Chapter 15 Suggested Answers
REVIEW 15.1
1
Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning based upon the repeated
association of different stimuli.
2
Neutral stimulus is not associated with any learnt response prior to conditioning
(e.g. a bell initially does not produce salivation). Conditioned stimulus occurs after
conditioning, when the previously neutral stimulus (e.g. bell) has been repeatedly paired
with a conditioned stimulus (e.g. food) and consequently is able to produce a conditioned
response on its own (e.g. salivation at the sound of a bell).
3
Stages of classical conditioning:
Stage of classical conditioning
BEFORE CONDITIONING
Neutral Stimulus (NS) (e.g. bell)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
(e.g. food)
DURING CONDITIONING
Neutral stimulus (NS) (e.g. bell) is
repeatedly paired with Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) (e.g. food)
AFTER CONDITIONING
Conditioned stimulus (CS) (e.g. bell)
4
Response
No response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
salivation: on presentation of food
(UCR)
salivation: due to food
Conditioned response (CR)
salivation: due to bell
Stages of a dog learning through classical conditioning:
Stage of classical conditioning
BEFORE CONDITIONING
Neutral Stimulus (NS) (e.g. can-opener)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
(e.g. food)
DURING CONDITIONING
Neutral Stimulus (NS) (e.g. can-opener)
is repeatedly paired with Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) (e.g. food)
AFTER CONDITIONING
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (e.g. canopener)
Response
No response
Dog salivates as food is scraped out of a
can into food bowl (UCR)
Dog salivates as food is scraped out of a
can into food bowl (UCR)
Conditioned response (CR)—dog now
salivates upon sound of can-opener
opening can of food
5
Extinction—when CR no longer occurs upon presentation of CS. For example,
the dog no longer responds by salivating to the sound of the can-opener.
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Spontaneous recovery—the reappearance of an extinguished response after a brief rest
period. For example, a dog responds again to the sound of the can-opener by salivating
(CR) despite a brief rest period of no response (extinction).
Stimulus discrimination—when an organism responds only to the specific CS, but not
to any similar stimulus. For example, a dog responds only to the sound of the can-opener
(CR), but not to the sound of the kitchen blender.
Stimulus generalisation—when an organism responds to a stimulus that is similar to the
CS (but is not actually the CS) For example, a dog responds by salivating to the sound of
the kitchen blender as well as the can-opener (CR).
REVIEW 15.2
1
Systematic desensitisation and flooding are both techniques used to overcome
phobias. Both involve exposure to the stimulus while practicing a relaxation technique.
However, systematic desensitisation involves graduated exposure (each exposure
gradually more and more similar to the feared stimulus) until patient is able to tolerate the
once fearful stimulus, while flooding involves exposure of the fearful stimulus at a
greater than usual level while practicing a relaxation technique.
For example: Treating a phobia of flying using systematic desensitisation—patient would
be exposed to an image of a aeroplane, followed by an image of the inside of a plane, to a
model of a plane … eventually through to being able to walk onto a plane while
practicing relaxing technique and then ultimately to be able to take off in a real plane
without being fearful. Using flooding—patient taken on a small plane for a flight while
practicing relaxation.
2
Hab-Bitual Scaredy could be taught progressive muscle relaxation while being
exposed to a gradually increasing exposure to flies. Might start with being shown cartoon
image of a fly, then a photo of a fly, then looking at a rubber model, followed by
handling a rubber fly through to holding a dead fly, then a live fly in a jar, and finally
being able to tolerate a fly flying around his head … all while practicing relaxation
technique.
3
Aversion therapy involves pairing an unwanted behaviour with an unpleasant
event. This process uses classical conditioning to stop an unwanted behaviour. For
example, using a nasty tasting substance on fingernails can create an association between
nail biting and the nasty taste.
INVESTIGATE 15.1
1
Cartoon showing conditioning of Little Albert should include the following key
ideas:
Stage of classical conditioning
Response
BEFORE CONDITIONING
Neutral Stimulus (NS) (white rat)
No response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Showed fear at loud noise (UCR)
(loud noise created by steel bar struck
with hammer)
DURING ACQUISITION
Neutral Stimulus (NS) (white rat) is Showed fear/cried at loud noise (UCR)
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repeatedly paired with Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS) (loud noise)
AFTER CONDITIONING
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (white rat)
Showed fear/cried when white rat
presented (CR)
Generalised fear to being presented with a
dog, rabbit, fur coat, Santa Claus mask.
2
a
The aim was to find out if Little Albert would develop a fear of a neutral object
(e.g. rat) after repeated associations of the neutral object and a fearful stimulus (loud
noise).
b
Ethical principles breached: no informed consent was given by Little Albert’s
mother; debriefing did not occur to reduce the harm/reverse the conditioning); Little
Albert did not voluntarily participate (only 2 principles required).
c
Little Albert study was not an experiment as it involved only one subject. It was
therefore a case study.
d
Alternative method of conducting research—follow steps as conducted by John B.
Watson, but include a final stage which uses systematic desensitisation to eliminate the
learnt response (CR). Ethical principles must also be addressed.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1
b
2
d
3
c
4
c
5
d
6
d
7
b
8
a
9
a
10
b
11
d
12
d
13
a
14
c
15
d
16
Learning is a lasting change in behaviour or knowledge as a result of experience.
17
a
An infant grasping its mother’s finger when placed in its palm is a grasping
reflex.
b
A fixed action pattern is a more complex pattern of behaviour that is speciesspecific.
18
Classical conditioning: Pavlov’s experiment:
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Stage of classical conditioning
in Pavlov’s dogs
BEFORE CONDITIONING
Neutral stimulus (NS) (e.g. bell)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
(e.g. food)
DURING CONDITIONING
Neutral Stimulus (NS) (e.g. bell) is
repeatedly paired with presentation of
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) (e.g.
food)
AFTER CONDITIONING
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (e.g. bell)
Response
No response from dog
Salivation on presentation of food (UCR)
Salivation due to food (UCR)
Conditioned Response of salivating upon
sound of bell (CR)
19
Gustav’s headache cleared by familiar action of taking a tablet … apply to
classical conditioning:
NS = headache
UCS = taking a tablet (paracetamol tablet); UCR = reduction in pain
NS (headache) paired with UCS (taking a tablet) = reduction in pain (UCR)
After conditioning: CS (taking a tablet which in this case is a sugar pill) reduces pain
(CR)
20
Mary wants to stop smoking … apply to classical conditioning/aversion therapy:
NS = wanting a cigarette
UCS = snap rubber band on wrist; UCR = pain and anxiety
NS (wanting a cigarette) paired with UCS (snap rubber band on wrist) = pain and anxiety
(UCR)
After conditioning: CS (wanting a cigarette) causes anxiety (CR)
21
Harry has a fear of open spaces. We could use graduated exposure to get him used
to leaving the house.
Teach Harry a relaxation technique (progressive muscle relaxation) --> practice
relaxation while doing the following… look at a picture of the view outside the window -> (when no stress response) --> look through the window to outside the house --> open
the door --> step out onto the veranda --> stand in front yard --> stand in street --> walk
down street --> walk through park)
22
Flooding is a technique where a patient with a phobia is placed in contact with the
stimulus that created the original trauma while practicing relaxation. If Marcia is placed
in a pit full of snakes as a means of curing her phobia, the anxiety or stress response may
be too strong for her to be able to deal with it. It may not cure her, but make her more
fearful!
23
Watson’s ‘Little Albert’ experiment:
BEFORE CONDITIONING
NS = white rat
UC = loud noise created by steel bar struck with hammer
UCR = showed fear at loud noise
DURING CONDITIONING
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NS (white rat) + UCS (loud noise)
UCR = showed fear/cried at loud noise
AFTER CONDITIONING
CS = white rat
CR = showed fear/cried when white rat presented
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Suggested Answers (pp. 380–1)
REVIEW 1 p. 381
1
One-trial learning is a form of classical conditioning that occurs when a taste
aversion for a particular food is developed after only one trial.
2
Similarities and Differences between one-trial learning and classical conditioning:
SIMILARITIES
DIFFERENCES
Involves a reflex response (body reacts
physiologically) e.g. salivating, nausea.
Does not involve thinking.
An association is made between the NS
and UCS.
One-trial learning occurs for taste only.
One-trial
learning
requires
one
experience only for an association to be
made between NS and UCS; CC
requires repeated trials.
One-trial learning takes several hours
for association to develop; CC requires
very short interval between presentation
of NS and UCS for association to be
made.
3
One-trial learning is also referred to as ‘conditioned taste aversion’ because the
body learns after only one experience to avoid eating the same food in the future as a
means of survival.
REVIEW 2 p. 381
1
Garcia and Koelling (1966):
Condition
Condition 1
Condition 2
Preconditioning
phase
Conditioning
phase
Post-conditioning
test
Rats presented with
saccharine flavoured
water
to
drink;
whenever
they
drank, it activated
flashing light and
clicking noise
Saccharine
water
accompanied
by
flashing
lights
and
clicking noise; rats also
received mild electric
shock each time they
drank
Rats presented with
saccharine flavoured
water
to
drink;
whenever
they
Saccharine
water
accompanied
by
flashing
lights
and
clicking noise; rats also
Presented
with
saccharine
water
without flashing lights
and clicking noise; also
presented with plain
water
accompanied
with flashing lights and
clicking noise
Presented
with
saccharine
water
without flashing lights
and clicking noise; also
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2
drank,
activated received radiation which presented with plain
flashing light and made them sick 30 water
accompanied
clicking noise
minutes later
with flashing lights and
clicking noise
Explaining the results:
Condition 1
Condition 2
Rats demonstrated classical conditioning: during Rats demonstrated one-trial learning:
conditioning phase, rats learnt to associate the during conditioning phase, rats learnt to
flashing lights and clicking (NS) with the mild associate the saccharine water (NS) with the
electric shock (UCS). The lights/sound therefore sickness (UCR) caused by radiation (UCS)
became the CS which produced the CR of after only one bout sickness. They therefore
avoiding the water that was associated with chose to drink only plain water instead of
lights/sound (saccharine).
saccharine.
3
Real world-settings:
a
Farmers may use one-trial learning or taste aversion to condition wild dogs to
avoid eating their sheep. They may do this by placing a sheep carcass containing a poison
in an area they know the wild dogs will visit. When the dogs eat the poisoned sheep
carcass, the resulting sickness following their feast will cause the dogs to associate the
sickness with the sheep. Due to taste aversion, they will therefore avoid eating sheep in
the future.
b
One-trial learning might be considered unethical because it can cause lasting harm
to a wild animal. Wild animals need to hunt for food, so if forced to avoid sheep they
may not have enough food for survival.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Suggested Answers (pp. 382–3)
REVIEW 1 p. 383
1
Trial-and-error learning is learning that occurs over a number of trials. Each time
a behaviour leads to a successful outcome, it is likely to be repeated, while behaviour
leading to unsuccessful outcomes will be less likely to be repeated.
2
Thorndike’s ‘puzzle box’:
a
Thorndike’s ‘puzzle box’ experiment involved placing a hungry cat in a ‘puzzle
box’, which required the cat to pull a lever to enable escape. Food was placed outside the
box, so the hungry cat had to find its way out of the box to get to the food. It made a
number of random actions in an attempt to escape, until it pulled the string that enabled
the door to open. The cat was then rewarded with food.
b
Refer to Fig. 3 p. 383 for the graph required to illustrate the ‘change in time to
escape (y axis) vs number of trials (x axis)’.
3
Thorndike’s ‘law of effect’ states that behaviour is controlled by its
consequences: behaviour that results in making us feel good is likely to be repeated;
behaviour that results in us feeling bad is unlikely to be repeated.
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