CHAPTER 8 – MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
MODULE 8.1 MOTIVATION: THE "WHY" OF BEHAVIOR
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Define motivation
 Discuss instinct theory
 Discuss drive theory
 Explain how arousal theory accounts for differences in motivational states
 Explain how incentive theory differs from drive theory
 Discuss cognitive dissonance theory
 Define psychosocial needs
 Discuss Maslow' hierarchy of needs
Key Terms and Concepts:
Motivation
Motives
Instinctive Behaviors
Instinct Theory
Drive Theory
Need
Drive
Drive Reduction
Primary Drives
Secondary Drives
Stimulus Motives
Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Incentive Theory
Incentives
Incentive Value
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Effort Justification
Psychosocial Needs
Need for Achievement
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Achievement Motivation
Avoidance Motivation
Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
I.
II.
Motivation
A.
Involves factors that initiate, direct and sustain goal-directed behavior
B.
Motives—what drives behavior and accounts for why we do what we do
Biological Sources of Motivation
A.
Involves inborn needs (such as for food, water, oxygen)
B.
Needs are predominantly those necessary for survival
C.
Instincts
1.
Behaviors programmed by nature (nest-building, salmon going upriver to spawn)
2.
Instinctive behaviors
a.
Fixed, inborn patterns of response
b.
Specific to members of a particular species
3.
Instinct theory—view that all behavior is motivated by instinct
4.
Do humans have instincts?
a.
Sigmund Freud (sexual and aggressive instincts), William James (37 different
instincts; including curiosity, cleanliness)—proponents
b.
III.
Current view of motivation does not support notion of instincts (too many, not
a useful approach)
D.
Needs and drives
1.
Drive theory
a.
Became model for human motivation beginning in 1950s
b.
Idea is biological needs demand satisfaction (Clark Hull)
2.
Need—state of deprivation or deficiency (usually biological)
3.
Drive—bodily tension or unease arising from an unmet need (e.g., hunger, thirst)
4.
Drive reduction—satisfaction of a drive
5.
Homeostasis
a.
Basis for drive theory
b.
Idea is body tends to maintain a steady internal state
c.
Disruption (e.g., drop in temperature, blood sugar) prompts behavior to
restore homeostasis (steady state)
6.
Needs and drives differ
a.
Bodily need may exist but without corresponding drive
b.
Strength of need vs. drive may differ (e.g., when fasting, may feel less
hungry on second day than on first)
7.
Drive theory incorporates important role for learning
a.
We learn responses that are reinforced by drive reduction
b.
Primary drives are inborn; however, we may learn some drives as a result of
experience (secondary drives)
E.
Optimum level of arousal
1.
Harry Harlow—not all drives are to satisfy biological needs
2.
Humans (and other animals) may have innate needs for exploration, activity
3.
Stimulus motives—needs to investigate environment, manipulate (especially novel
stimuli)
4.
Arousal theory
a.
Notion that there is an optimal level of arousal
b.
This level can vary from individual to individual, and from time to time
c.
Sensation-seekers—high need for arousal
d.
Moderate level of arousal best for most tasks
e.
More difficult tasks—lower levels of arousal needed
f.
Yerkes-Dodson law (inverted U) represents this relationship between arousal
and quality of performance
Psychological Sources of Motivation
A.
We are not idle even when homeostasis level is perfect
B.
Incentive theory—attraction to particular goals or objects motivates much of our behavior (a
drive is a “push,” an incentive is a “pull”)
1.
Incentives—rewards or other stimuli which motivate us to act
2.
Incentive value
a.
The strength of the pull, or lure, a goal or object has
b.
Culture, experience are important determining factors
C.
Cognitive dissonance—when thoughts and behaviors are incongruent
1.
People are motivated to maintain consistency between thoughts, behaviors
2.
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study—boring task
a.
One group paid $20.00 to lie, say task was interesting (to other students)
b.
Second group paid $1.00 to do the same
c.
Attitude towards boring task evaluated for both—$1.00 group had more
positive feelings towards task; why?
d.
Explanation: $1.00 not sufficient to justify lying (telling other students task
was interesting); thoughts/beliefs adjusted to fit behavior/actions
3.
Can adjust thought, adjust behavior, rationalize (explain away), or ignore
incongruence in order to reduce dissonance
4.
Effort justification—we like objective more if we had to work harder for it (keeps
behavior and belief consistent)
D.
Psychosocial needs (interpersonal needs)
1.
Need for affiliation—need for social contact with others
2.
Need for achievement
IV.
a.
High need for achievement—strong desire to excel
b.
Low need for achievement—objective is to avoid failure
3.
Sources of motivation
a.
Extrinsic—desire is for external rewards (money, praise)
b.
Intrinsic—effort is expended just for personal satisfaction or pleasure
4.
Goals regarding achievement may be in opposition
a.
Achievement motivation—take on challenges in order to gain success
b.
Avoidance motivation—avoid challenges in order to avoid failure
5.
Achievement motivation strongly influenced by experience (parents and others)
Hierarchy of Needs
A.
Proposed by Abraham Maslow (1970)
B.
Incorporates both biological and psychological needs
C.
Basic needs
1.
Physiological, safety
2.
According to theory these must be met first
D.
Higher-order needs—love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization
E.
Self-actualization
1.
Knowing one’s abilities, strengths, talents
2.
Putting one’s unique potential to best use
F.
View has intuitive appeal
G.
Criticisms of Maslow’s model:
1.
Needs may not always follow order as proposed in theory
2.
Same behavior may fit several of the levels (e.g., both nourishment and esteem)
MODULE 8.2 HUNGER AND EATING
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe how hunger and appetite are regulated
 Discuss the causes of obesity
 Describe anorexia nervosa
 Describe bulimia nervosa
 Discuss the causes of eating disorders
Key Terms and Concepts:
Fat Cells
Lateral Hypothalamus
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Obesity
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Set Point Theory
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa
I.
II.
What
A.
B.
C.
Makes Us Hungry?
The brain controls hunger, not the stomach
Fat cells—release fat for fuel when blood sugar level drops
Hypothalamus (a brain structure)
1.
Regulates hunger (and many other bodily processes)
2.
Lateral hypothalamus—initiates (“On” switch for) eating
3.
Ventromedial hypothalamus—stops (“Off” switch for) eating
D.
Brain chemicals
1.
Neuropeptide Y—stimulates hypothalamus to trigger appetite and eating
2.
Leptin—hormone that conveys when enough food has been consumed
3.
Dopamine and endorphins—probably responsible for pleasurable feelings associated
with eating
4.
Serotonin—may regulate feelings of satiation
Obesity: A National Epidemic
A.
Obesity—state of excess body fat
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
III.
Two-thirds of American adults are overweight
One-third of American adults are obese
Obesity—a major health risk worldwide
Body mass index (BMI)—used to determine obesity
Causes of obesity
1.
Behavioral patterns
a.
Too many calories consumed
b.
Too little exercise
2.
Heredity
a.
Metabolism rate related to weight gain
b.
Set point theory—brain regulates body weight around a genetically
predetermined level (set point)
c.
Number of fat cells (obese people have more)
3.
Environmental factors
a.
Constant advertising of food, restaurants
b.
Food served is often higher calorie, higher fat
c.
Attractive, appetizing food harder to resist
4.
Emotional states
a.
Anger, fear, depression, loneliness may lead to excess eating
b.
Food is a natural tranquilizer; mood elevator
G.
Losing excess weight
1.
Objective is to use up more calories a day than are consumed
2.
Healthy eating, regular exercise are crucial
3.
Diet drugs, “quickie” diets and the like not usually successful long term, may have
serious side effects
Eating Disorders
A.
Anorexia nervosa
1.
Self-starvation resulting in dangerously low body weight
2.
Involves an intense fear of gaining weight, being fat
3.
Most cases teenage or young adult female
4.
Physical risks: cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, suicide
B.
Bulimia nervosa
1.
Characterized by binge eating (maybe several thousand calories at one sitting)
followed by purging (vomiting, laxatives) to rid body of food
2.
May include excessive, compulsive exercise regimen
3.
Bulimics typically maintain normal weight
4.
Physical complications: nutrient deficiencies, deterioration of tooth enamel,
gastrointestinal problems
C.
Causes of eating disorders
1.
Cultural pressures, particularly on young women
2.
Societal standards for unrealistic thinness
3.
Negative body image for majority of young girls, women
4.
Some cases among males (young), especially those in sports (e.g., wrestling)
5.
Eating disorders rare in non-Western cultures
6.
May involve issues of control, perfectionism
7.
Possibly disturbances in brain mechanisms (e.g., serotonin levels)
MODULE 8.3 EMOTIONS
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the three components of emotions
 Discuss whether facial expressions of emotion are universal
 Explain the role that brain structures play in emotions
 Discuss the three major theories of emotions
 Discuss the factors associated with personal happiness
 Describe the three components of love in Sternberg' triarchic model
 Describe the polygraph
Key Terms and Concepts:
Emotions
Display Rules
Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
Duchenne Smile
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Two-Factor Model
Dual-Pathway Model of Fear
Romantic Love
Triangular Model of Love
Polygraph
Emotional Intelligence
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Emotions: Feeling States with Three Components
A.
Bodily arousal—nervous system is activated
B.
Cognition—subjective experience and evaluation
C.
Expressed behavior—what happens outwardly, on face or in actions
Emotional Expression
A.
Charles Darwin: emotions evolved because they are adaptive
B.
Universal facial expressions of emotion
1.
Six basic emotional expressions universally identified (Ekman, 1989)
2.
Anger, fear, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise
3.
May be more than six (e.g., Plutchik, 1980: add anticipation, acceptance)
4.
Other emotions are complex; are combinations of the simpler basic emotions
C.
Cultural differences in emotions
1.
Some emotions may be more common in some cultures than in others
2.
Japanese: fureai (being closely linked to others), oime (beholden)—common in
Japan, uncommon in U.S.
3.
Rules for displaying emotions do vary by culture (e.g., Asian cultures discourage
displays of emotion in public)
4.
Cultural differences involve gestures and bodily movements also
5.
Rules for male vs. female expressiveness may differ
D.
Facial-feedback hypothesis—mimicking the movements that comprise an emotion will lead
to feeling that emotion
1.
But a “put-on” smile not the same emotion as a genuine smile
2.
Duchenne smile—a genuine smile (named after French physician who discovered the
facial muscles used to produce)
3.
Emotions “catchy” because we mildly imitate the expression we see
Brain Structures Involved in Emotions
A.
We do feel with our hearts to an extent (autonomic nervous system is aroused, increasing
heart and breathing rates)
B.
Limbic system (in brain) important in emotions
1.
Amygdala—evaluates whether stimulus is a threat
2.
Role of cerebral cortex
a.
Evaluates meaning of emotionally arousing stimuli
b.
Plans/directs response to these stimuli
c.
Processes subjective experience of emotion
d.
Controls accompanying facial expression
Theories of Emotion
A.
Which comes first—cognitive awareness or emotional response?
B.
James-Lange theory
1.
Emotions follow bodily reactions (bear in the woods)
2.
“I am afraid because I ran and because my heart is pounding”
3.
William James: distinct bodily changes are associated with each emotion
C.
Cannon-Bard theory
1.
Challenges view of James-Lange theory
2.
V.
VI.
Notes common bodily response (due to activation of sympathetic nervous system)
regardless of emotion experienced
3.
Proposes that physical reaction and subjective experience of emotion occur
simultaneously
4.
Emotions accompany bodily reaction, but are not caused by them
D.
Two-factor model—Schachter and Singer
1.
Proposes emotions depend on (1) physiological arousal and (2) cognitive
interpretation of that arousal
2.
Cues in environment explain why we feel aroused (allow us to label emotion)
3.
Problems with Schachter and Singer’s view:
a.
Doesn’t account for distinctive physiological patterns that accompany various
emotions
b.
Other research (Zajonc, 1980, 1984) demonstrates that feelings may occur
without cognitive awareness or labeling
E.
Dual-pathway model of fear (LeDoux, 1994, 1996)
1.
Proposes that brain processes incoming environmental information two ways (at
same time), beginning with thalamus
2.
“High road”—information then goes to cerebral cortex (processed carefully)
3.
“Low road”—information goes directly to amygdala (quick emotional reaction; body is
prepared to respond if necessary)
4.
Allows quick response due to amgydala, in case there is danger; cortex can address
with more cognitive analysis, which takes more time
5.
May make difference between life and death
F.
Conclusions and interpretation
1.
General common physiological response (e.g., increased heart and breathing rate),
but also differences among experienced emotions (e.g., blood flow, skin
temperature)
2.
Facial expression can lead to certain feeling states (thus partial support for JamesLange theory)
3.
Though emotional reaction may precede cognition, cognitive appraisal still vitally
important
4.
Personal meaning of experience also crucial
5.
Still much to learn regarding emotion and brain’s processing
Happiness
A.
Psychologists have historically focused on negative emotions
B.
With emergence of positive psychology movement has come renewed interest in positive
human experiences
C.
What makes people happy?
1.
Money makes little difference as long as above subsistence level
2.
Misfortune doesn’t necessarily lead to unhappiness, although multiple misfortunes
might
3.
Married people generally happier than singles—but this relationship is correlational
4.
Having friends, being religiously active also correlated with happiness
D.
Physiological factors
1.
Happiness associated with increased activity in left prefrontal cortex
2.
May be possible to “train” the brain to be more active in this region
E.
Psychological factors
1.
It doesn’t matter what you have—just how happy you are with what you have
2.
Sociability is a key component of extraversion—strongly linked to happiness
F.
Positive psychology
1.
Suggestions for increasing happiness include counting your blessings (literally!),
thanking people who’ve made a difference in your life, and savoring life’s “perfect
moments”
Love
A.
Both a motive and an emotion
B.
As Greeks proposed, there are several kinds of love (e.g., among friends, family members)
C.
Romantic love—components idealized in Western culture
D.
Sternberg—love can consist of three components
1.
Intimacy—close attachment and sharing
VII.
VIII.
2.
Passion—strong sexual desire
3.
Decision/commitment—awareness of love for the other will preserve relationship
E.
Sternberg—different combinations yield different types of love relationships
1.
Romantic love—intimacy and passion
2.
Consummate love—intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment
3.
Companionate love—intimacy and decision/commitment
4.
Relationships are balanced when both partners share similar view regarding type of
love
The Polygraph (Lie Detector)
A.
Insufficient scientific evidence that polygraph results accurate, credible
B.
Polygraph based on assumption that different emotions (lying vs. telling the truth) have
different physiological characteristics
C.
Measures used: skin reactivity, respiration, heart rate
D.
Problems with current polygraph test
1.
Measures physiological arousal, not lying per se
2.
Objection is there is no truly distinctive physiological pattern for lying
3.
Innocent may react strongly to relevant questions out of nervousness or fear
4.
Seasoned liars can respond with complete physiological control
5.
False findings do much damage
Exploring Psychology: Emotional Intelligence: How Well Do You Manage Your Emotions?
A.
Emotional intelligence—ability to manage one’s emotions
B.
Probably five main characteristics:
1.
Self-awareness; knowing true inner feelings
2.
Can manage own emotions effectively—not usually overwhelmed, can bounce back
reasonably well from disappointment (emotions are not out of control)
3.
Can delay gratification, utilize emotional energy to reach goals
4.
Have empathy (perceive and feel emotions of others)
5.
Helping others deal with their emotions
C.
Essentially independent of IQ-type intelligence
D.
Goleman believes more important to success in life than IQ-type intelligence
MODULE 8.4 APPLICATION: MANAGING ANGER: WHAT CAN YOU DO TO CONTROL YOUR
ANGER?
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Outline steps you can take to control your anger
I.
II.
III.
Problems in controlling anger
A.
Behaviors may occur that have undesirable and unproductive consequences
B.
Frequent or chronic anger damages health
Cognitive approach to anger
A.
Anger and blame are responses to a situation, not the situation itself
B.
Better to recognize influences on anger and take steps to manage effectively
Anger management strategies
A.
Be aware of own emotional reactions
B.
Review evidence objectively
C.
Try adaptive approaches; think positively
D.
Focus on soothing thoughts; relax
E.
Try not to lose control
F.
Try to understand other’s perspective
G.
Praise self for assertive (not aggressive) responses
H.
Consider altering expectations of others
I.
Stay calm; use moderate verbal responses
J.
Try to express positive feelings