NEW ZEALAND PLANNING INSTITUTE AND PLANNING INSTITUTE OF
AUSTRALIA CONGRESS 2006
2-5 APRIL 2006
An Indigenous Cultural Perspective to Urban Design
Shad Rolleston
University of Auckland, New Zealand
Abstract
Planning for Creative Change, Diversity and Social Change
Indigenous people are estimated at more than 300 million worldwide. Once ignored, they are
now seen as key knowledge holders, in the management of fragile ecosystems and
biodiversity. Indigenous peoples view both themselves and nature as part of one extended
ecological family and regard land as being the basis of their very survival. Occupation of
land over generations by indigenous people instils connections and expressions of value into
those spaces and resources.
Intensification of urban settlements has not only affected the natural and built environment,
but also severely affected the relationship indigenous people have to traditional resources,
landscapes and other sites of significance. Important cultural sites and resources are
damaged, modified, transformed or destroyed through development. Modern urban
expansion has a propensity to overlay landscapes, natural features, resources, settlements,
land-use and activity with little recognition or acknowledgement of what was there before.
The application of each settlement layer is an expression of value. As a new settlement layer
is developed, the previous values are displaced, transformed or lost.
This paper attempts to identify and expose a new cultural paradigm to current urban design
and development practice in New Zealand. Urban design is more than just the construction
and placement of physical structures within a defined landscape. It’s about making
connections between people, places and spaces.
KEYWORDS
Environment, urban design, settlement, Maori, values,
MAORI AND THE ENVIRONMENT
The world’s indigenous population is estimated at more than 300 million worldwide, covering
almost every climatic zone and continent. It is also estimated that there are 5000-6000
distinct groups of indigenous peoples living in more that 70 countries (Nepal, 2002). Once
ignored, they are now seen as key knowledge holders, in the management of fragile
ecosystems and biodiversity (Davis and Partridge, 1994, Mcgregor, 2004). Indigenous
peoples view both themselves and nature as part of an extended ecological family that shares
ancestry and origins (Salmon, 2000).
Maori consider the environment as a complete system and it is difficult to separate particular
aspects of the environment for specific comment without considering it within a broader
environmental context (Rolleston, 2005). Maori are tangata whenua (people of the land) of
New Zealand, and as such they have developed a unique relationship with the natural
environment founded on principles of social, cultural, economic and spiritual connection
(Sinclair, 1975). Durie (1987:78) states that ‘in the beginning land was not something that
could be owned or traded. Maori did not seek to own or possess anything, but belong. One
1
belonged to a family that belonged to a hapu that belonged to a tribe. One did not own land.
One belonged to the land’. Mead (2003:271) also notes that ‘the land is a source of identity
of Maori. Being directly descendant of Papatuanuku (Earth Mother), Maori see themselves as
not only of the land, but also as the land’. The traditional relationship developed over
centuries of close interaction by Maori with New Zealand’s environment remains an
important part of Maori culture (New Zealand. Dept. Of Conservation. et al., 2000). Maori
developed elaborate rules, regulations and conventions that guided social order and
interactions between people, and between people and the environment. Many Maori
academics attribute these rules and regulations as protection mechanisms of safety and
survival.
Survival and adaptation to the environment was a consuming task of endurance for early
Maori (Buck, 1952, Best and Board of Maori Ethnological Research (N.Z.), 1927). The
climatic and environmental conditions of New Zealand were unlike those of the Pacific
(Orbell and University of Canterbury., 1985). New Zealand lacked the abundance, warmth
and familiar resources found in the Pacific islands (Durie, 2005). Maori had to adjust to a
new landscape, diverse flora, fauna, and variable seasonal conditions. Polynesian immigrants
brought to New Zealand a distinctive world-view, from which emerged unique tribal and
living traditions (Given, 1995). This distinctive world-view recognises the interrelated and
interdependencies of all living things (Awatere, 2005, Durie, 1998, Durie, 2005) within the
environment, including humans.
Underlying this world-view is a set of principles that create an on-going relationship with the
environment (Royal et al., 2002). The principles are based on a strong conservation
philosophy as well as observing and respecting the essential relationship between human and
non-human elements.
TRADITIONAL MAORI SETTLEMENT FORM
The first New Zealand settlements were not developed as a result of colonisation, but were
constructed as a means to maintain and preserve the tribal unit. Traditional Maori settlements
were strategically positioned and highly organised, with the primary purpose to protect
people, precious food stocks and prized resources. Tribes tended to congregate and settle
where the tribal unit was best protected from enemy attack and situated in close proximity to
important sources of food and natural resources (Best and Board of Maori Ethnological
Research (N.Z.), 1927, Mcfadgen et al., 1991). The position and placement of the settlement
within the wider landscape was also very important. The influence of spatial relationships
with iconic landscape features such as waterways and mountains enable Maori to maintain
associations and connections with those spaces and elements (Mead et al., 1996). Greenop
and Memmott (2006) note that values of place manifest themselves not just in a physical form
but are also included in the symbols, memories, events and mental associations. Iconic
features provide not just a physical orientation of space, but a social reference point as a
means of social and cultural stability (Greenop and Memmott, 2006).
Traditional Maori settlements were characterised by two distinct forms, namely the Pa or
fortified settlement and the Kainga or unfortified settlement (Vayda, 1970, Mcfadgen et al.,
1991, Bulmer, 2002). Pa were defended settlements that housed 10 to 20 people and others
protected up to several hundred. Many Pa were mere citadels that protected people and
possessions during times of conflict (Mcfadgen et al., 1991), and the day-to-day living and
functioning of the tribe occurred in the Kainga outside the confines of the Pa (Buck, 1952).
Fortification and defensive works varied locally but were more elaborate and sophisticated
than anywhere else in Polynesia (Vayda, 1970). The geographic surrounds of the
environment and topography of the landscape influenced the designs of such settlement. The
traditional Pa served a variety of functions. Many Pa were constructed as fortified villages,
others as refuges and some as defended stores (Davidson, 1987). As a fortified village the
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tribal group were immediately protected, however, the citadel Pa was used in times of need
and necessity. During the New Zealand land wars of the 1850’s and 1860’s many Pa were
constructed for the sole purpose of war.
It is suggested that by the 18th and 19th century, Maori occupied a number of different
settlement types during any one year. Base settlements were constructed as a focal
congregation centre. These settlements were characterised by the length of time and
frequency a tribe would occupy a site. Groups often spent winter in base settlements and
gathered and stored provisions they needed to cover the needs of the tribe during seasonal
occupations and periods (Davidson, 1987). Temporary and seasonal settlements were
established in different parts of the tribal area to access or harvest foodstuffs and other raw
materials (Buck, 1952, Best and Board of Maori Ethnological Research (N.Z.), 1927).
A study completed by Groube (1965) suggests that Maori settlements be defined as either a
domestic or communal unit. A domestic unit is referred to as the smallest social unit of
people such as a family. These settlements might normally consist of sleeping, storage and
cooking facilities. Communal settlements refer to larger groups of people sharing common
facilities and activities. Communal settlements were highly organised and ordered, and
included any number of the following physical structures, fences, palisades, sleeping houses,
food storehouses, cooking areas, gardens, storage areas, latrines, rubbish dumps, open space,
burial areas, stone workshops and access to fresh water. Many of the buildings were highly
decorative with carved symbolic figures depicting tribal ancestors, history and traditions
(Harmsworth, 1997a). Storehouses (pataka) were in fact the most elaborately carved
structures within Maori settlements prior to 1840. According to many early observers, the
storehouse was always the largest and most decorative building in the settlement. Sissons
(1998) argues that the construction of modern day wharenui (meeting houses) are 19th century
innovations that evolved as traditional structures. Early accounts of large decorative
buildings appears to have begun in Northland in the 1830’s, prior to that period is was not
unusual for chiefs to have larger houses that others in the settlement and to display a carved
lintel above the door of the dwelling.
Much of the raw material used for settlement construction was sourced from the environment
locally (Firth, 1959). Patterns and models of Maori settlement and their relationship with the
land remain important aspects of urban design (New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment.
and Urban Design Advisory Group (N.Z.). 2005).
The low population densities of traditional Maori settlements ensured resources were
managed sustainably. As a result the ecological footprint of Maori settlements were restricted
to what was available and accessible within the surrounding environment. Maori existed and
lived in a state of balance with the environment, rather than being superior to nature, Maori
remain apart of nature (Durie, 1998).
MAORI SETTLEMENT DESIGN QUALITIES
There is a growing recognition that no single skill or profession can deal with the complexity
of change in towns and cities (Sternberg, 2000). Urban design is the process of shaping the
physical environment and setting for life in cities, towns and villages. It involves the design
of buildings, groups of buildings, spaces and landscapes, and establishing the processes that
make successful development possible. Urban design is about the expression of a cultural
perspective within a defined space and location (Schofield, 2004). The design of a single unit
dwelling, subdivision, community or town centre reflects and replicates underlying cultural
values of those that live or access services within those communities.
Seven cultural design qualities have been developed to consider how Maori concepts; models
and values might be incorporated or integrated into the urban design and development
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process. These qualities aim to assist and support the preservation of culturally significant
resources and landscapes as well as build community identity based on Maori values. There
are many examples where underlying cultural values are transformed, modified or discarded
as a result of environment change. In order to protect and preserve those unique values and
qualities, development must occur in a sensitive manner and consider those values impressed
upon the landscape by previous tenants and occupants.
The seven cultural design qualities include:







matauranga
whakapapa
whanaungatanga
kaitiakitanga
rangatiratanga
tikanga
mana whakahaere
knowledge and understanding;
relationships and connection;
participation and membership;
conservation and protection;
recognition and acknowledgement;
sustainable use and management; and
access and admission.
Matauranga, Knowledge and Understanding: The role of history, genealogy, mythology and
cultural traditions has played an important part in shaping Maori attitudes, beliefs, values and
behaviours toward environmental management (Buck, 1952). Maori culture is based on
strong oral traditions, accounts, and descriptions. Most indigenous people perceive and treat
knowledge differently to western concepts of knowledge (Barlow, Sutherland, 1999).
Knowledge and understanding promotes, facilitates and builds community identification of
local history and the importance of underlying cultural heritage values that relate to particular
areas and resources of significance to local Maori. Settlement should reflect an understanding
and awareness of local history through design.
Whakapapa, Relationships and Connections: Identification and connectedness of people to
people, and people to place was traditionally maintained through marriage, occupation and the
use of traditional resources. Marriage was an important institution and mechanism that
preserved and sealed strategic alliances and connections between tribes and families
(Salmond, 1991). These relationships played an important role in times of conflict as well as
securing access, use and rights of scarce or specialised resources. The personification and
identification of natural landscape features was also use to maintain the close relationship ties
with the environment (Best, 1934, Buck, 1952). Nash (2002) notes that genealogies can lead
to a more critical historical perspective and a sense of interconnected histories. Relationships
and connections reflect the importance of the social interactions between people and people,
and people and the environment. Settlement design should assist the community in making
social and environmental connections.
Whanaungatanga, Participation and Membership: Maori are a communal people and value
collective participation and membership. Traditionally, participation and membership was
founded on genealogy, lineage and descent (Barlow). Each member of the collective had set
roles, responsibilities and functions for the day to day living of the tribe. These notions
recognise common interests to encourage and build community pride, identification and
ownership. Spaces should encourage community participation and membership and not
isolate or segregate members of a community.
Kaitiakitanga, Conservation and Protection: The conservation and protection of natural
resources is a valuable cultural sustainable management mechanism (Harmsworth, 1997b,
Minhinnick, 1989). The use of natural resources was governed and regulated through cultural
lore and traditions of tapu, rahui and noa (sanction). Conservation and protection of the
natural environment, promotes community awareness of inherent values contained within the
environment. Important natural resources should be identified and protected as a taonga
4
(treasure) for current and future generations. Innovative design solutions are possible to
preserve significant natural assets.
Rangatiratanga, Recognition and Acknowledgement: Maori are recognised and
acknowledged as the native and indigenous people of New Zealand (Minhinnick, 1989). As
indigenous people, Maori developed a unique relationship with the environment underpinned
by specialised protocols and values. Maori have struggled to maintain and protect their
traditions and knowledge in an ever-changing environment (Harmsworth, 2002). Recognition
and acknowledgement promotes community awareness of fundamental cultural values
pertaining to the environment and landscape. Significant contributions to recognising a Maori
world-view are possible.
Tikanga, Sustainable Management and Use: The Resource Management Act 1991 defines
sustainable management as
5. (2) In this Act, ``sustainable management'' means managing the use, development,
and protection of natural and physical resources in a way, or at a rate, which enables
people and communities to provide for their social, economic, and cultural wellbeing
and for their health and safety while—
(a) Sustaining the potential of natural and physical resources (excluding minerals) to
meet the reasonably foreseeable needs of future generations; and
(b) Safeguarding the life-supporting capacity of air, water, soil, and ecosystems; and
(c) Avoiding, remedying, or mitigating any adverse effects of activities on the
environment (New Zealand. Parliament., 1991)
Sustainable management is not only about protection and conservation, but is also concerned
with allowing and providing for its use and development. Traditionally Maori were reliant
and dependent on a balance between protection, conservation and use (Durie, 1998).
Sustainable management and use of resources is an important cultural quality, which
recognises the significance of intergenerational equity. Where natural resources are
identified, settlement and community design should provide for its sustainable management,
while balancing utilisation.
Mana Whakahaere, Access and Admission: Maori restricted and regulated access to certain
areas through the use of tapu, rahui and noa (Durie, 2003). Sanctions were used to replenish
sensitive or scarce food stocks, and to respect or honour a significant event or incident such as
birth or death. Identified cultural sites of significance should be protected under traditional
sanction mechanisms. However, the community should have unrestricted access to all the
other resources and assets. Access and admission is concerned with encouraging community
ownership and responsibility of important natural resources and features found within a
community.
FURTHER RESEARCH
A Maori perspective to urban design is very much a work in progress. Current urban
development and settlement patterns in New Zealand tend to occur through applying
conventional design trends and styles adopted from other parts of the world.
The seven essential design qualities identified in the New Zealand Urban Design Protocol are
an important start in developing quality urban design in our cities. However, the design
qualities must also respond and align with Maori settlement design qualities as featured in the
previous section. A further exercise of this work is to compare and analyse the convergence
of the seven urban design qualities and Maori settlement design qualities.
5
The scope of this paper was constrained to identifying and assessing a Maori perspective to
urban design. In doing so, the research omits a number of important questions, how are
cultural values and design qualities integrated onto current urban design practice; how are
practitioners encouraged to incorporate such values and qualities into urban design; what
incentives are their for practitioners to consider cultural design qualities; what do these design
qualities look like in practice; and are their any examples of where these design qualities have
been included in a development? All these questions form an important part of further
research and investigations into Maori perspectives to urban design.
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Appendix 1: Maori Settlement Design Qualities
Quality
Knowledge and Understanding
Description
Knowledge and understanding of
history, people and environment
Matauranga
Relationships and Connections
Understanding of the relationships
and connections between people
and place
Participation and Membership
Participation and membership in the
community and social setting
Conservation and Protection
Protection of significant landscape
features important to the local
community
Recognition and Acknowledgement
Recognition of community
relationships with the surrounding
environment
Sustainable Management and Use
Sustainable use and management of
resources important to the local
community
Access and Admission
Community access to natural
resources found within the
community
Whakapapa
Whanaungatanga
Kaitiakitanga
Rangatiratanga
Tikanga
Mana Whakahaere
Purpose
To promote and facilitate
community understanding of local
history and the importance of
underlying cultural heritage and
values
To promote the relationships
between people and place that
reflect social connections with the
environment
To encourage community
participation and pride through
building and emphasising
community identity
To support the protection of
important environmental and
cultural features through
community ownership and
collective responsibility
To promote the recognition and
awareness of community
relationships with natural
environment and landscape
To facilitate and promote the
sustainable use of natural and
physical resources
To provide and encourage
community access and sustainable
use of natural and physical
resources
Application
Community heritage information
boards, recognition of traditional
place names through signage,
recognition of history in common
spaces
Recognition and protection of sites
of significance, protection of view
shafts, connecting neighbourhoods,
connecting ecological spaces
Communal facilities (community
centre), common and civic spaces
reflecting local identity
On-site mitigation for 3 waters,
recognition and protection of
spiritual guardians, restoration of
waterways, CPTED principles
Heritage markers (pou)
Connecting ecological corridors,
ecological restoration projects,
promoting low impact design
measures, allowing communal use
of natural community resources,
such as flax and shell fish
Indigenous plantings, linking
walkways with natural areas,
including marine and aquatic
systems
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