life and freedom gained from the self-expression which
can be attained by breaking from these conventions. In this way the reader is given a choice of which
lifestyle they would rather have, which way of life they would rather belong to.
The typography used is a formal serif font, typical of the designer. There are no other words on the
page, nothing else is said, perhaps it is felt that nothing else needs to be said.
In figure 3 we are presented with an advertisement for Kenzo clothes, spanning a double page
spread. The background of which has been created in the style reminiscent of traditional Japanese
paintings, using warm, natural earthy colours. The colours are subdued rather than bright and at the
model’s feet the light of a setting sun is apparent. Between the colours used and the sunset, the
advertisement takes on a romantic mood and lighting.
On the left hand side of the picture is a photographic long-shot of a Western European female
wearing the oriental style clothes characteristic of Kenzo. The model’s hair is long and worn loose,
blowing in the breeze, thus giving the picture a natural ambience. The model’s hair blowing in the
wind also gives an impression of freedom, perhaps in this case the freedom of expression. There may
be further signifiers of Kenzo style within the picture. For example the picture depicts a fish out of
water and the mathematical sum; "1+1=3". These, along with the fact the oriental clothes are being
modelled by a European female, may imply that not everything has to make sense. This notion
would establish Kenzo as a company designing unconventional clothes for people who do not wish to
conform.
This advertisement does not include any captions, merely the name Kenzo and the sum. The
typography is in the usual font and colour, exhibiting a definite oriental feel, which has become the
signature of the company.
Figure 4 presents a double page advertisement for Joop clothing. This photograph was shot from
what appears to be the top of a building which is still under construction. The advertisement features
several people; four males and a female. It appears that the men pictured are working on the building
as they are engaged in manual work and they are dressed in either dark denim jeans or overalls.
These men provide a dark contrast to the brightly dressed female stood amongst them.
The woman stands out as she does not really fit the image conveyed by the rest of the photograph.
She is stood in the centre of the construction site, wearing a provocatively cut mini-dress of vibrant
orange, flowing, material. The style of the dress is reminiscent of the Spanish flamenco fashion. The
model’s hair is also groomed in such a way as to fit this style. The flamenco fashion carries traditional
connotations of fiery passion and flare. Between the model’s hairstyle and the cut and colour of the
dress she appears very mysterious, elegant, sexy and out-of-place.
The model is stood above the men, in opposition to the traditional view of the male hierarchy in the
working world. Her gaze is also suggestive of superiority, she is not looking at either the workers or
the audience but above them. She represents the individual who has risen above the uniformly
dressed, working crowd, and she demands attention. Although the stance of the female model
suggests authority and demands attention, she does not get any from the construction workers.
Although the photograph combines two common themes; that of the world of work, and that of the
luxury of fashion, it also implies that they do not necessarily mix. The workers are engrossed in their
job and pay the woman no attention at all. She, in her turn, does not acknowledge them either. It is
as though she and the workers are each consumed by their own interests, they belong to different
worlds.
Through this advertisement it appears that Joop are suggesting that the classic tradition of denim
has lost its authority, and that wearing Joop clothes (which we assume the model is) makes the
wearer a better person. This follows the idea that wearing the right clothes has vested the model
with a certain kind of confidence and power with which, for example, she can leave the world of work
and all its obligations, in order to concentrate on herself, her appearance and the luxury of fashion.
The typography consists of the classic Joop name in its usual form, however in this case the name is
followed by an exclamation mark. This suggests that in this case Joop becomes more than just a
name, but a statement. This may signify that by wearing Joop clothes person concerned is also
making a statement.
How the audience interprets a particular advertisement depends largely on its syntagmatic and
paradigmatic structure. A paradigm can be defined as anything which can be used as a substitute for
the present signifiers; it relates to the choice and selection of particular signs. Whilst syntagmatic
analysis relates to the sequential structure of the sign; the combination of signs. An important
element of syntagmatic analysis is the study of montage, which concentrates on the relationships of
the spatial elements of the advertisement. For example, when in figure 2 the model is positioned in
front of the open birdcages, it is done in such a way as to create a relationship between them so that
the reader automatically assumes that the model has escaped from one of them.
Each advertisement holds its own set of paradigms. In the case of those featured above; the medium
is that of advertising in magazines, the genre of magazine is a women’s magazine and the theme is
that of fashion and beauty. Any change of paradigm within this context would undoubtedly change
the meanings created, to a greater or lesser degree. Substituting one signifier for another in this way
demonstrates the use and function of the commutation test, which identifies how the signified
meanings differ when changes are made within the same sytagmatic sequence. This exercise
therefore serves to identify the main features of an advertisement and defines their significance.
Finally, I would like to note that the study and semiotic analysis of advertisements is both interesting
and beneficial. Over the course of this assignment it has become apparent that a lot more thought
and effort goes into the production of advertisements than is often ever realised or appreciated.
Advertisements contain many messages, both obvious and covert, making their analysis both
complex and, sometimes, surprising. It is clear that advertisements do much more than merely sell
products, for advertising "has another function….. it creates structures of meaning". (Williamson
1978:11-12). Advertisements serve, not only to entice us to buy products, but that they also ask the
reader to "participate in ideological ways of seeing ourselves and the world".(Bignall 1997:33).
Advertisements "evoke emotions and feelings through promises of pleasure connected to the
purchase of the product" (Dyer 1982:126). Due to constraints of time and space, and the complexity
of the task, it is difficult to make my semiotic analysis any fuller, however although it may not be
conclusive, it has given me a great insight into the art of advertising products successfully.
Bibliography
• Bignell, J (1997): Media semiotics: An Introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press
• Chandler, D (2000): Semiotics for Beginners [WWW document] URL
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/semiotic.html
• Danesi, M (1994): Messages and Meanings: An Introduction to Semiotics. Toronto: Canadian
Scholars’ Press
• Dyer, G (1982): Advertising as Communication. London: Routledge
• Fiske, J (1990): Introduction to Communication Studies. London: Routledge
• Ghost Website. URL http://www.ghost.co.uk
• Griffiths, M (1996): A Semiotic Analysis of Diesel Ads. [WWW document] URL
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/lmg9302.html
• Richards, S (1997): A Semiotic analysis of Wallis Adverts. [WWW document] URL
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/sar9501.html
• Williamson, J (1978): Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising. London:
Boyers
April 2000