Assessment and Evaluation in the IB CAS Programme
Introduction
Evaluation and assessment are obviously an integral part of any learning programme, traditional quantitative
measures have always been used in schools to monitor and assess academic progress, but questions remain as to
whether the type of assessment we are used to will be valid when applied to an experiential learning scheme like
CAS, where the emphasis is on self-realisation and reflective learning outside the traditional curriculum.
Some of these questions might be:
1.
Can the value of experience be assessed by anyone other than the person who undergoes the
experience?
2.
How can external criteria be applied to self-development when each student is different?
3.
What criteria do we use to monitor and evaluate reflective learning?
4.
How do we assess the merit of individual CAS programmes with so many varied activities?
Or to put this in more direct terms:
How can we assess progress when we don’t know what the starting point is, where we are at now and what
the units of measurement are?
In trying to devise a scheme which is both valid in terms of assessment and reliable over a large population we
are also seeking to facilitate monitoring throughout the programme, and to ensure that the CAS programmes
followed by individual students are relevant to them personally and faithful to the aims of the programme. Thus
although it is tempting to start with the examination of different assessment and evaluation methods, this would
be in a way putting the cart before the horse. Surely we need to start by examining the aims and objectives of the
IB CAS programme and then look for tools which can be used:
1.
2.
to show if, and to what extent, these are being achieved by students.
to evaluate the quality of CAS activities in relation to these aims and objectives.
This type of methodology should also try to get away from the counter-productive idea of using “CAS hours”
as a measure of achievement. and hopefully provide the answer to the perennial student questions:
Why do we have to do CAS? - Can I count this for CAS? - How many hours do I get?
This presentation will attempt to do this by:



Examining the aims and objectives of the IB CAS programme in the light of literature and previous
research into experiential and reflective learning.
Proposing evaluation and assessment tools which are valid, reliable and relevant.
Presenting the results of the use of these tools in an IB CAS programme.
In three fundamental areas:
1. Self-assessment
2. Reflective learning
3. CAS activities
1
PART 1: SELF-ASSESSMENT
The following section reviews briefly literature in the fields of self-concept development, reflective and
experiential learning techniques and examines methods by which these could be adapted for self assessment in
the CAS programme, so that the “self-evaluation process encourages the development of critical thinking skills
and enhances students’ awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses” (IBO, 2001, p30).
A.
The self concept
The IBO expects self and school evaluation in the CAS programme to include “the extent to which they have
developed personally as a result of the CAS Activity”; students should comment on the “the extent to which
they have developed personally as a result of the CAS activity” (IBO, 2001, p30).
It would seem unrealistic and even unreasonable to ask students to do this without any attempt to identify
parameters on which this could be based and assessed. In order to do so we have to define what we understand
by “personal growth and development”.
i.
Social Interactionism and Personal Construct Theory
The idea of the self-concept has been developed in Western social psychology since the early
psychologist William James, by Cooley and Mead through to Goffman and Rogers (Burns, 1979). Mead saw
society as the birthplace of the self, and held that the self of any individual develops as a result of his relations to
the process of social activity and experience and to others within that experience. In this social interactionist
school of psychology, the self concept as an object arises in social interaction as an outgrowth of the
individual’s concern about how others react to him. In Personal Construct Theory (Kelly, 1955) central
constructs about the self are formed as a result of the individual’s interpretation of the reactions and behaviour
of others. The placement and classification of an individual’s own behaviour and actions within this personal
construct system come to define the self. They provide the basis for the individual’s plans and decisions
regarding the choice of appropriate behaviour to meet unfamiliar situations (Burns, 1986).
In Kellyan understanding of education learners cannot be divorced from their surroundings, the cultural
constraints and possibilities within which their personal realities have developed, these include school and
teachers, who have their own social and cultural identity. Most educators will be familiar with the circular
process of self-concept, behaviour and feedback in schools as shown by Burns (1982) in Fig.1 This can
sometimes become a vicious circle, with a corresponding negative self-concept. However, Mezirow's "
perspective transformation”, Reed’s A the empowering learning process” and Freire's "conscientization” (
Boud et al., 1989) are all ways of describing the process in which assumptions about the self can be transcended
through education. Salmon (1984) also explains how in Kelly’s approach to learning, everything can always be
reconstrued. It is suggested here that a scheme with teacher/supervisors monitoring a programme of outside
school experiential learning can break or re-define this cycle. CAS can give the opportunity for growth, positive
enhancement of self-concept or a chance to re-define a self-concept based on primarily school experience at an
important stage in the move towards adulthood.
Pupil’s valuation of valuations
and expectations held for
him/her by significant others
Fig.1
Teacher and parent
feedback to pupil
Pupil’s valuation and
expectations of self
Pupil’s self concept
of ability
Teacher and parent’s
evaluation of pupil
Expectations held for pupil
by teacher and parent
2
Pupil’s behaviour and
performance in classroom
ii.
Self-concept development and measurement
Other studies of experiential learning programmes have looked at means of evaluation from the
perspective of evaluation of the impact of the scheme (American Council on Education, 1978; ACTION, 1977;
American Association of Community Colleges, 1995), evaluating service learning programmes (National
Student Volunteer Program, 1977) development of qualities such as civic responsibility in students (Soltys,
F.W. 1997), relation to academic performance (Fenzel and Leary, 1997) but have rarely attempted to identify or
measure personal development or develop parameters for students to do so themselves. Many advocate the
incorporation of reflective exercises (Silcox, H., 1993; Oates, 1996; Schratz and Steiner-Löffler, 1998)
especially journal-keeping, into experiential learning programmes, but apart from Wang et al (1997) seem to
neglect the comparative nature of evaluation which is required if the effectiveness of the programme in
achieving the goal of student self-development is to be assessed.
It is suggested here that some form of self-profiling is essential in order to:



enable students to relate personally to the CAS programme
allow them to identify parameters on which to base self- and activity evaluations
provide a basis for comparative self-assessment
Tools to measure self-esteem have been developed by Coopersmith (1967), Button (1982), Wells (1983),
among others, but are based on external parameters which can be seen to be at least culture-specific, if not classspecific.
Kelly suggests that techniques to aid reflection must be applied to the constructs of the learner (Boud et
al, 1985), therefore his Personal Construct Theory has added benefit as the choice of student self-concept
assessment. Many Personal Construct Psychology elicitation methods have been derived from the work of Kelly
(1955) by for example, Shaw (1981), Easterby-Smith (1981), Salmon (1984), Bannister and Fransella, (1986),
and Pope and Denicolo, (1993). These can give us a profile of a student’s self-concept using their own
constructs, rather than those which have been devised by the author of the instrument. Elicitation of constructs
in this way also enables cultural differences to be accommodated. One form of elicitation uses Triadic
Elicitation to form what are known as Repertory Grids, and this can be used with groups as well as individuals.
Constructs relating to student self-concepts can be elicited via semi-structured group interviews "One
use of the (repertory) grid with groups has been to abstract the constructs used and form them into a more
conventional attitude measure, i.e. find a yardstick from a particular population or sample in which the research
interest is focused” ( Pope and Denicolo, 1991). The inferred constructs can be combined into a self-profile
grid, which incorporates principles of Likert scales ( Robson, 1998), semantic differentials (Osgood et al in Pope
and Denicolo, 1991, Robson, 1998), and Salmon lines ( Salmon, P 1995), with bi-polar evaluative continua
divided into 7 segments. The resulting self-profile grid is shown in Fig. 2, but the constructs obtained may differ
between groups and between schools.
Students can thus obtain a self-profile related to their own idea of growth and self-development, which
can be used not only as a form of assessing self-development, but also as individual criteria for the choice of
CAS activities. This will enhance the choice of effective CAS activities and also increases the relevance of the
whole CAS programme to the student.
“Through all the activities that I have been doing I learnt many things. At the beginning of the year I did not
have such a positive way of thinking but now I think I do. I was always thinking about what other people would
think if I do a certain thing. I did not have confidence in me and I always tried to follow others. But now I do not
have that habit any more. I had an opportunity to do presentation in front of many people and organize
something in big scale. All of them actually worked, other people were interested in our project and we got big
corporation. It gave me a great influence. At that point I realized that if I try to achieve something and work on
it, I actually be able to make it happen”.
The self-evaluation from which the above extract is taken includes the pronoun ‘I’ 44 times! As one student
remarked:
“ Now I understand what CAS is about…. It’s about me”
3
Figure 2 Self-profile Grid (Allan, 1999)
2. REFLECTIVE LEARNING
“The most socially useful learning in the modern world is the learning of the process
of learning, a continuing openness to experience and incorporating into oneself of the process
of change.” (Rogers, 1969)
The IBO guidelines also stress that "the emphasis of CAS is on experiential learning” (IBO, 1996, p4)
and that "self-evaluations should be reflective rather than descriptive, narrative reports” (ib.p5). This section
will explore how these ideas of experiential learning and reflection are inter-related, and how we may observe
and evaluate the process to determine if experiential learning really is taking place.
A.
Turning experience into learning
In his 1916 Paradigm for Reflection, Dewey stated that reflection required: a definable problem, an
extended period of analysis and a hypothesis tested by some action. Jurgen Habermas, in 1979, emphasised the
importance of intention, "critical intent”, the bringing of informed judgement to bear on the validity of
questions ( in Boud et al., 1989). Current notions of reflection are that it is always focused on the problem and
that it is oriented towards action. Kolb (1975) describes the process of reflection as a cycle of experience,
observations and reflections, forming of abstract concepts and generalisations, and the testing of their
implications in new situations (Fig 3). The idea of reflection as a cycle involving action and revision of plans
leading to further action has been extended by Stephen Kemmis (in McNiff et al.,1996). He defines the
reflective process as “meta-thinking”, thinking about the relationship between
4
action and thinking. He characterised an effective reflective process as a spiral (Fig 4), involving a
continuous process of planning, monitoring, reflection and evaluation leading to revised plans and a new cycle.
Experiential learning schemes like CAS enable a movement from what can be a vicious circle in
schools, as shown by Burns (1982) in Fig.1, to a potentially virtuous one like Kolb’s.
Concrete experience
Observations and
reflections
Testing implications of
concepts in new situations
Formation of abstract
concepts and generalizations
Fig. 3 Kolb’s Description of the Learning Cycle (Kolb and Fry, 1975)
It is suggested here that the real value of the CAS programme can best be understood and appreciated
in this light, and staff and student involvement can be transformed if its true educational value can be
appreciated.
B. Praxis – turning reflection into action
However reflection involving action is not automatic. Kemmis holds that the intent of the learner
permeates every stage of the process from choice to engage in a particular activity to the results of the reflective
process. How then can reflection be stimulated and facilitated within an experiential learning programme such
as CAS?
Guiding students in the process of reflection is not easy, Tucker et al (1996) suggest that the teacher
should be: Anon-judgemental, listening, praising, non-critical and non-problem-solving”. Research into the use
of Dialogue Journals (Staton, J.1987; Kreeft-Peyton, 1993) confirms this and adds that teachers should try not to
be prescriptional, but perhaps quote from their own experience in order to offer to pupils some avenues of
exploration. In short, teachers should function as a meta-guide, helping the learner to focus on the reflective
moment, to identify the A critical incident”.
i.
Planning
The first point of guidance needed by the student is in the choice of activities. Self-concept profiling should
have given an idea of the areas which the student can develop through CAS, planning should incorporate this
and translate it into specific aims and objectives for the activity. Together these give a starting point for
reflective learning and a basis for meaningful self-evaluations. Research on goal-setting shows that individuals
with negative self-concepts set goals unrealistically high or low. This ensures that whatever the real outcome, it
will be construed as failure. Those with positive self-esteem use goal-setting to maintain the self as known and
attribute blame for failures to others.
Unrealistic evaluations tend to compound generalisations of failure. Realistic negative evaluation
should provide a basis for change that is based on previous evaluations, comparing present with past
performance instead of that of others. Students will need help, first in setting realistic goals and second in
planning how to work towards these on a realistic time-scale. One method of doing this is by the use of a
proposal incorporating aims in terms of personal development, and specific objectives for the activity, planning
as to how to achieve these, together with a time line. This should be submitted before a student can start an
activity, and has the added benefit of automatic monitoring of the suitability of the activity in terms of general
IB criteria. (See Part 3).
5
Figure 4: The Spiral of Kemmis
6
ii.
Student journals
Journals have been used as vehicles for reflection since early times (Goldsmith, 1996). They have been
found to provide tangible evidence of mental process (Staton, 1987; Tucker et al., 1996; Peyton, 1993;
Goldsmith, 1996; Kerka, 1996) they demonstrate movement through Kolb’s Modes of Experiential Learning or
Spiral of Kemmis (facilitating monitoring). They can become vehicles of experiential learning in:
1.
recording a concrete experience or feeling.
2.
reflecting on and observing the experience.
3.
integrating observation into abstract concepts or theories.
4.
using theories to make decisions and solve problems.
As Clark, (1994, in McIntyre and Tlusty, 1995) says:
"Journals are tools for growth through critical reflection”
They are intended to illustrate, facilitate and enhance reflection and therefore evidence of the reflective
cycle as described above should be monitored. Because of the importance of reflective learning in the
programme, the type of reflection to be seen in student journals is more important than the amount; any
evaluation then should be qualitative, not quantitative. Firstly journals can be analysed for reflective, narrative
and descriptive content. Any reflective content found can then be analysed and differentiated into 3 levels.
1 Recording, reflecting on and
observing a concrete experience or
feeling
‘‘reflection-on-action’ as retrospective and hypothetical, not
causally linked with a subsequent action (Schön, ibid)
"Descriptive reflection” (Hatton and Smith, ibid)
2 As level 1 plus:
Integrating observation into abstract
concepts or theories
"reflection-in-action”-respond to surprising findings by
inventing new rules on the spot” (Schön, ibid, p3)
"Dialogic reflection” (Hatton and Smith, ibid)
3 As level 2 plus:
Using theories to make decisions and
solve problems
evidence of critical intent and praxis
"our thinking serves to reshape what we are doing while we
are doing it” (Schön, ibid),
"Critical reflection” ( Morton , 1993 in Tucker, 1991)
Table 1: Levels of reflection (Allan, 1999)
However, it must be remembered that the journal is the vehicle by which the student evaluates his/her
own programme in relation to self-development, it is not what is being assessed. Journals should not be
evaluated, they are an evaluation. However they demonstrate the effectiveness of the student’s reflective
learning, which can be evaluated by supervisors. This needs to be continuous rather than summative and is more
to monitor than to assess. Teachers should provide feedback and act as guides and monitors in this respect the student evaluates, the teacher moderates
iii.
Results
This section provides some extracts from student journals in order to demonstrate more clearly how different
levels of reflection can be seen and how they relate to the effectiveness of any experiential learning taking place
a)Personal Journals
Level 1 reflection, “reflection-on-action”. This consists of recording feelings and thoughts about
activities which were undertaken, in many cases after the activity has been completed. Extracts of this level are
given below:
S30
“....we had to cook, serve and clean all! However this wasn’t a problem since you acquire a sense
7
of responsibility for all the children you’re supervising and feel like a “complete” adult. When people rely on
you, you wouldn’t want to let them down .”
S25
“Feb 27th 1999 - We are actually moving the heavy furniture! The house is actually nice! I feel that the
house is, in a way, partially mine, due to all the energy I have put into it. From the removal of the wallpaper to
moving the heavy furniture in, I have helped Yoav over a scope of tasks”
Level 2 reflection, “reflection-in-action”, showing identification of critical incidents, reflection on
them and the drawing of conclusions from the reflection.
S08
“- It was hard trying to understand the people and one had to take care not to personally take the
comments an elderly says.
- I felt really bad today since I tried to help an old lady eat but she couldn’t and I couldn’t do anything.
- It is nice being around old people once in a while since you realise the importance of life and how good it feels
to be young and be able to eat your food.”
S38
“This camp got me talking to a lot of new (to me at least) people. I made new friends and I became less
shy about approaching strangers. I discovered that nearly everyone is looking for friends in this world and not
enemies, so just  and be friendly.”
S29
“Day 5 Feb 27 - Came at about 3.00. Saw Jean outside. Helped feed the animals and chatted to Jean.
Really cool company. Get the feeling I’m really appreciated. Male goat tried to escape. Now allowed to do even
more on my own.. e.g. the rabbits, chickens, goats and the sheep. Going next week again. Enjoy the work:
helping someone, improving my communicating skills, feeding animals, not very tiresome, but fun! Most
importantly I learn how to get on with all sorts of people. I feel much more confident now, not shy to say what I
think and feel”.
Level 3 reflection, Praxis -“reflection-in-action” taken further, where conclusions from reflection had
then been tested by modifying action or initiating new action, and evidence of “intent” was present.
S34
“11 February 1999 - We had a rehearsal for tomorrow’s presentation. It was one of my objective ‘to
be able to talk in front of many people’. ........... I hope I can manage to talk confidently tomorrow. After I got
home I rewrote my speech. I heard other people’s speech and I thought mine is too formal.. or too boring. To
impress people it will be nice to be a bit informal especially in our situation because listeners are all students
who we always meet. Though my speech is still not so funny(?)...”
“17 April 1999 - I talked to my supervisor about the creations that I have been making. She gave me
some very nice advice. She told me to look for more modern ways of making jewels. I thought I was doing some
experimental work but I realised that all of the design was almost the same and have no significant changes. I
read some books and saw some artists’ creation and they were so much different. They had full of imagination
and it was very creative. So I decided to make something totally strange and new. I would like to use some weird
materials such as coke can or some plastic pieces etc. even chopsticks can be useful.”
b) Dialogue journals
One effective way of monitoring and guiding reflection is the “Dialogue Journal” where the supervisor
reads the journal and adds their own comments, it thus takes the form of a dialogue between student and
supervisor. Dialogue journals showed examples of Level 2 Reflection (“reflection-in-action”, showing
identification of critical incidents, reflection on them and drawing conclusions from the reflection). In nearly all
cases this was accompanied by comments from the supervisor drawing their attention to various points.
S38
“Before we even got started I knew it would be quite a challenge getting the 4 of us to work together as
a group...........After we started I knew for sure it would be tough. Quite honestly not one of us seemed all that
interested in spending time with the rest to get some concrete plans for the sketches.
My personal opinion, that there was a lack of co-operation was proven right when S39 wrote the play by
himself.....”
Supervisor
“Your comments on the effort put into the......... play are very honest (I think you’re right - that
unless people commit themselves, the results won’t amount to very much).”
“..........your comments are interesting, but perhaps you should put in more about yourself - write down how you
felt about your aims and development - to what extent did you achieve or fail to achieve what you set out to
do”.
S38
“I already feel that my love for acting is no longer the same, but I will keep on going with this activity
at least for a bit longer to give my feelings a chance 8to really develop.”
c) Other journal types
One of the complaints of students regarding journal-keeping was the extra time involved. However a wellwritten journal is a creative activity, and can be counted as such in terms of CAS. Students often incorporate
photos, programmes, newspaper reports into their journals, and there are many forms other than the familiar
personal journal.
8 students used e-mail to communicate and discuss a project they were working on. These
communications were then collated to form a group electronic journal. The content was more current than other
types of journal, contained very little narration or description but a much higher amount of Level 3 reflection. 11
students carried out a project involving interviewing and photographing other students about their CAS
activities. These were then published electronically, and in some cases in the school magazine. The distribution
of narrative, descriptive and reflective content was about the same as the personal journals. Attempts were made
to also compile photographic journals and a web page where a “chat-room” could be established to discuss CAS
activities. Difficulties involving technical problems and time management by the groups involved meant that
these were not completed in time for analysis. A video journal was started, recording ‘snapshot’ interviews with
students and some CAS activities.
3.
CAS ACTIVITIES
IBO Guidelines say that CAS activities should:
 challenge and extend the student
 develop awareness, concern and the ability to work cooperatively with others
 complement the academic curriculum and provide balance to the demands of scholarship
 enhance their personal growth
 develop a spirit of open-mindedness, lifelong learning, discovery and self-reliance
 encourage the development of attitudes such as determination and commitment, initiative and empathy.
(IBO, 2001, p 3) and should not be:
 part of the required curriculum
 translation of documents
 for reward, financial or benefit-in-kind
 a passive activity e.g. museum, theatre, concert visits
 part of family (IBO, 2001, pp 5-6)
The above guidelines can be used to classify qualities of CAS activities into 7 criteria, with 4
descriptors of ascending levels of achievement for each criterion. These can then be combined to form an
assessment rubric, constructed on the principles of Hayes Jacobs (1997) this can be used for monitoring and
evaluation of the quality of CAS activities, and an individual CAS programme’s effectiveness in meeting stated
goals.
These rubrics can be used by students, while choosing activities; by supervisors, to monitor the
suitability of activities, and as a record and means of evaluation of each student’s individual CAS programme.
Together with the comparative self-assessment and the journal evaluation a profile of each student’s programme
can be obtained, to be used in the school’s evaluation.
9
CAS Activity Evaluation Rubric (Allan, 1999)
Criterion
A
B
C
Challenge
Level 1
E
Level 3
attendance only
gives opportunity for student to
presents a difficult and challenging
required
extend himself
target
Opportunities for service,
no benefit to other
has some benefit to others
outcome is directed towards
benefit to others
than student
Acquisition of skills and
no level of skill
requires skills any student of this
interests rather than practising
required
age would be expected already to
those already acquired
D
Level 2
benefiting others
develops existing skills
Level 4
pushes student beyond previous
limits
results in identifiable benefit to
others
develops new skills
have
Initiation and planning by
activity organised by
activity organised by outside
organised by group of students with planned, organised and run by
students
school
agency
adult leader
student (s)
Establishing links with
does not involve
involves working within the
involves working with the
involves working with and within
community and furthering
working with others
school community only
community but may only be with
the local community and/or in the
student’s own nationality or
local language
international understanding
international community
F
Active rather than passive
no active participation student required to participate but requires active participation
nature
G
not initiate
requires active participation and
input from student
Project nature - combining 3
activity ‘one-off’ of
combines two activities on more
has elements of all three activities
has a good balance of three
types of activity (creative, active
short duration only
than one occasion or one for
on more than one occasion or two
activities combined into a long
and service)
one type
longer duration
for longer duration
term project
10
CONCLUSION
In this presentation an attempt has been made to articulate the philosophy and objectives of the
CAS programme in terms of the educational and psychological theory which underlies it.
It has been described as a scheme where the self, as well as personal and other skills, can be
developed by students in a scheme where the setting of goals, planning, experience, monitoring,
reflection, praxis and evaluation all form an integral part of the experiential learning cycle. As such it
holds a unique place, at the core, of the IB Diploma curriculum, and does so much to distinguish this
programme from other, purely academic, post-16 educational programmes. It can be seen to provide
learning opportunities that are not available within a normal school structure, one which incorporates
traditional quantitative means of assessment. The evaluation of success in a CAS programme corresponds
much more closely to real life, in the setting and achievement of authentic personal goals and objectives.
Its educational value lies in the fact that students learn how to monitor and evaluate their own progress,
and develop the reflective learning techniques, learning how to learn, which are invaluable in a rapidly
changing world, where learning is for life.
Learning from experience is not automatic, as Huxley once remarked “The only thing that
people learn from History is that people don’t learn from History”. This presentation has tried to outline a
structure, and the techniques required, which enable students to learn how to learn from experience.
It has asserted that
1.
2.
3.
A student’s CAS programme must be related to a student’s personal qualities, aims and ambitions for
it to have any relevance and learning value.
The setting of goals, planning to achieve them and assessment of success are fundamental to
experiential learning.
The development of critical reflection and praxis are essential to success.
And that these factors are inter-linked and interdependent, as are the assessment and evaluation tools
described which are part of and essential to the process.
1.
2.
3.
Self-concept profiling gives the student a starting point for choice of activities, planning and
evaluation.
Journals are vehicles through which reflective learning can be developed, monitored and evaluated.
CAS programmes can be evaluated on their relevance to individual experiential learning.
In the pilot study, it was observed from the student profiles that the most significant changes in selfconcept were shown by students whose journals showed evidence of the highest level of reflection, and
whose CAS programmes scored highest on the established criteria.
The evaluation of self-development by self-concept profiles, and the evaluation of experience in
reflective journals can not be divorced from the learning process and must be carried out by the student.
However the criteria given for assessing reflective learning and relevance of CAS programmes give
supervisors the opportunity to monitor and guide learning, and the quality of each student’s programme
in relation to his/her own development and the aims of the CAS programme in general. Again we can use
the analogy of the student as his/her own “examiner” and the CAS supervisor as the “ moderator”.
It is hoped therefore that the questions posed in the introduction have been answered to a large
degree, but one pressing and fundamental question now arises,
“What do we do with the information we now have available?”
CAS is the only element of the IB Hexagon in which “satisfactory” completion is a passing
requirement for the Diploma.
 Do we say that no evidence of self-development, critical reflection or a minimum score CAS
programme are failing conditions?
 Do we use the criteria as a basis for awarding grades, merits or distinctions? or
 Do we say that the benefits to the student of successful completion of a CAS programme are the
best rewards they could get?
11
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