Chapter 7: The Roman Republic: 753 B.C. – 27 B.C.
The ancient Romans had a legend that twin brothers named Romulus and Remus founded
Rome in 753 B.C. Cruel leaders ruled the Romans until 509 B.C. In that year, the people
rebelled and created a republic. In this chapter, you will learn about the patricians who ruled
this republic. You will also learn about the plebeians who fought as citizen-soldiers for the
republic. Finally, you will learn what happened to bring the Roman Republic to an end.
Goals for Learning
To describe the early history of the Roman peninsula
To define the term republic and explain the organization of the Roman republican form of
government
To explain the causes of the Punic Wars
To explain how Rome lost its republican form of government
To identify Julius Caesar and Octavian and explain their importance to Roman history
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Italy
Map Skills: Italy is a boot-shaped peninsula in southern Europe. It has two mountain ranges.
One of these—the Alps— forms the northern border of Italy. This is an important natural
barrier, or wall, between Italy and other nations. Three important rivers flow through Italy. Its
capital city sits next to one of them—the Tiber.
Study the map, then answer the following questions:
1. What is the name of the mountain range that lies northeast of the city of Rome?
2. What are the names of three rivers in Italy?
3. What is the name of the large island that lies near the southern tip of Italy?
4. What is the name of the sea along Italy’s east coast?
5. What European country lies to the far northwest of Italy?
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Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Metacognition means “thinking about your thinking.?? Use metacognition to become a better
reader:
Preview the text.
Make predictions and ask yourself what you already know about the topic.
Write the main idea, details, and any questions you have.
Visualize what is happening in the text. If something does not make sense, go back and read it
again.
Summarize what you have read and make inferences about the meaning.
Key Vocabulary Words
Lesson 1
Founded: To have begun a country or city
Advanced: Beyond the beginning stage Senate A governing body
Patrician: A Roman who owned land and helped a ruler govern
Lesson 2
Republic: A type of government with no king in which a few people represent, or speak for,
everyone
Representative: A person who speaks and governs for others
Consul: A Roman leader who served a one year term in the government
Veto: To say no to a decision
Dictator: A leader who has full control of laws and rules with force
Laborer: A person who does hard work with his or her hands
Plebeian: A common person in Rome who was not wealthy
Tribune: A representative who protected the rights of the plebian class
Political: Having to do with governing
Lesson 3
Ally: A friend; a country or person who helps another
Lesson 4
Senator: A member of a senate
Reform: To make something better through change
Politician: A government leader
Triumvirate: Rule by three people
Lesson 5
Assassinate: To kill someone important
Retire: To give up one’s job
Emperor: A person who is ruler of an empire
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Lesson 1: Early Rome
Objectives
To tell the legend of how Rome was founded
To describe how the Etruscans governed Rome
Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Before you read the rest of this lesson, think about what you can do that will help you
understand the Latins and Etruscans.
Founded
To have begun a country or city
Advanced
Beyond the beginning stage
Senate
A governing body
Patrician
A Roman who owned land and helped a ruler govern
Rome sits on the western side of the boot-shaped peninsula of Italy. It is 20 miles inland on the
Tiber River. No one really knows how or when Rome began. An ancient legend says that the
twin brothers Romulus and Remus founded, or began, the city in 753 B.C. According to this
legend, the baby twins were left to die on the banks of the Tiber River. A she-wolf found them
and cared for them. Then a shepherd killed the wolf and raised the twins as his sons. As men,
Romulus and Remus built a city. They fought over who should rule. Romulus killed his
brother, became king, and named the city Rome.
Who Were the Latins and the Etruscans?
A group of people called Latins lived on a plain called Latium. This plain was located south of
the Tiber River. This tribe spoke Latin. Because they could not write, they have left us no
written records. However, they did build small villages on hills near the Tiber. Rome grew
from these settlements.
People from Greece built several city-states on the southern coast of the Italian peninsula. They
brought their Greek culture with them. The Latin people learned many things from their Greek
neighbors.
The Etruscans were a tribe of people who lived north of the Tiber. Like the Greeks, they were
advanced, or beyond the beginning stage. They had a written language and made pottery and
fine clothing. They were also expert sailors and traded throughout the Mediterranean. By 600
B.C., the Etruscans had conquered Rome and the plain of Latium. They drained the marshes
around Rome to create more living space.
Etruscan kings ruled the Romans for more than a century. The king appointed men to a senate.
This governing body helped him make decisions. The senate members, or patricians, also
controlled large amounts of land. Since patrician is related to pater, the Latin word for father,
they were thought to be the “fathers of the state??.
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Map Study: Peoples of Ancient Italy (550 B.C.)
This map shows the people who lived in ancient Italy. Besides the Etruscans and the Greeks,
what other people lived in Italy at this time? In Chapter 2, you learned about the Phoenicians.
According to this map, where did they live?
Lesson 1 Review
On a sheet of paper, write the answer to each question. Use complete sentences.
1. According to Roman legend, who founded Rome?
2. What tribe lived to the south of the Tiber River and built settlements on the surrounding
hills?
3. What people ruled the Romans for a century?
4. What does the word patrician mean in Latin?
5. Why did the Romans call wealthy landowners patricians?
What do you think?
Do you think the legend about Romulus and Remus is at all true? Why or why not?
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Lesson 2: Rome Becomes a Republic
Objectives
To compare the patrician and plebeian classes
To identify the Law of the Twelve Tables
Republic
A type of government with no king in which a few people represent everyone
Representative
A person who speaks and governs for others
Consul
A Roman leader who served a one year term in the government
Veto
To say no to a decision
Dictator
A leader who has full control of laws and rules with force
In 509 B.C., the patricians rebelled against the cruel Etruscan king. They defeated the king and
set up a different kind of government—a republic. In a republic, citizens vote to elect
representatives, or people who will speak and govern for them. (In a republic, rule does not
pass from parent to child.) This Roman Republic lasted from 509 B.C. to 27 B.C.—almost 500
years.
Who Governed the Roman Republic?
The Romans replaced the Etruscan king with two consuls. These leaders served the
government for a one-year term. Each consul could veto, or say no to, a decision by the other
consul. Serving only one year and the threat of the veto kept the consuls from becoming too
powerful.
The Roman senate, made up of 300 patricians, helped the consuls rule. It had the power to pass
laws. In times of war, it could choose a dictator for six months. This kind of leader had full
control of laws and ruled with force.
What Class Ruled Rome?
The Roman Republic was not a democracy, because it allowed only patricians to vote. They
were from the oldest and the richest families in Rome. This wealthy patrician class made up
only 10 percent of the population, or all the people, of Rome. Yet patricians ran government.
They thought of themselves as the ruling class.
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Laborer
A person who does hard work with his or her hands
Plebeian
A common person in Rome who was not wealthy
Tribune
A representative who protected the rights of the plebeian class
Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Note the main idea and important details of this lesson. After each section, summarize what
you have read.
Who Were the Plebeians?
Most Romans were not wealthy. They were small farmers, merchants, and laborers—people
who did hard work with their hands. Yet they were citizens of Rome. The Romans called them
plebeians, which means “from the common people.??
As citizens, the plebeians paid taxes and served in the army. They could not marry out of their
class. Also, the patricians could sell plebeians into slavery if they did not pay their debts. They
had little power alone, but as a group they were powerful. There were more plebians that there
were patricians. The upper classes tried to keep the plebians happy with “bread and circuses.??
In other words, the plebians were given food and entertainment.
How Did the Plebeians Gain Political Rights?
The plebeians had one important power. They were citizen soldiers. The patricians needed
them to defend Rome against its enemies. In 494 B.C., the Roman Republic gave the plebeians
the right to elect, or choose by voting, two tribunes. These two representatives protected the
rights of the plebeian class.
As time passed, the number of tribunes increased from two to ten. They sat outside the door of
the senate and shouted “Veto!?? when they did not like a law that a patrician wanted. By 350
B.C., the senate could pass only those laws to which the tribunes said yes.
What Is the “Law of the Twelve Tables???
In the beginning of the republic, the senate did not write down the laws it passed. The plebeians
were not sure what the laws were. As a result, patrician judges were unfair to plebeians. Soon,
they demanded that the senate write the laws down. Around 450 B.C., the senate wrote their
laws on 12 bronze tablets. Then they put them in the marketplace. Every school child had to
learn these laws.
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Political
Having to do with governing
Word Bank
Etruscan
patricians
plebeians
republic
tribune
Writing About History
You are running for the office of tribune in the Roman Republic. In your notebook, write a
speech. In it, tell the plebeians what you will do for them. Explain why they should choose you.
When Did the Republic Become More Democratic?
By 280 B.C., Rome had become more democratic. Plebeians could hold political, or governing,
offices. They could also serve in the senate. In fact, one consul could come from the plebeian
class. Still, problems continued between the patricians and the plebeians. This struggle became
an important part of Roman history for several centuries.
Lesson 2 Review
On a sheet of paper, use the words from the Word Bank to complete each sentence correctly.
1. In 509 B.C. some Romans rebelled against the _____ king.
2. After defeating him, they set up a _____, or representative form of government.
3. At first, only _____ sat in the senate and made laws.
4. As time passed, the _____, or common people, got some power in the Roman government.
5. A _____ was a person who represented the plebeians in the Roman Republic.
What do you think?
What can happen when laws are not written down?
Then and Now
Echoes of Roman Rule
At one time, Rome ruled most of Western Europe. Many modern governments have taken ideas
from Rome. For instance, in 509 B.C. the Romans rebelled against their kings. They set up a
republic. In a republic, the people elect others to represent them. For example, the United States
is a republic.
The senate was the main governing body in ancient Rome. The word comes from senex, or
“old.?? The United States also has a law-making group called the Senate, but senators are
elected. Some Roman officials could veto a law. This Latin word means “I forbid.?? Today, the
American president has veto power.
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Lesson 3: Rome Expands Its Boundaries
Objectives
To describe the three Punic Wars
To describe the expansion of Rome
During the years of the republic, Rome was often at war with its neighbors. First, the Romans
defeated the Etruscans to the north. By 275 B.C., they had conquered the Greeks in southern
Italy.
What Caused the Punic Wars?
To the south of Rome, on the northern coast of Africa, lay Carthage. The Phoenicians had
settled Carthage, and it had a powerful navy. It controlled Northern Africa, Spain, and several
islands close to Italy. Then in 264 B.C., Carthage tried to take control of all of Sicily, an island
at the southern tip of Italy. This led to war. In fact, Rome and Carthage fought three wars that
lasted over 100 years. The Romans called them the Punic Wars, because Punici is the Latin
word for “Phoenician.??
How Did the Romans Win the First Punic War?
The First Punic War lasted 23 years—from 264 B.C. to 241 B.C. Carthage had a mighty, or
powerful, navy. Also, its population of 250,000 was three times the size of Rome. Rome had a
fine army, but no navy. How could Rome defeat Carthage?
The Romans added a plank, or long, wide, flat piece of wood, to their ships. When they got
close enough to a Carthaginian ship, the plank hooked it and linked the two ships together.
Then Roman soldiers ran across the plank and jumped down into their enemy’s ship. In this
clever way, the Roman army defeated the Carthaginian navy. In 241 B.C., Carthage asked for
peace. Rome took control of Sicily and the other islands off its coast.
What Did Hannibal Do in the Second Punic War?
In 218 B.C., Hannibal, a great Carthaginian soldier, planned a bold attack on Rome. His army
of 60,000 soldiers, 38 elephants, and many horses marched across Spain, over the Pyrenees, to
the foot of the Alps. The Romans thought that these mountains would protect them from attack.
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Map Study: Carthage (265 B.C.)
This map shows Carthaginian territory in 265 B.C. and the route of Hannibal’s invasion of
Rome in 218 B.C. What two mountain ranges did he cross to get to Italy? Name one battle
fought in Italy. How far is Carthage from Rome?
Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Remember to ask yourself questions as you read. This will help you make sure that you
understand what you are reading.
For two weeks, his soldiers, elephants, and horses moved through narrow, snow-covered
mountain paths. They faced snowstorms and bitter cold. Half of his men and most of the
elephants died.
Finally, Hannibal’s army came down onto the northern plain of Italy. It attacked and defeated
the surprised Romans. In less than two years, Hannibal defeated three more Roman armies.
Filled with fear, the Romans retreated behind the strong walls of Rome. Even Hannibal could
not knock them down.
For 15 years, Hannibal’s army moved up and down the Italian peninsula. It destroyed towns
and farmland. Then, in a surprise move, the Romans crossed the Mediterranean and attacked
Carthage in North Africa. Hannibal had to rush home to defend the city.
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Ally
A friend; a country or person who helps another
Word Bank
Carthage
Punic
Romans
Second
Zama
What do you think?
Do you think Hannibal was a great general? Why or why not?
In 202 B.C., the Roman general Scipio defeated Hannibal’s army at Zama. This ended the
Second Punic War. Rome forced Carthage to destroy most of its navy and took control of
Spain.
What Happened in the Third Punic War?
The Third Punic War began in 149 B.C. Carthage attacked an ally, or friend, of Rome. Rome
then invaded Carthage. When the Romans cut off food supplies to the city, many Carthaginians
starved to death. The Romans burned Carthage to the ground and sold its people into slavery. A
legend says that the Romans covered the farmland outside the city with salt so that nothing
would grow. Carthage was no more.
Lesson 3 Review
On a sheet of paper, use the words from the Word Bank to complete each sentence correctly.
1. The _____ Wars were fought between Rome and Carthage.
2. The _____ won the First Punic War.
3. Hannibal fought the Romans in the _____ Punic War.
4. Hannibal lost the war at the battle of _____.
5. The Romans destroyed _____ around 150 B.C. and won the Third Punic War.
History in Your Life
What Year Is It?
What year is it? That depends on when you start to count. Julius Caesar set up the Julian
calendar about 46 B.C. It had a 365-day year of 12 months, plus a leap year. For the Romans,
Year One was the legendary founding of Rome. By our counting, that was 753 B.C. (What year
is it now by the Roman calendar?)
There were small errors in the Julian calendar. Pope Gregory XIII, therefore, set up a new one
in 1582. His calendar starts on the date that people thought Jesus was born. Countries gradually
began to use it. Today most people in the world use the Gregorian calendar, at least for
business.
Some calendars count in still other ways. The Chinese calendar begins at 2637 B.C. on our
calendar. The Hebrew calendar starts 3,760 years earlier than the Gregorian. That is considered
by the Hebrews as the date of the creation of Earth.
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Lesson 4: The Republic Faces Problems
Objectives
To explain problems of the poor in early Rome
To describe a triumvirate
Senator
A member of a senate, a governing body
Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Remember to look at the photographs, illustrations, and maps. Note the descriptive words. This
will help you visualize what you are reading.
By 133 B.C., Rome controlled the Greek city-states and Asia Minor. It was the most powerful
state in the Mediterranean area. The Romans even called this sea Mare Nostrum, which means
“Our Sea.??
Why Did the Roman Poor Grow Poorer?
The early Roman Republic depended on its soldiers, who were free citizens. These citizensoldiers worked as farmers, laborers, and merchants when they were not fighting a war. Before
Rome expanded, its citizen-soldiers fought only in Italy. When a battle ended, they returned
home.
But as Rome grew more powerful, it had more territory to defend. Soldiers traveled overseas
for long periods of time to fight. Citizens had to pay taxes to support the government. Many
soldiers returned home to nothing, because the government had sold their farms for unpaid
taxes.
Having no land, the farmers moved to the city. Jobs were hard to find because slaves were
doing most of them. With no land and no jobs, many plebeians lost hope. To get a little money,
they sold their votes to people running for political office. In this way, the rich became richer;
the poor became poorer.
What Happened to Those Who Helped the Poor?
In 134 B.C., a tribune named Tiberius Gracchus tried to give public land to the poor. He said
that soldiers, who fought to protect the wealthy, got nothing in return. The plebeians liked
Gracchus, but the patrician senators, or members of the senate, feared him. They started a riot,
and Gracchus and his followers were killed.
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Map Study: Roman Expansion to 100 B.C.
This map shows the territories of Rome in 100 B.C. How much of the Italian peninsula does
Rome control? What peninsula to the east does Rome control? Who controls Carthage?
Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Before you read the next section, think about what you can do that will help you understand
more about military leaders in Rome.
Reform
To make something better through change
When Tiberius’s brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 B.C., he too helped the poor
plebeians. He was able to lower the price of grain for the poor. He also helped more people in
Italy become citizens. But once again, the patrician senators stopped the reform movement.
They did not want change that would make things better for the plebeians. Gaius Gracchus and
several thousand of his followers were killed.
How Did Military Leaders Gain Power?
The plebeians and the tribunes wanted reform. The patrician senators hated it. What happened?
Military generals took power. In 110 B.C., Marius, a popular army general, formed an army
from the poor who had no land. He promised them a share of the money made from conquering
other people. His army won victories in North Africa and Gaul. His soldiers were more loyal to
him than to the republic.
In 88 B.C., Lucius Sulla, another powerful general, challenged the power of Marius. War
between followers of the two men began. Thousands of people died before Sulla defeated
Marius and made himself dictator.
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Politician
A government leader
Triumvirate
Rule by three people
By law, dictators had power for only six months. Sulla threw out this law so he could rule
longer. Military generals continued to rule Rome until 27 B.C.
What Was the First Triumvirate?
In 60 B.C., three men agreed to rule Rome together: Crassus, a wealthy politician, or
government leader, and two generals—Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar. Caesar was elected
consul. We call the rule by these men the First Triumvirate. It lasted less than 10 years.
Lesson 4 Review
On a sheet of paper, write the letter of the answer that correctly completes each sentence.
1. The Roman Republic depended on its _____.
A navy
B dictators
C citizen-soldiers
D enemies
2. A tribune named _____ tried to give land to the poor.
A Pompey the Great
B Julius Caesar
C Tiberius Gracchus
D Crassus
3. The citizen-soldiers became loyal to _____.
A senators
B Carthaginians
C laws
D generals
4. _____, a military general, threw out the Roman law that allowed a dictator for only six
months.
A Tiberius Gracchus
B Gaius Gracchus
C Marius
D Lucius Sulla
5. We call the rule of three Romans in 60 B.C. the _____.
A Mare Nostrum
B tax
C senate
D First Triumvirate
What do you think?
Imagine that you are a citizen of a republic. Why would selling your vote to someone hurt the
republic?
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Lesson 5: The End of the Republic
Objectives
To explain how Julius Caesar used his power
To identify who assassinated Julius Caesar
To explain how Octavian became Rome’s first emperor
Assassinate
To kill someone important
Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Notice the structure of this lesson. Look at the titles, headings, and boldfaced words.
Pompey feared Julius Caesar. He got the senate to limit Caesar’s power. In 49 B.C., the senate
ordered Caesar to return to Rome without his army. He challenged their power by marching his
army to the Rubicon River between Gaul and Italy, crossing it, and marching on to Rome.
Pompey fled. Caesar’s army defeated Pompey’s troops in Greece, Spain, and Egypt. Caesar had
broken Roman law, but he had won power.
How Did Caesar Use His Power?
Now Caesar had more power than the senate. He gave jobs to the poor. He told the rich to stop
wearing pearls and other signs of their wealth. He passed tougher laws against crime. He also
forgave his old enemies and made them government officials. He also made the Roman
calendar more accurate, or correct. People in Europe used his calendar for the next 1,500 years.
Who Assassinated Julius Caesar?
In 44 B.C., the senate made Caesar a dictator for life. Many artists carved statues of him, and
people could see these everywhere in Rome. The government even stamped his face on Roman
coins. Because of all this, some senators feared that they would lose their power. This would
end the republic. Some senators assassinated, or killed, him on March 15, 44 B.C. These
senators, some of them his friends, said that they had killed Caesar to save the republic.
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Retire
To give up one’s job
Emperor
A person who is ruler of an empire
Reading Strategy: Metacognition
Note the main idea and important details of this lesson. After each section, summarize what
you have read to make sure you understand how the Roman Republic ended.
Who Formed the Second Triumvirate?
After Caesar’s death, fighting broke out. His 19-year-old son, Octavian, and two of his
supporters—Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus—formed the Second Triumvirate. They divided
the Roman Empire into three areas. Octavian ruled the West; Antony ruled the East; and
Lepidus ruled North Africa. Each shared power over Italy. After Lepidus retired, or gave up
his job, Octavian and Mark Antony fought for complete power.
How Did Octavian Become Rome’s First Emperor?
Mark Antony formed an alliance with Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. This upset Octavian,
because he feared that Antony and Cleopatra would create their own empire. Octavian asked
the senate to take away Antony’s power. Then Octavian declared war on Antony and Cleopatra.
In 31 B.C., at the battle of Actium, the Romans defeated the Egyptians. After learning of their
defeat, Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves.
Four years later, in 27 B.C., the Roman Republic ended. The senate made Octavian the
emperor. For the next 500 years, emperors ruled Rome.
Biography
Cleopatra: 69–30 B.C.
Cleopatra is famous for her charm. She was also brave and ambitious. She became queen of
Egypt at age 17. Her family was Greek. They had ruled Egypt for almost 300 years.
Cleopatra and her brother were at war. Julius Caesar helped her win. After his death, she turned
to Mark Antony, a Roman general. He helped her keep Egypt independent. They married and
had three children.
Then Rome declared war on Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian’s fleet defeated them, so Antony
killed himself. Cleopatra could not bear to be Octavian’s prisoner, so she also killed herself.
She and Antony were buried together.
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Lesson 5 Review
On a sheet of paper, write the answer to each question. Use complete sentences.
1. How did Julius Caesar disobey the senate?
2. Why was Caesar assassinated?
3. What was the Second Triumvirate?
4. Who was Cleopatra?
5. Who became the first emperor of Rome?
What do you think?
Do you think the senators who assassinated Julius Caesar did so for the good of the republic?
Why or why not?
Communication in History
Our Legacy from Latin
Is Latin a “dead language??? Has anyone used it since the ancient Romans? In fact, Latin lives
on. For many years, educated people in Europe learned it. Scientists still use Latin for plant and
animal names. The French, Spanish, and Romanian languages are partly based on Latin.
The English language has two main sources. One is German. The other is Latin. In fact, the
word language comes from the Latin word lingua. School, library, table—all of these words
have Latin roots.
Latin came into English in two ways. At first, many people in England spoke the language of
the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These were Germanic languages. Then, in 1066, Normans from
France conquered England. They added many French words to the language. Other Latin words
came from scholars and scientists. For a while, ordinary people used Saxon words. People of
higher rank used Latin-based words. Over time, the two blended to form our modern English
language.
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Document-Based Reading
How to Get Elected in Rome
Ancient Rome was a republic. It did not have a king, and it was not a democracy. Only
patricians held office. For many years, ordinary people tried to get some voice in government.
They won some rights, but power stayed with just a few.
However, Roman officials did need the people’s support. Like modern politicians, they tried
different ways to get it. This reading is from a letter written in 63 B.C. In it, Quintus Cicero
tells his brother how to get elected.
Whoever gives any sign of liking you, or regularly visits your house, you must put down in the
category of friends.… You must take great pains that these men should love you and desire
your highest honor as, for example, your tribesmen, neighbors, clients, and finally your
freedmen, yes even your slaves; for nearly all the gossip that forms public opinion emanates
from your own servants’ quarters.
In a word, you must secure friends of every class, magistrates, consuls and their tribunes to win
you the vote of the centuries [that elect the consuls]: men of wide popular influence.…
So you see that you will have the votes of all the centuries secured for you by the number and
variety of your friends.… After that, review the entire city, all guilds, districts, neighborhoods.
If you can attach yourself to the leading men in these, you will by their means easily keep a
hold upon the multitude.
And you should be strenuous in seeing as many people as possible every day of every possible
class and order, for from the mere numbers of these who greet you, you can make a guess of
the amount of support you will get on the balloting. It often happens that people, when they
visit a number of candidates, and observe the one that pays special heed to their attentions,
leave off visiting the others, and little by little become real supporters of the man.
Document-Based Questions
1. Whom does Cicero say a candidate should consider as friends?
2. Why should a candidate make sure that his servants think highly of him?
3. How can a candidate get support throughout Rome?
4. Why do people often vote for a candidate?
5. Would Cicero’s advice be useful to someone running for political office today? Why or why
not?
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Spotlight Story: Life in Rome
Rome was the largest city in the Roman Empire. By about A.D. 100, it had nearly one million
people. The city was busy and crowded. At the heart of Rome was the Forum. It had great
temples, theaters, and markets. The public baths were also important buildings. They were
popular meeting places.
Romans also loved games and races. The city had several huge public arenas. People watched
chariot races in the huge Circus Maximus. Gladiators and wild animals fought in the
Colosseum. (You can still see the ruins of this stadium in present-day Rome.)
In town, wealthy patricians lived in comfortable town houses. They had gardens and fountains.
These nobles also owned large country homes called villas. Most ordinary Romans rented small
apartments in buildings with four or five floors. Small shops took up the first floor. These
wooden buildings were dark and crowded. Fire was a constant danger.
Crime was also a problem in Rome. Wealthy people avoided certain parts of the city. They
might walk there only with armed slaves.
The family was the center of Roman life. In early Rome, the father had total control over his
household. Later, fathers became less strict. They still made major family decisions. They held
religious ceremonies to honor household gods. The goddess Vesta was the spirit of the hearth.
The god Janus guarded the doorway. Each family also had its own spirits to protect it.
A Roman father took charge of his sons’ education. Tutors were often Greek slaves. Young
boys learned to read, write, and do arithmetic. Later they studied Greek and Latin literature.
Public speaking was also important. Girls were taught cooking and sewing at home. Young
women in patrician families got more education. They learned literature, music, and dance.
Poorer women often worked in a shop or laundry.
Like people today, Romans cared about their looks. They wore jewelry. Women had elaborate
hairstyles. Men wore a simple short-sleeved garment that fell to the knees. Women wore a
similar, but longer, tunic. Their robes were wool, linen, or silk. Men who were Roman citizens
could wear a toga. This was a long piece of cloth that was wrapped around the body. Different
styles of togas had special meaning. Senators, for example, wore white togas with a purple
border. It was hard to move while wearing a toga. Workers and soldiers usually wore just the
tunic.
Wrap-Up
1. What kinds of buildings would you see in ancient Rome?
2. What did Romans do for fun?
3. Where did most ordinary Romans live?
4. What was the father’s role in the Roman family?
5. What was Roman clothing like?
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Chapter 7 SUMMARY
Legends say that Romulus and Remus founded Rome in 753 B.C.
The Latins lived on the plains south of the Tiber River. Greek settlers lived in city-states
nearby. The Latins learned from the Greeks.
The Etruscans lived north of the Tiber River. They were more advanced than the Latins. By
about 600 B.C., they conquered Rome. Etruscan kings ruled Rome. Wealthy landowners,
called patricians, ran the government.
In 509 B.C., the Romans overthrew the Etruscan kings. They set up a republic. Two officials
called consuls ran the republic. A senate of patricians made laws.
Most ordinary Romans were plebeians. They paid taxes and served as soldiers. The plebeians
wanted political power. Two officials—tribunes—were named to represent them. Tribunes and
consuls could veto laws.
In about 450 B.C., Roman laws were written down on 12 bronze tablets. Plebeians gradually
got more power.
The Roman Republic fought its neighbors. Rome’s land and power grew. Three wars were
fought with Carthage, a powerful Phoenician city. The First Punic War lasted 23 years, from
264 to 241 B.C. Rome won. In the Second Punic War, Hannibal crossed the Alps. He invaded
Rome itself. A Roman general finally defeated him at Zama in 202 B.C. Rome won the Third
Punic War as well. The Romans destroyed Carthage about 149 B.C.
By 133 B.C., Rome ruled the Mediterranean. But the plebeians were getting poorer. Two
brothers named Gracchus tried to help. Both were killed along with many followers.
Military leaders took power in Rome. Two popular generals were Marius and Sulla. In 60 B.C.,
three leaders agreed to rule together as the First Triumvirate. Two were generals—Pompey and
Julius Caesar. The other was a wealthy politician, Crassus.
The senate made Caesar dictator for life. Some senators thought that would end the Republic,
so they killed Caesar in 44 B.C.
The Second Triumvirate formed. It included Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian, and another
general, Mark Antony. A third man, Lepidus, retired. Antony made an alliance with Cleopatra,
queen of Egypt. Octavian declared war on them and defeated them. The Senate named him
emperor.
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Chapter 7 REVIEW
On a sheet of paper, use the words from the Word Bank to complete each sentence correctly.
Word Bank
Cleopatra
Gaius Gracchus
Hannibal
Julius Caesar
Lucius Sulla
Mark Antony
Octavian
Pompey the Great
Scipio
Tiberius Gracchus
1. _____ defeated Hannibal at Carthage.
2. _____ got rid of the law about dictators governing only six months.
3. _____, a great general from Carthage, won many victories against the Romans.
4. As a tribune, _____ gave land to poor plebeians.
5. Along with Crassus and Julius Caesar, _____ was a member of the First Triumvirate.
6. _____ took power by disobeying the Roman senate and marching his army across the
Rubicon River.
7. As queen of Egypt, _____ formed an alliance against Rome with Mark Antony.
8. Along with Octavian and Marcus Lepidus, _____ was a member of the Second Triumvirate.
9. _____, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, became the first emperor of Rome.
10. As a tribune, _____ was able to lower the price of grain so that the poor could buy it.
On a sheet of paper, write the letter of the answer that correctly completes each sentence.
11. The word _____ comes from the Latin word for father.
A plebeian
B senate
C patrician
D republic
12. A _____ is a form of government in which citizens elect representatives to govern them.
A dictatorship
B senate
C patrician
D republic
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13. To _____ something is to say no to it.
A veto
B accurate
C term
D elect
14. In times of war, the Romans would appoint a _____ to rule for six months.
A senate
B senator
C dictator
D emperor
15. _____ means “from the common people.??
A Plebeian
B Patrician
C Senate
D Triumvirate
On a sheet of paper, write the answer to each question. Use complete sentences.
16. Explain how each of the following was important for the Roman Republic: two consuls; the
senate; the veto; the tribunes; the Law of the Twelve Tables.
17. What was one difference between the patricians and the plebeians?
18. Why did the Roman patricians need the Roman plebeians?
Critical Thinking
On a sheet of paper, write your response to each question. Use complete sentences.
19. The Roman Republic lasted 500 years. Why do you think it lasted so long?
20. Why do you think the Roman Republic finally ended?
Test-Taking Tip: Look over a test before you begin answering questions. See how many parts
there are. See what you are being asked to do on each part.
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