Biology 211 Exam 3 Study Guide
Chapter 24
The Digestive System
INTRODUCTION
1. Define digestion and absorption and identify the system that provides
these functions.
OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
2. Identify the organs of the gastrointestinal tract and the accessory
organs of digestion and their general functions in digestion and
absorption of food molecules for use by body cells.
3. List and define the six primary processes of digestion performed by the
gastrointestinal tract.
LAYERS OF THE GI TRACT
4. Name the four basic tissue layers of the GI tract that are commonly
found from the stomach to the anus.
Mucosa
5. Discuss the characteristic structure and duties of the epithelial, lamina
propria, and muscularis layers of the mucosa.
Submucosa
6. Describe the structural, neural, and secretory features of the
submucosal layer.
Muscularis
7. Describe the muscle changes, layers, and control through the extent
of the GI tract.
Serosa
8. Describe the serosa as a part of the peritoneum.
PERITONEUM
9. Discuss how the components of the peritoneal serosal membrane
surround the abdominal organs and form the peritoneal cavity.
10. Describe the mesentery tissue and functions, and then the
conspicuous folds that support the abdominal digestive organs.
11. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and seriousness of peritonitis.
MOUTH
12. Discuss the structure and function of the parts of the mouth.
Structure and Function of the Salivary Glands
13. Describe the location, cellular composition, and secretory output of the
major and minor salivary glands.
Composition of Saliva
14. Discuss the chemical and enzymatic constituents of saliva and their
actions on ingested food.
Salivation
15. Discuss the factors that control salivation and the reasons particular
responses are required.
16. Discuss the appearance and consequences of myxovirus infection of
salivary and similar glands.
Structure and Function of the Tongue
17. Examine the general construction of the tongue and purpose of the
different types of muscle.
18. Point out the function of various papillae and glands of the tongue.
Structure and Function of the Teeth
19. Specify the properties of each strata of the tooth structure, along with
the means of connection to the mandible and maxilla.
20. Describe tooth shapes and functions that accompany the two
dentitions.
21. Explain the process of root canal therapy.
Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Mouth
22. Discuss mastication as a means of reducing food to minute particles
that are collected in a bolus for deglutination.
23. Discuss the nature of degradation products from the action of salivary
enzymes on specific food substrates.
PHARYNX
24. Describe the location and function of the pharynx.
25. Discuss the events of the three stages of swallowing.
ESOPHAGUS
26. Describe the location of the esophagus.
Histology of the Esophagus
27. Describe the tissue composition for changes in the epithelium,
submucosa, muscularis, and serosa from the top of the esophagus to
the merger with the stomach.
Physiology of the Esophagus
28. Describe the interactions between the medulla and esophageal
muscularis that facilitate the peristalsis of a food bolus from the upper
to the lower sphincter.
29. Discuss the causes and consequences of gastroesophageal reflux
disease.
STOMACH
30. Describe the location and functions of the stomach.
Anatomy of the Stomach
31. Discuss the four areas of the stomach anatomy with their associated
specializations in the muscularis, surface topography, and terminology.
32. Define pylorospasm and pyloric stenosis and discuss their
consequences.
Histology of the Stomach
33. Explain the cellular nature of the stomach lining, in addition to the
morphology of gastric pits and digestive purpose of the several types
of secretory cells.
Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
34. Describe the progressive mixing movements, which are produced by
the stomach muscularis, that prepare and eject chyme through the
pyloric sphincter.
35. Explain the function of the acid and enzymes of the stomach in
protection against pathogens and in the initial breakdown of proteins
and lipids during digestion.
36. Name some substances that are absorbed into the blood from the
stomach.
Regulation of Gastric Secretion and Motility
37. Discuss the neural and hormonal direction of gastric secretion and
contraction that occur in the three phases of digestion.
Cephalic Phase
38. Discuss the progression of CNS areas that are stimulated by the
perception of food and result in production of particular gastric
secretions and motility.
Gastric Phase
39. Illustrate the operation of each neural and hormonal component in the
negative feedback regulation of gastric secretion and contraction
initiated by stretch and chemoreceptors.
Intestinal Phase
40. Discuss the reasons for the responses and actions of each enteric
hormone and the enterogastric reflex in control of acid and enzyme
secretion and mixing movements of the stomach.
Regulation of Gastric Emptying
41. Discuss the rationale and steps in the control of chyme pH and
chemical composition before release of chyme from the stomach into
the duodenum.
42. Discuss the process of vomiting and the stimuli that cause this
process.
PANCREAS
Anatomy of the Pancreas
43. Identify the accessory organs with which the pancreas works to assist
the small intestines in digestion of food.
Histology of the Pancreas
44. Describe the form and secretions of the exocrine and endocrine cell
clusters within the pancreas.
Pancreatic Juice
45. Discuss the chemical character and range of enzyme functions
possessed by pancreatic juice involved in the processing of food
molecules.
46. Discuss pancreatitis and some of its causes.
Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
47. Describe the neural and hormonal controls over pancreatic secretion.
LIVER AND GALLBLADDER
48. Anatomically locate the liver and disclose its massive proportions
relative to other organs.
49. Discuss the position, appearance, and job of the gallbladder with
respect to the liver and duodenum.
Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder
50. Describe the morphology of the liver’s lobes, ligaments, vessels, and
ducts.
Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder
51. Describe the cellular, vascular, and duct arrangements and duties of
the liver lobule.
52. Describe how the epithelial and smooth muscle structure of the
gallbladder allows it to store and secrete bile.
53. Discribe jaundice and state the three main catergories of jaundice.
Blood Supply of the Liver
54. Describe the network of arteries and portal veins that contribute to the
blood flow into the sinusoids and then merge into the central and
hepatic veins.
55. Discuss the purpose of the odd convergence of arteries and veins in
the hepatic lobule.
Role and Composition of Bile
56. Describe the source and characteristics of bile fluid and general
function of bile constituents in absorption of fat and excretion of certain
materials from the body.
Regulation of Bile Secretion
57. Discuss the neural and hormonal factors that regulate bile secretion.
Functions of the Liver
58. Discuss the nine essential functions of the liver in metabolism and
homeostasis.
59. Discuss the formation of gallstones and their clinical significance.
SUMMARY: DIGESTIVE HORMONES
60. Discuss the sources and functions of hormones that coordinate the
action of the digestive organs in the processing of food.
SMALL INTESTINE
61. Review the extent and features of the small intestines that enable them
to serve as the primary site of digestion and absorption of food
materials.
Anatomy of the Small Intestine
62. Distinguish the connections, locations, length, and specialized gross
structures of the three segments of the small intestine.
Histology of the Small Intestine
63. Illustrate the duties, arrangement, and distinct membrane forms of the
epithelial cells, and then discuss their relation to the underlying tissue
in the process of degradation and absorption of food substances.
64. Discuss the specialization of the MALT that exist in the tissues of the
small intestines.
Role of Intestinal Juice and Brush Border Enzymes
65. Discuss the chemical secretions and membrane-bound enzymes of the
small intestinal epithelium.
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
66. Discuss the mechanical actions of smooth muscle in production of
segmentation and peristaltic movements that mix and propel the
digestate within the small intestine.
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Digestion of Carbohydrates
67. Discuss the chemical digestion of carbohydrates in the small intestine.
68. Describe what happen when the intestinal cells no long produce
lactase.
Digestion of Proteins
69. Discuss the chemical digestion of proteins in the small intestine.
Digestion of Lipids
70. Discuss the chemical digestion of lipids in the small intestine.
Digestion of Nucleic Acids
71. Discuss the chemical digestion of nucleic acids in the small intestine.
Regulation of Intestinal Secretion and Motility
72. Discuss the conditions that stimulate vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
output, local and autonomic reflexes to control intestinal secretion and
different types of motility that facilitate breakdown and absorption of
food molecules.
Absorption in the Small Intestine
73. Describe the end products of chemical digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids.
Absorption of Monosaccharides
74. Discuss the transport mechanisms that are responsible for movement
of different monosaccharides from the intestinal lumen into the
epithelial cell and then into capillaries.
Absorption of Amino Acids, Dipeptides, and Tripeptides
75. Explain the ways the transport of different amino acids is related to
active processes.
Absorption of Lipids
76. Discuss the sequence of processes that perform absorption of fatty
materials, from the interacations with lipase enzymes and bile to form
micelles to the construction of chylomicrons and transport in the lacteal
capillaries.
Absorption of Electrolytes
77. Discuss the regulated active and passive means by which ions are
transported and cotransported into the blood from the intestines.
Absorption of Vitamins
78. Explain how vitamins move into the blood via methods that are related
to their water or lipid soluble nature.
Absorption of Water
79. Describe the locations and volumes of water entry into the GI tract, and
then the reabsorption by osmosis established by nutrient and
electrolyte movements.
80. Examine the factors that affect alcohol absorption.
LARGE INTESTINE
81. List the prominent functions of the large intestine.
Anatomy of the Large Intestine
82. Describe the changes in the gross anatomy of the large intestine from
the ileocecal valve to the anal canal.
83. Discuss the symptoms and possible consequences of appendicitis.
Histology of the Large Intestine
84. Associate particular cell types with the absorptive and mucous
secreting functions of the epithelial lining, and then tell how the smooth
muscles of the colon form peculiar structures to support its duties.
Mechanical Digestion in the Large Intestine
85. Describe the mechanical movements that occur in the large intestine.
Chemical Digestion in the Large Intestine
86. Explain the role of bacteria in the final degradation of food substances,
and the absorption of the last substrates and particular vitamins.
Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine
87. Discuss the processes involved in the absorption of the remaining
water and electrolytes and the formation of feces.
88. Discuss the importance of tests to determine occult blood.
Defecation Reflex
89. Establish the interactions between the stretch receptors of the rectum
and reflexive responses of the internal and external anal sphincters
that promote expulsion of feces at a consciously selected time.
90. Discuss the effect of dietary fiber on the working of the large intestine.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
91. Describe the development of the digestive system.
AGING AND THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
92. Describe the effects of aging on the digestive system.
FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
93. Examine the role of the digestive system in maintaining homeostasis.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
94. Describe the clinical symptoms of the following disorders: dental
caries, periodontal disease, peptic ulcer disease, diverticulitis,
colorectal cancer, hepatitis, and anorexia nervosa.
Chapter 25
Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
1. Generalize the way in which nutrients are processed through the three major
metabolic fates in order to perform various energetic and structural functions
in the body.
Metabolic Reactions
2. Define metabolism in terms of the different types of compartmentalized
chemical reactions that constantly renew tissues from the molecules on up.
Catabolism and Anabolism
3. Describe catabolic and anabolic reactions with respect to energy availability
when the reaction occurs.
Coupling of Catabolism and Anabolism by ATP
4. Examine the temporary storage of energy in the phosphate bond of ATP and
the efficiency of its transfer to other bonds or performance of enzymatic
reactions.
ENERGY TRANSFER
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
5. Define oxidation and reduction.
6. Give examples of the transfer of electrons from a molecule through the
extraction of hydrogen atom from an oxidized molecule, and then bonding of
the hydrogen to a reduced molecule.
7. Discuss how the coenzymes NAD and FAD perform the oxidation-reduction
reactions that capture the energy held by the electron of the H (from H-bonds
in food molecules), which can then be used by the oxidative-phosphorylation
system to make ATP.
Mechanism of ATP Generation
8. Describe the three types of phosphorylation reactions in which kinase
enzymes form a high energy phosphate bond to make ATP.
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
9. Discuss the processes in the path of monosaccharide absorption from the
intestines to their conversion to glucose in the liver.
Fate of Glucose
10. Describe the fate of glucose in the body depending upon the energy needs of
cells.
Glucose Movement into Cells
11. Describe the controlled, facilitated entry of glucose into different cell types,
and the means to capture and/or release it from specific cells.
Glucose Catabolism
12. Describe the four sets of reactions in cellular respiration.
Glycolysis
13. Describe the ten steps of glycolysis, noting the steps directly involved in
producing ATP.
Fate of Pyruvic Acid
14. Discuss the fate of pyruvic acid based on oxygen availability.
Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A
15. Discuss the steps in the formation of acetyl coenzyme A.
Krebs Cycle
16. Discuss the nine reactions that constitute the Krebs cycle and why these
reactions are considered to constitute a cycle.
17. Distinguish between the decarboxylation and oxidation-reduction reactions
that occur in the cycle.
Electron Transport Chain
18. Describe the events of chemiosmosis.
19. Identify several types of molecules and atoms that serve as electron carriers.
20. Discuss the steps in electron transport and chemiosmotic generation of ATP.
Summary of Cellular Respiration
21. Look at the overall equation of glucose oxidation to carbon dioxide, water,
and ATP, and point out the number of ATP's generated in each of the four
stages of cellular respiration.
22. Discuss the practice of carbohydrate loading.
Glucose Anabolism
23. Note the general types of anabolic reactions that involve glucose.
Glucose Storage: Glycogenesis
24. Discuss how glucose is liked into glycogen, where glycogen is stored, in what
circumstances, and under control of what hormone.
Glucose Release: Glycogenolysis
25. Discuss the steps by which hepatocytes convert glycogen back into glucose
units to provide energy for the body, principally the brain.
26. Discuss the form by which glucose is available from muscles for use by other
areas of the body.
Formation of Glucose from Proteins and Fats: Gluconeogenesis
27. Discuss metabolic paths through which specific parts of amino acids and fatty
acids are transformed into glucose.
LIPID METABOLISM
Transport of Lipids by Lipoproteins
28. Explain the formation and removal of chylomicrons from blood.
29. Discuss how lipids are transported in blood.
Sources and Significance of Blood Cholesterol
30. Discuss the sources of cholesterol and indicate the concentrations that are
considered as potential problems for coronary artery disease.
Fate of Lipids
31. Discuss the fate of lipids in the body.
Triglyceride Storage
32. Specify the means by which lipids are delivered to adipose cells and the
distribution of dynamic adipose storage.
Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis
33. Describe how lipolysis breaks down the triglycerides into glycerol and fatty
acids for release from adipose cells and then catabolizes them via oxidation
to produce twice as much energy per gram as glucose.
34. Explain where glycerol enters the gluconeogenic pathway to produce glucose
or the glycolytic path to make energy or ketone bodies.
35. Explain the central role of acetyl CoA in beta oxidation and synthesis of
ketone bodies.
36. Describe how ketone bodies are used for energy metabolism during
starvation and the effect on blood pH.
Lipid Anabolism: Lipogenesis
37. Describe the way molecules of glycolysis and acetyl CoA are used to
construct triglycerides.
38. Explain the clinical significance of ketosis.
PROTEIN METABOLISM
39. Trace the general path of amino acid absorption and use by the liver and the
body as a whole.
Fate of Protiens.
40. Discuss the fate of proteins in the body.
Protein Catabolism
41. Discuss the constant turnover of proteins and the route through which amino
acids enter the metabolic pathways to become either glucose, fatty acids, or
energy for ATP.
Protein Anabolism
42. Review the process of protein synthesis under the influence of pertinent
hormones and different conditions.
43. Explain the genetic disease phenylketonuria and examine its effect on protein
metabolism.
KEY MOLECULES AT METABOLIC CROSSROADS
44. Identify the three key molecules in metabolism and explain why they play
pivotal roles in metabolism.
The Role of Glucose-6-Phosphate
45. Discuss the four major directions of metabolic use of glucose-6-phosphate.
The Role of Pyruvic Acid
46. Discuss the anaerobic and aerobic fates of pyruvic acid.
The Role ofAcetyl Coenzyme A
47. Describe the central role of acetyl CoA in the metabolism and conversion of
glucose, amino acids, and lipids.
METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS
48. Distinguish between the major characters of the absorptive and
postabsorptive state in term of the conditions that establish the states and
hormones that control the associated activities.
Metabolism During the Absorptive State
49. List the two major hallmarks of the absorptive state.
Absorptive State Reactions
50. Discuss the metabolic reactions that occur for glucose, amino acids, and
lipids that predominate during the absorptive state.
Regulation of Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State
51. Describe how metabolism during the absorptive state is regulated.
Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State
52. Specify the primary goal of energy conservation metabolism during the
postabsorptive state.
Postabsorptive State Reactions
53. Describe the reactions of the postabsorptive state.
Regulation of Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State
54. Describe how metabolism during the postabsorptive state is regulated.
Metabolism During Fasting and Starvation
55. Discuss the significance of ketogenesis during fasting and starvation and the
chemical reactions that occur during these periods.
56. Discuss the absorption of alcohol in the body and its effect on body function.
HEAT AND ENERGY BALANCE
57. Discuss the concept of body temperature maintenance as a balance between
the rate of heat production, from all the chemical reactions in the body, and
the rate of heat loss through several controlled avenues.
Metabolic Rate
58. Define metabolic rate and explain several factors that affect metabolic rate.
Body Temperature Homeostasis
59. Discuss the effect on cell function and body temperature when heat
production and loss are not in balance.
Heat Production
60. Discuss the major factors that influence metabolic rate and indicate how they
are related via a negative feedback system that controls vascular, autonomic,
muscular, and hormonal heat production mechanisms.
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
61. State the ways that heat is lost from the body and how these are controlled by
heat conservation mechanisms.
Hypothalamic Thermostat
62. Discuss the role of the hypothalamus in maintaining and regulating body
temperature.
Thermoregulation
63. Discuss how body temperature is regulated.
64. Discuss the causes and symptoms of hypothermia.
Energy Homeostasis and Regulation of Food Intake
65. Discuss the means by which body composition and food intake are regulated
through actions of the hypothalmic centers.
66. Discuss the role of the satiety center in regulating food intake
NUTRITION
67. Identify the nutrients needed in the body.
Guidelines for Healthy Eating
68. Discuss the seven guidelines for healthy eating.
Minerals
69. Discuss the importance of minerals in the body.
Vitamins
70. Discuss the importance of vitamins in the body.
71. Discuss the benefits of and problems associated with vitamin and mineral
supplementation.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
72. Discuss fever and obesity
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
73. .Point out the medical terms associated with metabolism
Chapter 26
The Urinary System
INTRODUCTION
1. List the organs of the urinary system and briefly explain the work they
do.
2. Distinguish between nephrology and urology.
OVERVIEW OF KIDNEY FUNCTION
3. List and describe the functions of the kidneys.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE KIDNEY
4. Describe the position of the kidneys in the body.
External Anatomy of the Kidney
5. Describe the renal hilus and list the structures that extend through it.
6. List the three layers that surround each kidney and give their functions.
7. Describe nephroptosis and examine its consequences.
Internal Anatomy of the Kidney
8. Describe the structures of the renal medulla.
9. List and describe the structures that compose the renal parenchyma.
10. List the structures found in the renal sinus.
Blood and Nerve Supply of the Kidneys
11. Describe the blood vessels carrying blood into, through, and out of the
kidneys.
12. Describe the nerves that supply the kidneys.
Nephrons
Parts of a Nephron
13. Describe the two major portions of a nephron.
14. Distinguish between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons.
Histology of the Nephron and Collecting Duct
Glomerular Capsule
15. Describe the components of the glomerular capsule.
Renal Tubule and Collecting Ducts
16. In the order that fluid passes through them, list the three main sections of the
renal tubule.
17. Describe the location, structure, and function of the juxtaglomerular
apparatus.
18. Discuss the significance of the number of nephrons in the kidney.
OVERVIEW OF RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
19. Describe three major functions carried out by nephrons and where each of
these processes occur.
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
20. Define the term filtration fraction.
The Filtration Membrane
21. Describe the parts of the filtration membrane.
22. Describe features of the endothelial-capsular membrane that allow it to
act as a filter.
Net Filtration Pressure
23. List and name the forces that contribute to net filtration pressure (NFP) and
explain how NFP is calculated.
24. Discuss the effect of loss of plasma proteins on filtration.
Glomerular Filtration Rate
25. Define glomerular filtration rate and discuss its relation to the pressures that
determine net filtration pressure.
26. Explain the two main ways in which the mechanisms that regulate GFR
function.
27. List three mechanisms that regulate glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Renal Autoregulation of GFR
28. Discuss the myogenic mechanism and tubuloglerular feedback as
contribution to renal autoregulation.
Neural Regulation of GFR
29. Explain the role of the ANS in the neural regulation of GFR.
Hormonal Regulation of GFR
30. Discuss the roles of angiotensin II and ANP in the regulation of GFR.
TUBULAR REABSPOPTION AND SECRETION
Tubular reabsorption and Secretion
31. Define tubular reabsorption and list some of the reabsorbed
substances.
Reabsorption Routes
32. Describe the two routes a substance being reabsorbed from the tubule lumen
fluid can take before entering a peritubular capillary.
Transport Mechanisms
33. Explain why reabsorption of sodium ions (Na+) is particularly
important.
34. Explain the role of the sodium pump in reabsorption of Na+.
35. Review primary and secondary active transport processes.
36. Define and discuss transport maximum and renal threshold.
37. Define and compare obligatory and facultative water absorption.
38. Define glucosuria and explain how it is related to the transport
maximum for glucose.
Reabsorption and Secretion in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule
39. Describe the two different types of Na+ transporters in the proximal
convoluted tubule.
40. Discuss the role of Na+ symporters in reabsorption.
41. Describe the role of Na+/H+ antiporters in achieving Na+ reabsorption,
returning filtered HCO3- and water to the peritubular capillaries, and secreting
H+.
42. Explain how the reabsorption of Na+ and other solutes promotes
reabsorption of water by osmosis.
43. Discuss how production of ammonia in PCT cells can increase the level of
bicarbonate ions in the blood.
Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle
44. Discuss the independent regulation of both the volume and osmolarity of
body fluids in the loop of Henle.
Reabsorption in the Distal Convoluted Tubule
45. Discuss the role of Na+ Cl- symporters in the reabsorption of Na+ and Cland the role of parathyroid hormone in the reabsorption of Ca2+.
Reabsorption and Secretion in the Collecting Duct
46. Describe the role of principal cells and intercalated cells in Na+, K+, HCO3-,
and H+ reabsorption and secretion.
Hormonal Regulation of Tubule Reabsorption and Secretion
47. List the four hormones that affect the extent of Na+, Cl-, and water
reabsorption and K+ secretion by renal tubules.
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
48. Examine the pathway for the conversion of angiotensinogen to
angiotensin II.
49. Describe the three main ways angiotensin II affects renal physiology.
Antidiuretic Hormone
50. Explain the role of ADH in regulating facultative water reabsorption.
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
51. Discuss the role of ANP in the regulation of tubular function.
PRODUCTION OF DILUTE AND CONCENTRATED URINE
52. Identify the hormone that controls whether dilute or concentrated urine
is formed.
Formation of Dilute Urine
53. Explain how the kidneys produce dilute urine.
Formation of Concentrated Urine
54. Describe how the osmotic gradient builds up in the renal medulla.
55. List the steps involved in the production of concentrated urine.
56. Describe the countercurrent mechanism.
57. Define the action of a diuretic drug.
EVALUATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION
Urinalysis
58. Explain the diagnostic value of an urinalysis.
Blood Tests
59. Explain the diagnostic value of blood tests in gaining information about
kidney function.
Renal Plasma Clearance
60. Define renal plasma clearance and discuss its role in evaluating kidney
function.
61. Compare the clearance of an amino acid to the clearance of inulin.
62. Explain what dialysis accomplishes.
63. Compare hemodialysis and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis.
URINE STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION, AND ELIMINATION
Ureters
64. Describe the location, anatomy, and histology of the ureters.
Urinary Bladder
65. Describe the location of the urinary bladder.
Anatomy and Histology of the Urinary Bladder
66. Describe the anatomy and histology of the urinary bladder.
Micturition Reflex
67. Explain the activation of the micturition reflex.
Urethra
68. Describe the location, anatomy, and histology of the urethra.
69. Define incontinence and retention to the urinary system.
WASTE MANAGEMENT IN OTHER BODY SYSTEMS
70. Describe other tissues, organs, and processes that contribute to waste
management in the body.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
71. Describe the development of the urinary system.
AGING AND THE URINARY SYSTEM
72. Discuss the changes that occur in functioning of the urinary system
with age.
FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE URINARY SYYSTEM
73. Discuss the role of the urinary system in maintaining homeostasis in the
body.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
74. Discuss the symptoms and causes of renal calculi, urinary tract infections,
glomerular diseases, renal failure, and polycystic kidney disease.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
75. Define medical terminology associated with the urinary system.
Chapter 27
Fluid, Electrolyte, And Acid-Base Homoestasis
INTRODUCTION
1. Define body fluid and state by its volume and solute concentrations are
important to maintaining health.
FLUID COMPARTMENTS AND FLUID BALANCE
2. Describe the various fluid compartments of the body with respect to
fluid balance and movement.
Sourses of Body Water Gain and Loss
3. Discuss the sources of water and its avenues for loss.
Regulation of Water Gain
4. Define the processes available for fluid intake and how they are
regulated.
Regulation of Water and Solute Loss
5. Indicate how ADH and ANP act on organ systems to control the rate of
fluid loss and thus body fluid volume.
Movement of Water Between Body Fluid Compartments
6. Discuss the effect of osmolarity on water movement between
compartments.
7. Discuss how an enema might influence fluid balance.
ELECTROLYTES IN BODY FLUID
8. Discuss the four general functions of electrolytes in the body.
Concentrations of Electrolytes in Body Fluids
9. Contrast the electrolyte concentrations of the three major fluid
compartments.
Sodium
10. Discuss the cellular and homeostatic functions of sodium and the
mechanisms that
maintain a different concentration in the
plasma, interstitium, and cells.
11. Discuss the effects of excessive levels of Na+ in the body or an
excessive loss of Na+ from the body on body functioning.
Chloride
12. Examine the cellular and homeostatic functions of chloride and
describe the mechanisms that maintain a different concentration in the
plasma, interstitium, and cells.
Potassium
13. Examine the cellular and homeostatic functions of potassium and
describe the mechanisms that maintain a differential concentration in
the plasma, interstitium, and cells.
Bicarbonate
14. Examine the cellular and homeostatic functions of bicarbonate and
describe the mechanisms that maintain a differential concentration in
the plasma, interstitium, and cells.
Calcium
15. Examine the cellular and homeostatic functions of calcium and
describe the
mechanisms that maintain a differential concentration in the plasma,
interstitium, and cells.
Phosphate
16. Examine the cellular and homeostatic functions of phosphate and
describe the
mechanisms that maintain a differential concentration in the plasma,
interstitium, and cells.
Magnesium
17. Examine the cellular and homeostatic functions of magnesium and
describe the mechanisms that maintain a differential concentration in
the plasma, interstitium, and cells.
18. Discuss the factors that can make an individual at risk for fluid and
electrolyte
imbalances.
ACID-BASE BALANCE
19. Specify the central role of H+ in acid-base balance, and why it is
important for the three primary mechanisms to maintain the
concentration of H+ within a very limited range of pH.
The Actions of Buffer Systems
20. Define buffer system and describe how buffer systems generally work
to prevent large changes in the H+ concentration.
21. Differentiate the properties of strong and weak acids and bases, and
show how weak acids and bases act as buffers.
Protein Buffer Systems
22. Demonstrate the way in which amino acids of proteins, like
hemoglobin, interact with H+ to control the amount of H+ that is free in
solution.
Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffer System
23. Illustrate the formation of carbonic acid from H2O and CO2 and the
important
interactions of carbonic acid and associated bicarbonate with H+ that
buffer changes in [H+].
Phosphate Buffer System
24. Discuss how phosphate works in a similar way as carbonic acid to act
as a buffer.
Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide
25. Describe how control of the amount of carbon dioxide works with the
carbonic acid buffer system to control the amount of H+.
26. Discuss how changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
blood lead to changes in the respiratory rate, which in turn controls the
concentration of carbon dioxide through a negative feedback
regulatory mechanism.
Kidney Excretion of H+
27. Review the ways that the kidney either excretes H+ or HCO3- in the
urine to balance the concentration of H+ in the blood.
Acid-Base Imbalances
28. Define acid-base imbalances, their effects on the body, and the
methods the body normally employs to compensate for excesses in
acid and base.
Respiratory Acidosis
29. Discuss respiratory alkalosis in terms of the partial pressure of CO2,
causes of the condition, and treatment possibilities.
Respiratory Alkalosis
30. Discuss respiratory alkalosis in terms of the partial pressure of CO2,
causes of the condition, and treatment possibilities.
Metabolic Acidosis
31. Discuss metabolic acidosis in terms of HCO3- levels, causes of the
condition, and treatment possibilities.
Metabolic Alkalosis
32. Discuss metabolic alkalosis in terms of HCO3- levels, causes of the
condition, and treatment possibilities.
33. Discuss the three factors in arterial blood that can often pinpoint the
cause of an acid-base imbalance.
AGING AND FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE BALANCE
34. Discuss the effect of aging on fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.