LEARNING OBJECTIVES CHAPTER 7
1.
Describe the functions that form a circle of thought. (see “The Circle of Thought”)
2.
Define information-processing system and thinking. Discuss the role of attention and
memory in each stage of the information-processing model. (see “The Circle of Thought”)
3.
Define concept. Describe the differences between formal and natural concepts, and give
examples of each. Define and give an example of a prototype. (see “Concepts”)
4.
Define and give examples of propositions, schemas, scripts, and mental models. Describe
the role of each in the thinking process. (see “Propositions” and “Schemas, Scripts, and
Mental Models”)
5.
Define and give examples of images and a cognitive map. (see “Images and Cognitive
Maps”)
6.
Define formal reasoning, algorithms, and rules of logic. Discuss the causes of errors in
logical reasoning. (see “Formal Reasoning”)
7.
Define informal reasoning and heuristic. Describe and give examples of the anchoring,
representativeness, and availability heuristics. (see “Informal Reasoning”)
8.
Describe the following problem-solving strategies: incubation, means-end analysis, working
backward, and analogies. (see “Problem Solving”)
9.
Describe how comparative case studies can be used to identify the strategies employed by
successful problem solvers. (see “Focus on Research: Problem-Solving Strategies in the
Real World”)
10. Describe and give examples of the following obstacles to problem solving: multiple
hypotheses, mental sets, functional fixedness, ignoring negative evidence, and confirmation
bias. (see “Obstacles to Problem Solving”)
11. Define artificial intelligence. Discuss the limitations of symbolic reasoning and the
movement toward neural network approaches in artificial intelligence systems. (see
“Problem Solving by Computer”)
12. Define creativity. Discuss the cognitive and personality characteristics necessary for
creative thinking. Define divergent and convergent thinking, and give examples of each.
(see “Creative Thinking”)
13. Define utility and expected value, and explain the role of each in the decision-making
process. (see “Evaluating Options”)
14. Explain how our decision-making abilities are influenced by biases and flaws in our
perceptions of gains, losses, and probabilities. Be sure to discuss loss aversion and the
gambler’s fallacy. (see “Biases and Flaws in Decision Making”)
15. Outline the discussion pattern typically found in groups trying to make a decision. Define
group polarization and discuss the mechanisms that appear to underlie the phenomenon.
Discuss the factors that influence the effectiveness of group decision making. (see
“Linkages: Group Processes in Problem Solving and Decision Making”)
16. List the two basic elements of language. Define grammar. (see “Language”)
17. Describe language development in children. Define babblings, the one-word stage, and
telegraphic sentences. (see “Learning to Speak: Stages of Language Development”)
18. Discuss the roles of conditioning, imitation, and biology in language development. (see
“How Is Language Acquired?”)
19. Describe the impact of a bilingual environment on the development of language abilities.
(see “Bilingualism” under “How Is Language Acquired?”)
20. Define intelligence. (see “Testing Intelligence”)
21. Discuss the history of intelligence test construction. Explain the scoring methods used in the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and how the term IQ test was introduced. (see “A Brief
History of Intelligence Tests”)
22. Discuss the use and abuse of intelligence testing in the United States in the early 1900s. (see
“A Brief History of Intelligence Tests”)
23. Describe Wechsler’s intelligence test. Explain why it is different from tests that were used
previously. Define verbal and performance scales. (see “Intelligence Tests Today”)
24. Explain how IQ scores are calculated today. (see “Calculating IQ”)
25. Define test. Describe the advantages of tests over other evaluation methods. Define and
describe the usefulness of norms. (see “Evaluating Intelligence Tests”)
26. Define statistical reliability and statistical validity. Describe how correlation coefficients are
used to evaluate the statistical reliability and statistical validity of tests. (see “Evaluating
Intelligence Tests”)
27. Discuss the research evaluating the statistical reliability and statistical validity of IQ tests.
(see “The Statistical Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests”)
28. Discuss how twin and adoption studies are used to explore the relative influence of genetic
and environmental factors on IQ scores. (see “IQ as a Measure of Inherited Ability”)
29. Explain why a group intelligence score tells you nothing about the intelligence of a given
individual within the group. Also, explain why the existence of hereditary differences
among individuals within groups does not indicate whether differences between groups
result from similar genetic causes. Discuss the variables that affect group intelligence
scores. (see “Group Differences in IQ”)
30. Discuss the evidence for and against the argument that IQ tests are culturally biased.
Discuss the effectiveness of culture-fair tests. (see “Thinking Critically: Are Intelligence
Tests Unfairly Biased Against Certain Groups?”)
31. Describe Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence. Give examples of analytic, creative,
and practical intelligence. (see “Practical and Creative Intelligence”)
32. Explain Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. List the eight types of intelligences he
proposed. Describe emotional intelligence. (see “Multiple Intelligences”)
33. Describe the relationship between giftedness and success in our society. Define mental
retardation and cultural-familial mental retardation. Discuss the causes of, and the
characteristics associated with, mental retardation. (see “Unusual Intelligence”)