EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
EDUCATION FOR ALL: THE YEAR 2000 ASSESSMENT
COUNTRY REPORT
BY
KOREA
Korean National Commission for UNESCO
December 1999
[This is an excerpt of country report containing relevant sections on literacy and
non-formal education.]
Downloaded from Asia-Pacific Literacy Data Base (http://www.accu.or.jp/litdbase).
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
Part I – Descriptive Sections
1. EFA Goals and Targets
…..
The EFA goals and targets in each EFA area are as follows.
….
D. Adult Literacy
The enrollment rate of primary schools was over 98% in the 1960s; EFA in its true sense was
actualized in the late 1970s. Therefore, the Korean government has not paid serious attention to the
issues of literacy education. As EFA became a worldwide issue in 1990- International Literacy Year,
however, speculation grew that there were a number of illiteracy cases even in Korea, especially in poor
inner-city slums, rural/isolated areas, and among the elderly. It was during this period that a transition
with regard to the focus of literacy education occurred shifting from 'basic literacy' to 'life skill
literacy/functional literacy.
Currently, the establishment of lifelong learning is the impetus behind the ‘Open Learning
Society’ concept proposed in the 5.31 Education Reform in 1995. This reform proposes that lifelong
opportunities for learning should be assured to every Korean citizen. Moreover, the accreditation and
acceptance of diverse learning experiences acquired outside formal schooling will, when necessary, be
counted in obtaining various licenses required in our new technological society. Lifelong learning will
thus promote an individual’s ability to contribute to society as well offering a means of personal
self-fulfillment. The Education Reform Plan also represents promise that budget will be secured for
this endeavor, and lifelong learning will be guaranteed for generations to come.
….
2. EFA Strategy and/or Plan of Action
…..
B. 5.31 Educational Reform of 1995
…..
(a) registration for part-time adult learners
(b) development of diverse adult and continuing education programs that can meet various needs
of adult learners
(c) strengthening of education for rural/isolated areas via distance education
(d) increase of educational opportunities for women and the elderly
(e) application of high-tech media (CA TV, PC, CD-ROM, VOD) to distance education,
establishment of national multi-media centers for education information system
(f) reinforcement of the liaison among schools, families and other institutions of adult and
continuing education, and utilization of mass media as educational resources.
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
(g) development of discipline programs including vacation camps for personality education of
children and adolescents, education for creative thinking, self-initiated learning, improvement
of basic learning achievement, functional literacy, individualized instruction, education of
high-tech information and communication, emphasis on foreign language education,
introduction of comprehensive graduate record system, and the development of allencompassing evaluation measures and tools.
….
3. EFA Decision-Making and Management
….
Different offices and bureaus with MOE take charge of EFA policies at different levels of
education. EFA issues regarding early childhood education are dealt with by Early Childhood Education
and Special Education Division in the School Policy Office. The School Policy Division in the same
bureau takes charge of EFA policies at the elementary and secondary education level. EFA in higher
education is managed by the Higher Education Support Bureau. The Lifelong Education Bureau is
responsible for adult and continuing education as well as literacy education.
…..
The following institutions and organizations including NGOs are very interested in EFA activities.
They are the Korean National Commission for UNESCO, Korean Educational Development Institute,
Korean Association for Adult Literacy and Basic Education, The Adult & Continuing education of
Korea, Korean Association of Adult and Continuing education, etc.
In particular, the Korean National Commission for UNESCO and Korean Association for Adult
Literacy and Basic Education have played an important role by supporting and implementing promoting
various EFA projects such as provision of educational networks and information to literacy education
workers, training of literacy teachers, development of literacy education programs, distribution of
literacy education materials, organization of workshops, etc
4. Co-operation in EFA
EFA activities are promoted on the basis of liaison among central/local government bureaus of
education, primary/secondary schools and institutions of adult and continuing education in public and
private sector. With the decentralization of governmental administrations that started from 1994, EFA
activities in Korea have been also localized, diversified and individualized.
Besides central/local government, Korean Association for Adult Literacy and Basic Education,
Korean Educational Development Institute, and APPEAL Committee managed by Korean National
Commission for UNESCO have greatly contributed to promote and distribute EFA project in this
country as a cooperative network. There are also many adult education programs based on the
community in urban areas. As of May 1995, 72 organizations of adult and continuing education are
registered in the MOE with 15 metropolitan and provincial branches, 260 city/county sub-branches and
310,000 woman members all over the country.
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
…..
5. Investment for EFA since 1990
It is very difficult to know exactly how much we have invested to promote EFA activities,
because EFA is not an official title of a specific governmental project in Korea. Nevertheless, we’re able
to gain a general grasp of EFA investment in Korea from the government budget for expansion of the
following programs: early childhood education, universalization and improvement of primary education,
compulsory secondary education, adult and continuing education, etc.
…..
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
Part ll – Analytic Sections
1. Progress toward Goals and Targets
(Covering the decade 1990 – 1999)
….
D. Adult literacy
In Korea, the reduction of adult illiteracy rate has not drawn social concern in recent years. The
illiteracy problem is hidden beneath the surface, and is treated as a individual problem rather than a
social one. It is mainly because the rate of illiteracy is very low, and most of the individuals are
considered too old to gain literacy. However there are some young illiterates who hide their illiteracy, or
are trying to overcome it.
It is postulated that some portion of illiterates are unable to gain literacy due to personal reasons
such as low IQ or a learning disability. In Korea, virtually all young people who have the capacity to be
literate are considered to have achieved literacy.
Korea has shown dramatic literacy rate change over the past 60-70 years. In the late 1930s the
adult illiteracy rate was over 70%. Now it is less than 2 %. How it is possible to eradicate illiteracy in
such a relatively short time?
There can be many answers to that question. First, it owes to the value system of Korean people.
During its long history, education has been first the priority of many Koreans. People seek to educate
their children even if they face a shortage of food. People believe the return rate of education is higher
than that of any other investment in children. Owing to the strong relationship between parent and
children, parents have been willing to sacrifice themselves for the education of their offspring. Second,
the Korean alphabet is easy to learn. Since Korean is a scientific phonetic language composed of 10
vowels and 14 consonant, it is relatively easy to learn. Third, after the liberation from Japan in 1945, the
rapid expansion of primary schools made it possible for virtually all of the young children to become
literate. Fourth, the social atmosphere in which everybody is expected to read and write helps people to
learn. The adult who has had no chance to learn when he/she was young, is usually ashamed of
himself/herself and typically tries hard to learn when the opportunity presents itself. Finally, small
non-profit institutes operating on a voluntary basis help adults to learn. There have been many small
institutes teaching Korean to the socially deprived illiterates, especially women. Through these institute
many illiterates have gained literacy.
The disparity of literacy between male and female is no longer a social problem. In the past,
usually girls had to sacrifice themselves for their brothers or family. They were the first targets to
abandon their education. Now as far as primary or secondary education is concerned, there is almost no
disparity.
The Korean literacy rate will be explained by 3 indicators (indicator 16 – 18) one by one.
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
(1) Indicator 16: literacy rate of 15-24 year olds.
Since there is no data available on the literacy rate of this age group, indirect, estimated data by
Korean researchers has been necessary. It was assumed that if this group were to have attended school
when they were primary school age, they could be considered as literate. Although there was no data
on the literacy rate of this age group, it was possible to get the attendance rate of primary school of this
age group. From 1972 (24 year olds in 1990 went to school at 1972) onwards, the attendance rates of 6
year old children reached more than 97%, and the dropout rate of primary school children has been so
low as to be ignored. Therefore it can be estimated that the literacy rate of this age group is over 97%.
To be more accurate, the attendance rate of primary school of this age group was summed each
year and divided by 10. For example, to obtain the literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds in 1990, the
attendance rates of primary school from 1972 through 1980 were summed and divided by 10 making
97.78 % of literacy rate. In the year 1991, the attendance rates of primary school from 1973 through
1981 were summed and divided by 10 making a 97.88 % literacy rate. The literacy rate of other years
was made in the same way. The literacy rate of this group from 1990 to 1998 is between 97.78% and
98.62%,
Table13 : Change of literacy rates of 15-24 age group(1990-1998)
100
percent(%)
99
98
97.78
97.88
97.93
98.02
98.16
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
98.31
98.44
98.53
98.62
1995
1996
1997
1998
97
96
95
year
Note: The attendance rate used here is based on “summarized educational statistics (ganchurin Kyoyuk
TongKye) made by MOE & Korean Educational Development Institute, 1998
This revised data using attendance rates has some limitations. These are 1) it is possible to read
and write even though a child has not attended school, and these literate people are considered illiterate
in this revised data, 2) individuals who attend school out of Korea are counted as illiterate in this
revised data. Considering these limitations, this estimated data in Indicator 16 may undervalue the
literacy rate of this age group.
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
(2) Indicator 17: adult literacy
Since there has been no national survey on the literacy rate of adults, it is impossible to get
accurate adult literate numbers or literacy rates. No one in Korea is confident of possessing the correct
data. It is not because there are so many illiterate people, but because it is not a major concern of
mainstream society. People usually assume that everyone in Korea can read and write and generalize a
100%literacy rate. This social atmosphere causes the illiterate to hide their illiteracy.
However it is true that there are some illiterates in Korea. According to the Korean Literacy
Education Organization there are scores of small private organizations working for the education of
illiterate citizens in Korea.
Now we face the problem of estimating the literacy rate of adult in Korea. As I mentioned earlier,
there have been no national surveys in Korea, thereby no official data except the UNESCO data.
UNESCO in its “World Educational Report, 1991” announced the Korean illiteracy rate 1990, to be
3.7%., and in “Statistical Yearbook, 1996” the illiterate rate of 1995 is listed as 2%.
The literacy rate of Korea has surely increased as the years have gone by. It is mainly because the
elderly group with a high percentage of illiteracy has gradually passed away, and partly because there
has been a continuous movement to eradicate illiteracy. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that the literacy
rate of recent years is higher than that of bygone years. However it is not easy to ascertain the rate of
increase. The Indicator 17 assumes that the increase rate of literacy is the same during the 1990 to 1995
of which UNESCO data is available. It also assumes that the increase rate is same regardless of
province.
The difference between 1990 and 1995 is 1.7%. Therefore, it was assumed that the increase
literacy rate was 0.34% every year. In the case of 1998 the literacy rate of 15-24 age group is 98.62 %. If
we assume that the increase rate of literacy was same between 1990 and 1995, the adult literacy rate
would be higher than that of 15-24 age group, which cannot occur. Here we have to introduce
imaginative methods. We assume the literacy rate of 1998 to 98.5%, which is lower that that of 15-24
age group. Once again we assume that the increase rate of literacy between 1995 and 1998 was the same,
with a slight 0.16% increase every year. Table 2 shows the change of literacy rates of adult since 1990.
Table 14 : Change of literacy rates of adults(15+)
100
percent(%)
99
98
98.00
98.17
98.33
1996
1997
98.50
97.66
97
97.32
96.98
96
96.64
96.30
95
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
year
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1995
1998
EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
(3) Indicator 18: Literacy gender Parity Index: ratio of female to male literacy
rates
As I mentioned earlier, there is no official data on the ratio of female and male literacy rates.
Figures that I present in Indicator 18 were obtained from the same data, and same methods we use in
indicator 17. According to the UNESCO data, the literacy rate of male was 99.1 % whereas that of
female was 93.5% in 1990. In the year of 1995 the literacy rate of male was 99.3% and that of female
was 96.7%. During 1990-1995 the male literacy rate increased by 0.2%, whereas the female literacy rate
increased by 3.2% obviously making the gap between male and female narrower.
percent(%)
Table 15 : Male and female literacy rates(1990-1998)
100
99.5
99
99.36
98.5 99.10 99.14 99.18 99.22 99.26 99.30 99.32 99.34
98
97.5
97.70
97
97.37
96.5
97.03
96.70
96
95.5
96.06
95
95.42
94.5
94.78
94
94.14
93.5
93 93.50
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
male
female
year
In the older generation, the female literacy rate was much lower than the male literacy rate.
Equality of education was not realized and the social atmosphere forced females to sacrifice for males.
Women with poor family backgrounds were the first targets to sacrifice their educational lives. As
education became the norm, and the advancement rate to high school climbed to 90 – 97%, no disparity
emerges as far as general education (primary, middle and high school) is concerned. In the younger
generation there exists no difference between boy’s and girls’ opportunity for education; if any, it is so
slight that it can be ignored.
The following were the problems we encountered while gathering statistics and information for
indicators 16 to 18
(a) No official statistics about the illiteracy rates in Korea are available because it is generally
assumed that illiteracy issues are not crucial in Korean education any longer. In fact, during
the 1950s and 1960s, the government launched a nationwide literacy campaign, which turned
out to be very successful, Since that period, the Korean government has not paid attention to
the literacy and failed to produce the official literacy rates. The government is rather more
interested in computer literacy than in traditional literacy.
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
(b) The reliability of statistics is in doubt. The statistics we use here as one of the sources is
UNESCO statistics. However, it is very curious how these figures are made where no official
statistics on literacy are available.
(c) The estimated figures presented in indicator 16-18 are not reliable since they are based on the
assumption and unreliable data. For example, the literacy rate of 15-24 age group is derived
from the attendance rate of primary school, not from the literacy rate.
2. Effectiveness of the EFA Strategy, Plan and Programmes
Since 1990, diverse EFA events and actions have taken place in Korea. The National
Coordinating Committee for APPEAL was inaugurated in 1987 and new attempts were made to organize
seminars, conferences and to publish literacy data and materials. In 1989, there were two national
seminars/ workshops, one in May sponsored by the Korean Association of Adult Education and Korean
Educational Development Institute and the other in August sponsored by the Korean National
Commission for UNESCO and the Korean Association of Adult Education. During the latter, the Korean
Association for Adult Literacy and Basic Education was founded at the final session of the 1989
workshop. Since then, most of the activities related to literacy education have been carried out through
joint efforts among UNESCO, Korean National Commission for UNESCO and Korean Association for
Adult Literacy and Basic Education. Through the activities, the importance and necessity of the literacy
and adult basic education have been disseminated to policy-makers as well as ordinary citizens.
The following is a list of literacy education activities carried out as joint projects among
UNESCO, Korean National Commission for UNESCO and the Korean Association for Adult Literacy
and Basic Education since 1990.
 February 1990
Literacy Conference / Workshop Celebrating International Literacy Year(ILY) and Ceremony for
the Book Voyage.
 May 1990
National Symposium in Commemoration of ILY : Main Theme: " Historical Review of Literacy
Education in Korea"(J. Hwang)
 8 September 1990
Celebration and Presentation of the National Literacy Awards on International Literacy Day.
Keynote Speech on "Problems and Strategies of Literacy Education"(H. Hinzen, DVV, West
Germany)
 20 December 1990
Evaluation Meeting on the programs and activities of ILY.
 22-23 February 1991
Annual Literacy Conference and Workshop on the theme, "Strategies and Problems of Literacy
and Adult Basic Education"
 22-23 March 1991
International Seminar and Regional Cooperation on Literacy Participants from Vietnam, Laos,
Mongolia, Japan and Korea.
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
 7 September 1991
International Literacy Day Celebration and National Literacy Awards.
 10-11 February 1992
Annual Literacy Conference and Workshop, "Design for Literacy Training: Utilization of ATLP".
 13-16 July 1992
National Workshop for Literacy Workers, "Strategies for Literacy and Basic Education".
 10-12 February 1993
Annual Literacy Workshop for Literacy Workers "Development of the Text and Teaching Strategy
for Literacy and Basic Education".
 26 April-1 May 1993
International Symposium on Literacy Education and UNESCO Sub-Regional Workshop on
Research Design on Functional Literacy Level.
 17-18 March 1994
Annual Literacy Workshop for Literacy Workers "The Contents and Methods of Literacy
Education for Life".
 15-16 February 1995
Annual Literacy Workshop for Literacy Workers "The Practices and Methods for Literacy
Education on Life".
 8-9 February 1996
Annual Literacy Workshop for Literacy Workers "The Organization and Management of Post
Literacy and Continuing education".
 24-25 October 1997
Annual Literacy Workshop for Literacy Workers "The Effective Management of Literacy and
Basic Education Organization in Korea".
 6-8 October 1998
Annual Literacy Workshop for Literacy Workers "Utilization and Application of UNESCO
ATLP-CE in Korea".
UNESCO PROAP successfully published an eight-volume manual which comprises the contents
of each area under the general title of APPEAL Training Materials for Continuing education Personnel
(ATLP-CE). It also held several workshops in order to meet the needs of continuing education in the
countries of the Region. The basic aim in the development of these materials was to assist each country’s
understanding of the general ideas within each category of CE. The materials are to be used as
guidelines, adapted and finally put into practice by developing an indigenous system for continuing
education.
In recognition of the spirit of this purpose, the Korean Commission for UNESCO has planned
the translation the of the first five volumes (Vol. I through Vol. V) and has successfully published a
comprehensive Korean-version entitled "Organization and Management of Continuing education” - with
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
a special reference to UNESCO APPEAL Training Materials for Continuing education" in 1995. The
Korean Association for Adult Literacy and Basic Education held a workshop carrying the same title as
the book with sponsorship by the Korean Commission for UNESCO in Feb., 1996.
Since the eight volumes are closely linked to each other, it is necessary to translate the entire set.
Thus, the translation of the remaining three volumes (Vol. VI through Vol. III) is quite an urgent & work
in order to help field workers in the area of adult literacy and basic education to better understand the
general ideas of various aspects implied in ATLP-CE. Also, it is also desirable to bind the already
translated volumes as well as the remaining three volumes, and publish them as a single set.
Furthermore, the dissemination of these translated materials to the field workers and experts in
continuing education should be focused upon. For this purpose, a workshop for the related personnel has
to be organized and held. And finally, it would be the most important work to conduct a study on the
impact of the ATLP-CE to the development of adult literacy and basic education practice in each country.
As found in the basic aim of the development of ATLP-CE, the adaptability or applicability of the
materials in different context of the Regional countries can be identify through this kind of study.
3. Main Problems Encountered and Anticipated
Several problems exist in the implementation of adult basic education. First, Koreans regard
education itself as ‘formal education’, since the policy decision makers as well as citizens place the top
priority of educational investment on formal education. Secondly, the illiterate often have strong feelings
of inferiority and shame about their illiteracy, therefore seldom expose their condition to the public. This
reality causes difficulties in identifying the number of illiterate citizens and, thereby, the appropriate
level of literacy education to be instituted. Thirdly, the socioeconomic level of illiterates is often so
low that they can not afford to attend literacy classes, even though they may want to. Thus, they are
suffering from a vicious cycle of poverty and illiteracy. Lastly, most cultural activities are so
elite-centered that the illiterate seldom has opportunity to access them. For examples, textbooks or
materials designed for illiterate adults are not widely available at the national level, thus the small,
private literacy education institutes develop their own materials through trial and error.
Therefore, the first step to overcome the major problems should be to enlarge the concept and
goals of literacy and literacy education as a component of lifelong education. It is time to broadly
re-define the scope of literacy education to include functional and professional literacy in the following
specific areas: economic, social, cultural, technological, and vocational and technical fields, as well as
3R-based literacy. In other words, literacy education needs to be recognized as a major component of
adult and continuing education beyond fundamental 3R literacy.
Secondly, opportunities for literacy education should be enlarged including free education for
low-income citizens. Great efforts are required to give sustained additional education programs for the
newly-literate groups as a post-literacy program and adult basic education. In order for those
educationally-deprived groups to participate in literacy education programs on an active and voluntary
basis, cost-free literacy education should be freely available. Diverse literacy education programs,
teaching-learning materials, and teaching methods need to be developed as well as to strengthen the
incentive system to join the literacy education programs.
Thirdly, concern must be shown for the diversity of program, staff development and
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
professionalization, development of teaching-learning materials, and rational operation of the programs.
This suggests that a ‘system approach’ be adopted to ensure overall development in all areas concerned.
Finally, a nationwide cooperative network needs further consolidation, making possible the
sharing of a pool of resources, facilities and experiences among concerned institutions. Government
should do its share in the development of a literacy program by subsidizing and financing programs. It is
also important to enlist the support of the private sector, notably from the industrial firms who will
benefit from the general enhancement of literacy.
4. General Assessment of the Progress
…..
D. Adult Literacy
Korea has shown a dramatic literacy rate change over the past the 60-70 years. During the 19301940s, almost 70-80% of Koreans were illiterate. After the liberation from Japan in 1945, people tried
very hard to eradicate illiteracy. The Korean zeal for education was the first impetus for literacy.
After 1983, no official statistics on the literacy rates were kept in Korea. It is because the problem
of being illiteracy has not garnered significant social or educational concern. In the 1950s and 1960s, the
government launched the nationwide literacy campaign, which turned out to be very successful, Since
then, the Korean government has paid little attention to literacy and failed to produce the official literacy
rates. The government is increasing interested in computer or functional literacy in place of traditional
literacy.
The statistics that we present here are based on the imagination and assumption of Korean
researchers, UNESCO data which probably based on another assumption, and indirect, estimated data
such as attendance rate of primary school. However it is not much different from the real one.
The literacy rate in the 15-24 years-old age group has changed from 97,78% in 1990 to 98.62% in
1998. Since these rates are based on the attendance rates of those people when they were school age, it
can be estimated that the real rate is a little higher than these figures. The adult literacy rate is calculated
to climb from 96.3% in 1990 to 98.5% in 1998. The disparity between male and female literacy rates
has narrowed owing to the generalization of education.
E. Training in Essential Skills
& F. Education for Better Living
To cope with the rapidly changing information era of the 21st century, educational reform of
Korean is heading in two directions: The first one is to put greater emphasis on ‘Educational
Informationalization.’
As many scholars point out, competency in the use of information technology in every aspect of
our lives as well as in education will determine the competitive power of a nation, company, and
individual, as well.
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EFA 2000: Literacy Assessment
Korea
Operating with that premise, the Korean government, especially, the MOE embodies their
specific plans in the establishment of the Multimedia Education Support Center, EDUNET, the
Advanced Academic Research Center, and other educational informationalization-related projects.
Enormously large amount of financial investment will be devoted to computer education and on-line
spaces for housewives, farmers, fishermen, the elderly, as well as students and teachers.
Interestingly enough, the “high tech” trends in every aspect of our lives as well as education,
simultaneously allow people concerned with the aspect of high touch as a reactive response to high tech.
Education on affective aspects such as emotional intelligence and manner/etiquette, therefore, began to
gain more weight from curriculum.
The second direction is to realize the idea of lifelong learning , i.e., ‘open-learning society.’
Intending to introduce the public to the concept of lifelong learning, the Korean government, mass
media, and other civil organizations have begun to establish the framework of adult and continuous
education as follows:
(a) university extension education,
(b) school-based adult and continuing education,
(c) supplementary schoolings,
(d) in-service training,
(e) NGO-based adult and continuing education
The second direction of educational reform, of course, is inseparable from the first one, i.e.,
extended use of information technology in our daily lives as well as educational environments. On-line
based lifelong learning programs, particularly, seem to more appropriately satisfy the needs of learners
who are rather restricted in time and location due to their daytime jobs.
The two mega-trends of lifelong learning and high technology, therefore, seem to generate a great
deal of positive potentials for the improvement of the quality of life of virtually everyone of in every
field (education, health, culture, and etc.). The past 10 years in Korea, has surely provided specific and
feasible evidence that this premise is true enough, when re-examining the quantitative and qualitative
data analyzed according to the given indicators of the two sections: ‘Training in essential skills,’ and
‘Education for better life.’
13