Literacy for Students with Low Vision:
A Framework for Delivery of Instruction
Anne L. Corn • Vanderbilt University
Alan J. Koenig • Texas Tech University
Synopsis
Purpose. The purpose of this study was to gain professional consensus on the appropriate levels of
instructional services to address the literacy needs of students with low vision.
Method. A Delphi approach was used to gain consensus among 40 professionals in visual impairment.
The respondents received four rounds of a survey, throughout which they were able to view the ratings
and comments from other respondents. Consensus was reached when 85% or more of the respondents
agreed on a particular level of instructional service (or range of service) in each of 11 skill areas.
Respondents. Respondents for the study were selected for their recognized expertise and experience in
teaching literacy skills to students with low vision or in the academic discipline of low vision. They
were selected from itinerant, resource room, residential school, and university personnel preparation
programs. Respondents had a mean of 19 years of experience in the field of visual impairment. They
had taught print literacy to a median of 25 students and braille literacy to a median of 6 students. All
respondents had bachelor’s degrees, 95% had master’s degrees, and 38% had doctorates. All but one
respondent had current or past certification as a teacher of students with visual impairments.
Findings. Levels of instructional service (consistency, total time per day, time span, and duration)
were determined for 11 areas of literacy needs (see the accompanying chart and description of the skill
areas). On the chart, the percentage of respondents who agreed to a particular level of service is noted
in parentheses following the recommended level. If a range of service was agreed upon, the individual
percentages are provided along with the overall percentage. Note the definitions for the levels of
service at the bottom of the page. Also, the conditions under which direct instruction should be
provided in the various areas of literacy skills, as agreed upon by the respondents, is attached. The
respondents reached consensus that direct instruction was appropriate in all areas under the stated
conditions, except for “Beginning Print Literacy Skills.” In this area, 83% felt that direct instruction
should be provided, while 92% felt that consultation was appropriate, suggesting that the regular
classroom teacher held the primary responsibility for beginning print literacy skills.
Two important points must be recognized in understanding and using these findings. First, these
findings are intended to provide general guidelines for educational teams to follow in developing
quality literacy programs for students with low vision. The levels of service must be tailored to address
the individual needs of each student. Second, the findings identify the amount of direct instructional
service with some time for consultation that should be provided by a qualified teacher of students with
visual impairments. The suggested levels of service do not include time for other aspects of delivering
instruction, such as materials preparation and driving time.
For further information on this study, contact Anne Corn at Vanderbilt University, P.O. Box 328, Nashville, TN 37203,
anne.corn@vanderbilt.edu, 615-322-2249 or Alan Koenig at Texas Tech University, Box 41071, Lubbock, TX 794091071, alan.koenig@ttu.edu, 806-742-1997 ext. 245. An article on this research has been accepted for publication in the
Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness; therefore, this document should not be copied or distributed without
permission of the authors.
Corn & Koenig (2001) • Page 1
Professional Consensus on Instructional Considerations
for Students in Print Literacy Programs
Instructional Considerations
Skill Areas
Consistency
Total Time per Day
Time Span
Duration
Emergent literacy skills
Moderate (85%)
Short/Moderate –
Moderate (78 + 22 =
100%)
Infancy to preschool
(97%)
Long (100%)
Integrated use of visual
skills
Moderate (88%)
Moderate (92%)
Infancy through high
school (92%)
Long (90%)
Use of optical devices in
near environments
Moderate –
Moderate/High
+ 12 = 93%)
Preschool through high
school when prescribed
by a clinical low vision
specialist (92%)
Concentrated,
short, or long
(97%)
Use of optical devices in
distant environments
Moderate (86%)
Short/Moderate –
Moderate (76 + 15 =
91%)
Preschool through high
school when prescribed
by a clinical low vision
specialist (94%)
Concentrated,
short, or long
(100%)
Beginning print literacy
skills
High – High/Moderate
(73 + 21 = 94%)
Long – Long/Moderate
– Moderate
(52 + 27 + 7 = 100%)
Kindergarten through
Grade 3 (91%)
Long (100%)
Intermediate and
advanced print literacy
skills
Moderate (91%)
Moderate (94%)
Grade 4 through
grade 12 (89%)
Long (92%)
Beginning literacy skills
in dual media (print and
braille)
High (100%)
Long (100%)
Kindergarten through
grade 3 (90%)
Long (100%)
Braille literacy skills for
High (100%)
student with print literacy
skills
Long (100%)
Introduced at an
appropriate time as
determined by the
educational team
(100%)
Long (100%)
Listening, aural reading,
and live reader skills
Moderate (87%)
Moderate (86%)
Throughout the school
years (97%)
Long (86%)
Keyboarding and wordprocessing skills
Moderate (90%)
Moderate (94%)
Begin in elementary
school (grades K-6)
(88%)
Long (92%)
Technology skills
Moderate (91%)
Moderate (90%)
Throughout the school
years (100%)
Long (87%)
Short – Moderate
(82 (88%)
Consistency:
High = Daily contact; Moderate = One to three days per week; Low = Semimonthly or monthly contact;
Periodic = Several contacts throughout school year
Total Time per Day: Long = 1–2 hours per session; Moderate = 1/2–1 hour per session; Short = Less than 1/2 hour per session
Duration:
Long = Throughout at least one school year; Short = Throughout one quarter or semester;
Concentrated = One to a few days with high/moderate intensity
Corn & Koenig (2001) • Page 2
Skill Area Descriptions
Emergent literacy skills. Supporting literacy development in early childhood settings, such as the
home, daycare, and preschool; teaching early literacy skills and modeling techniques based on children
obtaining knowledge through active experiences for fostering development of those skills in the home
and preschool, such as reading aloud to the child, developing book concepts, encouraging early reading
and writing skills (e.g., pretend reading, scribbling); working with parents and others to expand
student’s experiential base and general concepts; helping parents and others acquire and create books,
labels, and other materials in accessible media; drawing attention to signs and other forms of
environmental print; assuring models of proficient readers; bridging emergent literacy to beginning
print literacy.
Integrated use of visual skills. Teaching and reinforcing the development of visual skills in functional
contexts (e.g., visually searching at a distance, visually directed reach); teaching integrated use of
visual skills in authentic environments and contexts (e.g., interpreting pictures and graphic displays;
systematic searching and scanning for information on a page, reading, writing, daily living skills, social
skills, travel skills); teaching use of environmental adaptations and use of nonoptical low vision
devices and strategies (e.g., light controlling devices, felt-tip pens, filters, angle and position of
materials).
Use of optical devices in near environments. Teaching use of prescribed optical low vision devices
(e.g., hand and stand magnifiers, spectacle-mounted devices) for reading in near textual environments
(e.g., books, newspapers, magazines, and other material involving narrative reading); building stamina
in students for sustaining textual reading for periods of sufficient length to complete given tasks;
teaching integrated use of near low vision optical devices in authentic environments for functional
tasks (e.g., reading menus, time tables, and price tags); coordinate training with orientation and
mobility instructor (map reading skills).
Use of optical devices in distant environments. Teaching students to use prescribed distance optical
devices (e.g., hand-held monoculars and binoculars, spectacle-mounted devices) to complete short-term
distance tasks (e.g., directory in office building, menus on walls, signs in grocery store aisles,
chalkboards, overhead projectors, charts in classrooms, demonstrations in classrooms); coordinating
training with the orientation and mobility specialists (e.g., reading house numbers, street signs);
integrating use of distance devices in authentic tasks and throughout the day; teach the care of and the
importance of the use of the devices to gain independence; teaching older students how to obtain
devices if needed in the future when their visual demands increase.
Beginning print literacy skills. Teaching formal reading skills in print, including handwriting,
decoding and word analysis skills, vocabulary development, comprehension skills, and reading for
specific purposes; teaching formal writing skills (manuscript/cursive); providing ongoing assessment
of literacy skills and literacy media needs; building reading fluency and stamina; arranging the reading
environment; building motivation for, and enjoyment of, reading; encouraging leisure reading;
applying literacy skills throughout the day and in authentic contexts; bridging beginning print literacy
skills with intermediate/advanced print literacy skills.
Intermediate and advanced print literacy skills. Building stamina and fluency in reading, with or
without optical devices; teaching strategies for accessing print information in the environment;
providing ongoing assessment of literacy skills and literacy media needs; fostering responsibility for
accessing visual information; teaching strategies for determining when to augment visual information
Corn & Koenig (2001) • Page 3
with other sources (e.g., recorded texts, braille); fostering enjoyment of reading and leisure reading;
using print literacy skills to complete functional tasks in authentic environments; applying literacy
skills in learning content subject matter (e.g., studying science); teaching strategies for transitioning to
work environments.
Beginning literacy skills in dual media (print and braille). For students for whom the educational
team has decided that instruction in both print and braille is appropriate: Teaching formal reading
skills concurrently in both print and braille, including decoding and word analysis skills, vocabulary
development, comprehension skills, and reading for specific purposes; teaching writing and formal
writing skills in both print and braille; providing ongoing assessment of literacy skills and literacy
media needs; continuing to develop mechanical skills in braille reading; building reading fluency in
both media; building motivation for, and enjoyment of, reading; encouraging leisure reading; applying
literacy skills in print and braille throughout the day and in authentic contexts; bridging beginning
literacy skills and intermediate/advanced literacy skills.
Braille literacy skills for students with print literacy skills. For students for whom the educational
team has decided that instruction in braille is appropriate as a supplement to or substitute for print:
Teaching tactile perception, hand movements, and letter/symbol recognition skills in braille;
introducing braille contractions and rules in meaningful contexts; teaching braille writing skills;
integrating use of braille in practical activities; providing instruction in contracted and uncontracted
braille to address the present and future needs of the individual student; providing ongoing assessment;
applying literacy skills throughout the day and in authentic contexts.
Listening, aural reading, and live reader skills. Fostering development of auditory skills (e.g.,
auditory awareness and attention, sound localization, auditory memory, auditory clozure); teaching and
reinforcing the use of listening to gather information; teaching the mechanics of using recorded
textbooks; teaching strategies for gathering information from recorded textbooks; teaching strategies
for obtaining and purposefully directing the activities of, and gathering information from, live readers;
applying listening, aural reader, and live reader skills in authentic contexts.
Keyboarding and wordprocessing skills. Teaching touch-typing techniques via a computer with
accessible print and/or speech synthesis; teaching strategies for using word processing, including
creating, editing, saving, and printing textfiles; building fluency and accuracy in keyboarding skills;
helping students choose a comfortable type font, color contrast, and size for efficient word processing;
applying keyboarding and word-processing skills in daily activities.
Technology skills. Teaching technology skills to facilitate literacy tasks and to access print
information, such as use of CCTVs, computers with accessible print, synthesized speech, voice
recognition systems, enlarging software; scanners (to convert print to an accessible medium); gaining
access to, and information from, the Internet; applying technology skills throughout the day and in
authentic contexts; teaching care and maintenance of the equipment; setting up new equipment.
Corn & Koenig (2001) • Page 4
Conditions for Offering Direct Services
Skill Area
Conditions for Direct Services
Emergent
Literacy Skills
When providing learning media and functional vision assessments (88%)
While modeling techniques for parents and others (91%)
When integrating visual skills instruction (94%)
When introducing low vision devices (100%)
When providing instruction in a home setting (91%)
When increasing responsiveness to literacy events in the environment (87%)
When introducing prebraille skills (100%)
When providing direct instruction in emergent literacy and related skills (94%)
Integrated Use
of Visual Skills
When instructing students in visual efficiency (100%)
When student has a recent vision loss or change in visual status (94%)
When providing feedback to students on use of vision (91%)
When student is learning to use nonoptical devices and environmental modifications (91%)
When providing ongoing assessment (88%)
When student is not making appropriate progress in using visual skills (88%)
When implementing recommendations of specialized functional assessments (94%)
When modeling techniques for other team members (85%)
Use of Optical
Devices in Near
Environments
When providing initial instruction in use of near devices (100%)
When promoting generalization to new tasks and environments (94%)
When increasing efficiency in use of devices (97%)
When providing ongoing assessment (91%)
Use of Optical
Devices in
Distant
Environments
When providing initial instruction in use of distance devices (100%)
When promoting generalization to new tasks and environments (97%)
When introducing the benefits and uses of devices (100%)
When student’s eye condition has changed (97%)
When addressing psychosocial needs (91%)
When increasing efficiency in use of vision and devices (97%)
Beginning Print
Literacy Skills
When providing ongoing assessment (91%)
When teaching student to use visual/other adaptations and assistive devices for reading (100%)
When providing vision-specific supplemental instruction (100%)
When student needs specialized instruction in handwriting skills (97%)
When student’s eye condition has changed (94%)
When providing instruction in dual media (100%)
Corn & Koenig (2001) • Page 5
Intermediate
and Advanced
Print Literacy
Skills
When student’s eye condition has changed (97%)
When promoting generalization and connecting literacy skills to demands of new tasks and
environments (94%)
When addressing psychosocial needs and promoting self-advocacy skills (94%)
When providing ongoing assessment (88%)
When providing instruction in use of visual adaptations and assistive devices (100%)
When providing vision-specific supplemental instruction (97%)
When increasing efficiency in literacy skills (91%)
Beginning
Literacy Skills
in Dual Media
(Print and
Braille)
When introducing braille literacy skills (100%)
When providing ongoing assessment (91%)
When promoting generalization of literacy skills (97%)
When teaching use of low vision or technological devices (100%)
When providing instruction in both print and braille (100%)
When providing vision-specific supplemental instruction (97%)
When reading skills in primary medium are below grade level and delay is attributable to visual
impairment (97%)
When a primary literacy medium is not apparent after initial assessment (97%)
When student’s eye condition is unstable or has changed (94%)
When print reading is inefficient or uncomfortable for the student (97%)
When student demonstrates a preference for learning tactilely (91%)
Braille Literacy
Skills for
Students with
Print Literacy
Skills
When introducing braille literacy skills (100%)
When there is a decrease in functional vision and print is no longer an efficient tool (100%)
When assessment indicates braille alone is the most efficient tool (100%)
When providing ongoing assessment (91%)
When promoting generalization of literacy skills (100%)
When reading skills in primary medium are below grade level and delay is attributable to visual
impairment (97%)
When student’s eye condition is unstable or has changed (91%)
Listening, Aural
Reading, and
Live Reader
Skills
When introducing new skills or devices (100%)
When student demonstrates inefficiency or delay in skill areas (97%)
When providing ongoing assessment (91%)
When student needs additional options for gathering information (100%)
When student has acquired visual impairment or blindness (88%)
Corn & Koenig (2001) • Page 6
Keyboarding
and Word Processing
Skills
When providing initial instruction in keyboarding and wordprocessing (91%)
When keyboarding is needed prior to the time it is introduced in the standard curriculum (94%)
When assessing the need for, and introducing, special software, equipment, or other
modifications (97%)
When student is inefficient at reading his or her own handwriting (94%)
When student is inefficient in keyboarding and word processing (91%)
When student’s age, visual impairment, and other characteristics warrant direct instruction (94%)
Technology
Skills
When providing initial instruction in disability-specific technology skills (100%)
When student needs additional options for accessing print materials (100%)
When providing ongoing assessment (91%)
When skills cannot be taught by a regular computer specialist (88%)
When promoting generalization of technology skills (94%)
Corn & Koenig (2001) • Page 7