Jackie Kornstein
History Final Review Sheet
The Byzantine Empire (269-273)









Justinian – Roman emperor in 527, conquered almost all the territory that Rome
had ever ruled ("new Caesar"), launched into the most ambitious building program
ever seen in the Roman world (ex: fortifications, churches, aqueducts, baths, law
courts, schools, hospitals, his palace)
Justinian Code – Justinian set up a panel of ten legal experts to create a single
uniform code for Justinian's New Rome, decided legal questions and regulated
whole areas of Byzantine life, this code served the Byzantine Empire for 900 years, it
consisted of four works:
1. The Code – contained nearly 5,000 Roman laws which the experts still
considered useful for the Byzantine Empire
2. The Digest – quoted and summarized the opinions of Rome's greatest
legal thinkers about the laws, 50 volumes
3. The Institutes – a textbook that told law students how to use the laws
4. The Novellae (New Laws) – presented legislation passed after 534
Hagia Sophia – "holy wisdom," Justinian rebuilt this church that was destroyed in
the riots that swept Constantinople in 532, he resolved to make it the most splendid
church in the Christian world, 400 years after Justinian built this church the beauty
of it helped convince the visiting Russian nobles that their country should adopt
Christianity, Hagia Sophia and his other beautiful churches helped Justinian show
the close connection between church and state in his empire
Mese – main street running through Constantinople, ran from the imperial complex
through a series of public squares and then in two branches to the outer walls,
merchant stalls lines the main street and had goods from Asia Africa and Europe
Hippodrome – held 60,000 spectators, offered free entertainment for citizens (ex:
chariot races, circus acts), riots broke out with supporters of different teams
Nika Rebellion – in 532 the Blues and the Greens sparked citywide riots, both sides
were angry at the government because they felt the prefect had been too severe in
putting down a previous rebellion, they packed the Hippodrome and proclaimed a
new emperor but Justinian saved the day
Theodora – Justinian's wife, steely advisor to her husband, had immense power
The Mysterious Plague of Justinian – resembles the bubonic plague, it hit
Constantinople in the later years of Justinian's reign, at its peak it is estimated that
about 10,000 people died every day, the illness broke out every 8-12 years until
around 700 when it finally faded out, by that time it had destroyed a huge
percentage of the Byzantine population and the smaller population left the empire
exposed to its enemies
Attacks from the East and West – the Byzantines used bribes diplomacy and
political marriages to prop up their shaky empire, the Byzantine Empire slowly
shrank under impact of foreign attacks, by 1350 the empire was reduced to the tip
of Anatolia but the city held out for 100 years and finally fell to the Ottoman Turks
in 1453
 Theme – military district
 Saint Basil – around 357 wrote the rules for the life of monks
 Saint John Chrysostom – patriarch of the East from 398-404
 Patriarch – leading bishop
 Icons – religious images used by eastern Christians to aid their devotions (East
opposed use of icons and West supported)
 Iconcoclasts – "icon breakers," broke into churches to destroy images
 Excommunication – to declare that someone is an outcast from the Church
 In 1054 matters came to a head when the pope and the patriarch excommunicated
each other in a dispute over religious doctrine, after this schism Christianity was
permanently divided between the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the
Orthodox Church in the East
 Schism – split
Roman Catholic
Eastern Orthodox
Services are conducted in Latin
Services are conducted in Greek or local
languages
The pope has authority over all other
The patriarch and other bishops head the
bishops
church as a group
The pope claims authority over all kings and The emperor claims authority over the
emperors
patriarch and other bishops and of the
empire
Priests may not marry
Priests may be married
Divorce is no permitted
Divorce is allowed under certain conditions
 Saint Methodius and Saint Cyril – two of the most successful Eastern
missionaries, worked among Slavs in the 9th century, invented an alphabet for
the Slavic languages so they could read the Bible in their own tounges
 Cyrillic Alphabet – alphabet written by Saint Methodius and Saint Cyril
The Early Middle Ages—Life after Rome and Germanic Kingdoms Unite Under
Charlemagne (317-321)
Middle Ages – medieval period, 500-1500, ushered in by the gradual decline of the
Roman Empire, new institutions slowly emerged to replace those of the fallen
Roman Empire during this era, unified civilizations flourished in China and
Southwest Asia but Medieval Europe remained fragmented
Repeated invasions and constant warfare in the western half of the Roman Empire sparked
new trends that changed government, economy, and culture:
1. disruption of trade – merchants faced invasions from both land and sea, their
businesses collapsed, the breakdown of trade destroyed Europe's cities as
economic centers, money became scarce










2. downfall of cities – with the fall of the Roman Empire cities were abandoned as
centers of administration
3. population shifts – as Roman centers of trade and government collapsed nobles
retreated to the rural areas, Roman cities were left without strong leadership, other
city dwellers also fled to the countryside where they grew their own food, the
population of western Europe became mostly rural
Franks – a Germanic people that help power in the Roman province of Gaul, their
leader was Clovis (who eventually brought Christianity to this region)
Clovis - leader of the Franks, eventually brought Christianity to this region, his wife
Clothilde urged him to convert to a traditional form of Christianity, in 496 Clovis led
his warriors into battle against another Germanic army and fearing defeat he
prayed to the Christian god and won, Clovis and 3,000 warriors then got baptized
by a bishop, the Church in Rome welcomed his conversion and supported his
military campaigns again other Germanic peoples, by 511 Clovis had united the
Franks into one kingdom, the strategic alliance between Clovis's Frankish kingdom
and the Church marked the beginning of a special partnership between two
powerful forces, greatly strengthened the Merovingian Dynasty
monasteries – religious communities built by the Church to adapt to rural
conditions, there Christian men called monks gave up all their private possessions
and became servants of god, monasteries became Europe's best-educated
communities
secular – worldly
Gregory the Great – became pope in 590, broadened the authority of the papacy
(pope's office) beyond its spiritual role, the papacy also became a secular power
involved in politics, he used Church revenues to raise armies, repair roads, and help
the poor, he also negotiated peace treaties with invaders (such as the Lombards),
he had begun to act as mayor of Rome yet his influence extended beyond the city's
boundaries, he strengthened the vision of Christendom – it was a spiritual kingdom
that fanned out from Rome to the most distant churches
major domo – "mayor of the palace," by 100 he had become the most powerful
person in the kingdom, officially he had charge of the royal household and estates
but unofficially he commanded armies and made policy
Charles Martel – major domo in 719, he held more power than the king, he
extended the Franks' reign to the north south and east, he defeated a Muslim
raiding party from Spain at the Battle of Tours in 732 and the outcome of this battle
help great significance for Christian Europeans (if the Muslims had won, western
Europe might have become a part of the Muslim Empire), this conquest made him a
Christian hero
Pepin the Short – son of Charles Martel, wanted to become king and shrewdly
cooperated with the pope, he agreed to fight the Lombards and in return the pope
anointed him "king by the grace of god," this began the reign of Frankish rulers
called the Carolingian Dynasty (lasted 751-987), died in 678
Charlemagne – Charles the Great, son of Pepin the Short, quickly seized control of
the kingdom after his father's death, built an empire greater than any known since
ancient Rome, conquered new lands to both the south and east, through conquests
he spread Christianity, he reunited western Europe for the first time since the
Roman Empire, became the most powerful king in western Europe, in 800 he went
to Rome to crush an unruly mob that had attacked the pope and in return Pope
Leo III crowned him emperor, this event signaled the joining of Germanic power,
the Church, and the heritage of the Roman Empire, strengthened his royal power
by limiting the authority of nobles, one of his greatest accomplishments was his
encouragement of learning
Feudalism in Europe (322-326)
feudalism – a military and political system based on land ownership and personal
loyalty, based on mutual obligations, depended on control of the land, similar
feudal systems had existed in China and Japan
From 800-1000 the Carolingian Empire was destroyed by invaders: Muslims, Magyars, and
most dreaded, Vikings.
 Vikings – set sail from Scandinavia, a Germanic people also called the Northmen or
Norsemen, worshipped warlike gods, carried out their raids with terrifying speed –
they struck and quickly moved out to sea again, not just warriors but traders
farmers and outstanding explorers as well, ventured far beyond western Europe
 Viking warships – largest of these long ships held 300 warriors, took turn rowing the
ships 72 oars, might weigh 20 tons when fully loaded
 Leif Ericson - Viking explorer, most likely reached North America around 1000
(almost 500 years before Columbus)
As Vikings gradually accepted Christianity, they stopped raiding monasteries. A warming
climate in Europe made farming easier in Scandinavia. As agricultural settlements in Iceland
and Greenland prospered, fewer Scandinavians adopted the seafaring life of Viking
warriors.

As the Viking invasions declined, Europe became the target of new assaults.
 Magyars – group of nomadic people, attacked from the east, superb horseback
riders, invaded western Europe in the late 800s, did not settle conquered land –
they captured people to sell as slaves, attacked isolated villages and monasteries,
overran northern Italy and reached as far west as the Rhineland and Burgundy
 Muslims – struck from the south, controlled the Mediterranean Sea and disrupted
trade, in 600s and 700s tried to conquer and settle in Europe, by 800s and 900s
their goal was also to plunder, excellent sailors, attacked settlements on the
Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts and as far inland as Switzerland
All of these invasions caused disorder and suffering. Most western Europeans were living in
constant danger. Central authority proved powerless so they no longer looked to a central
ruler for security. Instead, many turned to local rulers with their own armies. Leaders who
could fight the invaders attracted followers and gained political strength.
 Rollo – head of a Viking army, faced former enemy (Charles the Simple) in a peace
ceremony in 911, he had been plundering the rich Seine River valley for many years,
swore a pledge of loyalty to Charles the Simple, vassal
Charles the Simple – king of France but held little power, granted Rollo a huge
piece of French territory (Northmen's land/Normandy), lord
 lord – landowner
 fief – land granted by the lord in exchange for military protection and other services
 vassal – the person receiving the fief
 knights – mounted warriors who pledged to defend their lords' lands in exchange
for fiefs
 peasants - landless, toiled in the fields, most people were peasants, rarely traveled
more than 25 miles from their own manor, wealth of the feudal lord came from the
labor of the peasants, paid a tax on all grain ground in the lord's mill, any attempt
to dodge taxes by baking bread elsewhere was treated as a crime, paid a tax on
marriage, weddings could only take place with the lords consent, owed the village
priest a tithe, simple diet consisted of mainly vegetables coarse brown bread grain
cheese and soup
 tithe – church tax, one tenth of their income
Feudal Pyramid
King
Nobles + Church Officials (most powerful vassals, wealthy landowners)
Knights
Peasants
The feudal pyramid often became a complex tangle of conflicting loyalties. Both lords and
vassals tried to use these relationships to their own advantage.

Social Classes: 1. those who fought (nobles and knights)
2. those who prayed (mean and women of the Church)
3. those who worked (peasants)
 serfs – most peasants were serfs, people who could not lawfully leave the place
where they were born, though bound to the land they were not slaves, their lords
could not sell or buy them, lived in crowded cottages with only one or two rooms,
warmed their dirt-floor houses by bringing pigs inside, despite the hardships they
endured they accepted their lot in life as part the of the Church's teachings, they
believed that god determined a person's place in society
 manor – the lord's estate, usually only covered a few square miles of land, typically
consisted of the lord's manor house a church and workshops, generally 15-30
families lived in the village on a manor, largely self sufficient community
 manor system – basic economic arrangement, rested on a set of rights and
obligations between a lord and his serfs, lord provided the serfs with housing strips
of farmland and protection from bandits and serfs tended the lord's lands cared for
his animals and performed other tasks to maintain the estate
The Age of Chivalry (327-331)

saddle – developed in Asia around 200 B.C.E., changed the technology of warfare,
kept the warrior firmly seated on a moving horse
stirrups – developed in India around 200 B.C.E., changed technology of warfare,
allowed a warrior to stand up while riding and to maneuver heavier weapons,
without stirrups a charging warrior was likely to topple off his own horse
Mounted knights gradually became the most important part of an army. Their horses were
status symbols and the warhorses also played a key military role.
 a knight's role – lords gave knights (vassals) fiefs in exchange for their military
service, the wealth from these fiefs allowed knights to devote their lives to war (they
used this wealth to pay for expensive armor, weapons, and warhorses), a lord
typically demanded about 40 days of mounted combat each year from each knight
 chivalry – a complex set of ideals that demanded that a knight fight bravely in
defense of three masters (the lord, god, his chosen lady), knights were expected to
display courage in battle and loyalty to their lord, protected the weak and the poor,
most knights failed to meet these high standards and treated the lower classes
brutally, a knight who failed to meet these standards faced public shame, a knight's
duty to his lady was as important as his duty to his lord
 tournaments – mock battles, combined recreation with combat training, two armies
of knights charged each other and winners could often demand large ransoms from
defeated knights, fierce and bloody competitions, lords and ladies watched and
cheered
 epic poems – poems that recounted a hero's deeds and adventures, lords and their
ladies enjoyed listening to these poems, many retold stories about legendary
heroes of the early Middle Ages (like King Arthur and Charlemagne)
 Troubadours – poet-musicians at the castles and courts of Europe, composed short
verses and songs about the joys and sorrows of romantic love, sometimes sang
their own verses in the castles of their lady, also sent roving minstrels (traveling
musician) to carry their songs to courts, chivalry promoted a false image of knights
so these love songs created an artificial image of women (always beautiful and
pure)
 Eleanor of Aquitaine – 1122-1204, troubadours flocked to her court in the French
duchy of Aquitaine, later queen of England and mother of Richard the Lion-Hearted
and King John
 Marie of Champagne – Eleanor's daughter, turned love into a subject of study like
logic or war, presided at a famed Court of Love
The Church viewed women as inferior to men. The idea of romantic loved placed
noblewomen on a pedestal where they could be worshipped. However, as feudalism
developed across western Europe, women's status declined and their roles became
increasingly limited to the home and convent.

The Church Wields Power (332-335)

Pope Gelasius I – recognized the conflicts that could arise between the Church and
the state, suggested that god created two symbolic swords – one religious sword
(for the pope) and one political sword (for the emperor), he thought that the pope
should bow to the emperor in political matters and the emperor should bow to the
pope in religious matters so they could share power in harmony
However, this was not the reality,. Clashes erupted throughout the Middle Ages – the
Church and various European governments competed for power.
 clergy – religious officials in the Church, distribution of power based on status,
organization established by the Church
Clergy
 pope – headed the Church in Rome, all clergy fell under his authority
 bishops – supervised priests, settled disputes over Church teachings and religious
practices
 priests – lowest ranking members of clergy, served as the main contact with the
Church for most people
Feudalism and the manor system created divisions among people but the Church bonded
people together. During this ear of constant warfare, the Church was the only stable force.
The Church provided Christians with a sense of security and a religious community to which
they might belong
 Middle Ages – also named the "Age of Faith" because religion occupied enter stage
 sacraments – important religious ceremonies, administered by priests and other
religious officials, paved way for achieving salvation (everlasting life in heaven),
example: baptism - through the sacrament of baptism people became part of the
Christian community
example: confirmation – through the sacrament of confirmation, baptized people of
their own will publicly acknowledged their membership in the Church
 village church – at the local level, unifying force in the daily live of most people,
served as a religious and social center, people worshipped together there, people
met and talked with other villagers, religious holidays (Christmas, Easter) were
occasions for social gatherings and festive celebrations
 Church's authority – both religious and political, provided and unifying set of
spiritual beliefs and rituals
 canon law – "law of the Church," unifying set of spiritual beliefs and rituals, a system
of justice to guide people's conduct (created by the Church), all medieval people
(kings and peasants alike) were subject to canon law, the Church established courts
to try people accused of violating canon law
 excommunication – banishment from the Church, one of the harshest punishments
for violating canon law, popes used this threat to exercise power over political
rulers, also frees a persons vassals of their duties to their lord, would force kings to
submit to the pope's commands
 interdict – many sacraments and religious services could not be performed in the
punished king's lands, the king's subjects believed that without sacraments they
might be doomed to eternal suffering in hell, one of the harshest punishments for
violating canon law, would force kings to submit to the pope's commands
 Holy Roman Empire – after the death of Charlemagne it was the strongest kingdom
that arose from his empire, located in the region of present day Germany, the
German-Italian empire that Otto I created, first called Roman Empire of the German
Nation, remained the strongest state in Europe until about 1100
Otto I – most effective ruler of medieval Germany, Otto the Great, crowned king in
936, knowingly copied the policies of Charlemagne, formed a close alliance with the
Church, he built up his power base by gaining the support of bishops and abbots,
dominated the Church in Germany, used his power to defeat unruly German
princes, invaded Italy on the pope's behalf (like Charlemagne), pope rewarded Otto
by crowning him emperor in 962
 abbots – heads of monasteries
Otto's attempt to revive Charlemagne's empire cause trouble for future German leader
because:
1. Italian nobles resented German rule
2. Popes came to fear the political power that the German
emperors held over Italy
 lay investiture – a ceremony in which kings and nobles appointed church officials, a
major reason why the Church began to resent the control that kings (like Otto I)
exercised over clergy and their offices, whoever controlled lay investiture had the
real power in naming bishops (Church reformers felt that bishops should not be
under the power of any king)
 Pope Gregory – banned lay investiture in 1075, after receiving a vicious letter from
Henry IV he excommunicated Henry IV
 Henry IV - German emperor, was furious when Pope Gregory banned lay
investiture, sent a vicious letter to Pope Gregory (with the bishops' approval), tried
to win the pope's forgiveness in order to save his throne
 Meeting in Canossa – In 1077 Henry traveled to Canossa (Italy) to the castle where
the pope was staying, Henry waited outside in the snow for three days before the
pope ended Henry's excommunication, the pope was obligated to forgive any
sinner who begged to humbly so he finally did, the question of lay investiture
remained undecided, the pope gained a great victory by humiliating the proudest
ruler in Europe
 Concordat of Worms – in 1122 representatives of the Church and the emperor met
in the city of Worms, they decided that only the Church could appoint bishops but
the emperor had the veto power to prevent the appointment of a bishop
 Frederick I – would later resume the battle to build up royal authority, his red beard
got him the nickname "Barbarossa," first ruler to call his lands the Holy Roman
Empire but it was actually a patchwork of feudal territories, his forceful personality
and military skills allowed him to dominate the German princes, instead of focusing
on building royal power in Germany he invaded rich cities of Italy, this caused the
Italian merchants to unite against him, the pope sided with the Italian merchants, in
1190 he drowned and his empire dissolved into an array of fragmented feudal states
 Lombard League – an alliance formed by Frederick's enemies (Italian merchants and
the pope)
 Battle of Legnano – 1176, foot soldiers of the Lombard League faced Frederick's
mounted army, the Lombard League used crossbows to defeat the army of knights
for the first time in history, Frederick then made peace with the pope, this defeat
damaged Frederick's authority with the German princes so their power continued to
grow

German kings after Frederick continued their attempts to revive Charlemagne's empire and
his alliance with the Church. This led to wars with Italian cities and more clashes with the
Church. For these reasons, the feudal states of Germany never united during the Middle
Ages.
Also, the system of German princes electing the king weakened
The Jews of France and Germany (B46-49, B51, B55-59, B66-72)
1. Describe the political structure of the medieval Ashekenazic Jews.
The Jewish communities in Ashkenaz were self governing. They governed themselves in
accordance with Jewish halacha. The Jews were not part of the feudal system (because they
were not Christian), so their status was "servi camerae" ("Serfs of the Royal Chamber"). This
status provided protection for the Jews because they were the king's property (so actions
against the Jews were actions against the king). However, since they were his property, the
king could tax the Jews and take as much money from them as he wanted.
2. What did the communities of Ashkenaz provide for people?
The communities of Ashkenaz provided religious, educational, financial, and social welfare
services. They had shuls which were places of for prayer but also functioned as community
centers. Charity was available to those who needed it and the sick were given medical care
and medications.
3. What was herem?
Herem was excommunication. A person who was excommunicated would be excluded
from the religious life and would be socially ostracized as well. He could not be counted for
a minyan, he children could would not be circumcised, he would not be buried in the
Jewish cemetery, and all business dealings with him were forbidden.
4. What was the famous takana of Rabbenu Gershom?
The famous takana of Rabbenu Gershom was the prohibition of polygamy among Jews. He
also prohibited divorces to which the wife does not consent.
5. Why was Rashi so important?
Rashi was so important because of his commentary on the Talmud. His commentary made
the Talmud accessible to everyone. Rashi's commentary remains a central tool even today.
 Rabbenu Tam – Rashi's grandson, leading rabbinic figure of the 12th century,
believed that the leader of the community had power but the entire community's
unanimous decision was necessary to violate the established rules, very respected
because of his unquestionable mastery of the Talmud, maintained close
relationships with nobles and rulers (mostly because he was also a wine-maker), he
was willing to respond to challenges offered by others, tosafist, wrote Sefer haYashar which has responsa and commentary on the Talmud
 Rabbenu Gershom – "Me'or ha-Golah" ("Light of the Exile"), had literary works and
contributed to communal organization












Rashi – commentary on the Tanach, combines literal interpretation with midrashic
interpretation, made the Torah accessible to everyone, commentary on the Talmud,
ability to simplify complicated material
Tosafot – commentary on Talmud, analytic and decisive regarding halacha, R. Isaac
was a very important tosafist – nephew of Rabbenu Tam
takkanot – new legislation established by the communal leaders to compel
individuals to obey the communal regulations and to guide their lives, this power
was sometimes limited in order to protect the rights of the individual under Jewish
law
kahal – community board that internally governed the communities of Ashkenaz
parnassim – aldermen, officials in a larger community
gabbaim – supervisors, officials in a larger community
dayyanim – judges, large communities had rabbanim that functioned as judges
roshei yeshiva – heads of yeshiva, religious guides
hazzanim – prayer leaders, paid community officials
shamashim – sextons, paid community officials
shohetim – mean slaughterers, paid community officials
herem bet din – any local court could compel a resident of any other community to
litigate before it, therefore no appeals to outside authorities could be made and
each individual community would hold final authority
Jews and Christians (B77-83)
1. What was Lateran IV and what was its significance?
The Lateran IV was an international conference of Church leaders. The council addressed
several challenges that faced the Church. One was the Muslim control of the Middle East
and much of Spain. In response to this, a Crusade was called to recapture Jerusalem from
the Muslims. The second was heresy (especially the Cathari). In response to this, a Crusade
was called against the Cathari. The third was the spread of apocalyptic movements and
ideas. In response to this, the Church prohibited the establishment of new rules (except by
the Dominicans and Franciscans). The fourth was the Jews. In response to this they issued a
number of important decrees:
1. Jews could not leave their homes during the three days before Easter
because Christians were mourning the crucifixion
2. Jews could not hold public office because it was inappropriate for Jews to
govern Christians
3. if the interest rates of Jewish money-lenders got "excessive" a
boycott would be imposed upon them
4. Jews had to be differentiated from Christians in dress (wore the
Jewish
badge)
2. What was the disputation of Paris?
The disputation of Paris was when the Talmud was placed "on trial" in 1242. This was
caused by Nicholas Donin (a convert from Judaism) when he brought Pope Gregory IX's
attention to the centrality of the Talmud in Judaism and Jewish life. The charges were: 1. the
Jews weakened the authority of the Bible by having a "rival scripture" and a rival authority
has no right to exist. 2. the Talmud blasphemes Christianity and contains anti-Christian
statements. The result of the trial was that 24 wagonloads of Talmuds were condemned
and burned in Paris.
3. What was the medieval blood libel?
The medieval blood libel was the growing popular suspicion and hatred of Jews. Entire
communities of Jews were killed because of this growing hatred.
 Gregory I – "Gregory the Great," formulated the official policy of the Church
towards Jews, rejected forced conversion brought about by violence and economic
persecution and endorsing and instead had conversion through persuasion and the
offering of enticements, any existing rights of Jews were to be protected, 6th century
 Bishop Agobard Lyons – France 9th century, expressed anti-Semitism to the Jews,
believed Jews had too much influence
Church Reform and the Crusades (341-346)
Age of Faith – new age of religious feeling, born in the beginning of the 1000s,
revival was led by the monasteries, wanted to return to the basic principles of the
Christian religion, new religious orders were founded, popes began to reform the
Church and restored and expanded its power and authority
Problems with the Church:
1. many village priests were married and had families (which
was against Church rulings)
2. simony
3. lay investiture – Church reformers believed the Church
alone should be in charge of appointing bishops
 simony – positions in the Church were sold by bishops
 Benedictine monastery at Cluny – reform began quietly with the founding of this
monastery in 910, monks there strictly followed Benedictine rule, their reputation for
virtue inspire the founding of similar monasteries throughout western Europe (by
1000 there were 300 houses under Cluny's leadership)
 Pope Leo IX – took office in 1049, enforced Church laws against simony and
marriage of priests
 Pope Gregory VII – elected pope in 1073, spent time at Cluny and was determined
to purify the Church, extended reforms begun by Leo IX
 papal Curia – the pope's group of advisors, also acted as a court, developed canon
law on matters such as marriage divorce and inheritance, also decided cases based
on these laws
 diplomats for the pope- traveled through Europe dealing with bishops and kings,
this extended the power of the pope
 tithes – taxes collected by the Church, 1/10 of the yearly income from every
Christian family
 friars – took vows of chastity and poverty and obedience, traveled from place to
place preaching and spreading the Church's ideas, preached to the poor, owned
nothing and lived by begging

Dominicans – one of the earliest orders of friars, founded by Dominic (a Spanish
priest), he emphasized the importance of study so many Dominicans were scholars,
women joined
 Franciscans – founded by the Italian St. Francis of Assisi
 St. Francis of Assisi – founded a group of friars called the Franciscans, Italian, son of
a rich merchant, gave up his wealth and turned to preaching when he was about
20, he place much less importance on learning than Dominic, treated all creatures
as if they were his brothers and sisters
 Poor Clares – Franciscan order for women, founded by Clare and her friend Francis
of Assisi
 Hildegard of Bingen – a mystic and musician, founded a Benedictine convent in
Germany in 1147
Unlike men, women were not allowed to travel from place to place as preachers. However,
they too lived in poverty and worked to help the poor and sick.
 Romanesque – between about 800-1100 churches were built in this style, had round
arches and a heavy roof held up by thick walls and pillars, thick wall had tiny
windows that let in little light
 Gothic – comes from a Germanic tribe named the Goths, a new style of architecture
developed in the early 1100s, describes the particular Church architecture that
spread throughout medieval Europe, Gothic cathedrals thrust upward as if reaching
toward the heaven, light streamed in through the stained glass windows, they were
soon built in many towns in France, nearly 500 Gothic cathedrals were built from
1170-1270
 Cathedral of Notre Dame – in Paris, vaulted ceiling eventually rose to over 100 feet
 Alexius Comnenus – Byzantine emperor in 1093, sent a letter to Robert (Count of
Flanders) which was also read by Pope Urban II, asked for help against the Muslim
Turks because they were threatening to conquer Constantinople (his capital)
 Urban II – also read Alexius Comnenus's letter to Robert, shortly after this appeal he
issued a call for a Crusade, this brought a huge outpouring of religious support for
the Crusade (from the great lords and humble peasants), he said that if knights died
on Crusade they were assured of a place in heaven
 Crusade - "holy war" to gain control of the Holy Land, the goal of these military
missions was to recover Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslim Turks
 Crusaders – knights that fought in the Crusade, in 1096 between 50,000 – 60,000
knights became Crusaders, wore red crosses sewn on tunic worn over their armor,
battle cry of "god wills it!", marched eastward, few would return from their journey,
most were French but Germans, Englishmen, Scots, Italians, and Spaniards came as
well
Good Reasons for the Crusades:
1. Kings and the Church saw this as an opportunity to get rid of quarrelsome knights
who fought each other, the knights threatened the peace of the kingdoms and
Church property
2. younger sons who did not stand to inherit their father's property participated in
the Crusade















3. merchants profited by making cash loans to finance the Crusades, also leased
their ships for a hefty fee to transport armies over the Mediterranean Sea
4. merchants of Pisa, Genoa, and Venice hope to win control of key trade routes to
India, Southeast Asia, and China from Muslim traders
First Crusade – Crusaders were ill prepared, knew nothing of the geography,
climate, or culture of the Holy Land, had no grand strategy to capture Jerusalem,
nobles argued among themselves and couldn't agree on a leader, had not set up
adequate supply lines, and army of 12,000 (less than ¼ of the original army) finally
approached Jerusalem and besieged the city for a month, in 1144 Edessa was
reconquered by the Muslims
Second Crusade – organized to recapture Edessa but its armies straggled home in
defeat, the Muslims captured Jerusalem on July 15, 1099, In 1187 Jerusalem had
fallen to the Muslim leader Saladin
Third Crusade – led by three of Europe's most powerful monarchs
Saladin – most famous leader of the 1100s, Muslims considered him a most devout
man and even Christians regarded him as honest and brave, he wished to chase the
Crusaders back to their own territories, captured Jerusalem in the Second Crusade,
ruthless fighter and respected Richard
Philip Augustus – French king, led the Third Crusade, argued with Richard and went
home
Frederick I – German emperor, led the Third Crusade, drowned in the journey
Richard the Lion-Hearted – English king, led the Third Crusade, since the others
went home he was left to regain the Holy Land from Saladin, ruthless fighter and
respected Saladin, agreed to a truce with Saladin in 1192 – Jerusalem remained
under Muslim control and Saladin promised that Christian pilgrims could freely visit
the city's holy places
Pope Innocent III – powerful pope, appealed for another Crusade to capture
Jerusalem in 1198
Fourth Crusade – the knights that took part in this Crusade became entangled in
Italian and Byzantine politics, they ended up looting Constantinople in 1204 and
ending the Crusade, this caused a breach between the Church in the east (whose
capital was Constantinople) and the Church in the west (whose capital was Rome)
Louis IX – French king, led that last two Crusades, won wide respect in Europe, later
declared a saint, none of these Crusades conquered much land
Children's Crusade – took place in 1212, thousand of children set out for the Holy
Land and were armed only with the belief that god would give them Jerusalem, on
their march many died from cold and starvation, one group turned back, the rest
drowned at sea or were sold into slavery
Moors – Muslims who controlled most of Spain until the 1100s
Reconquista – a long effort to drive the Muslims out of Spain, by the late 1400s the
Muslims only held the tiny kingdom of Granada but in 1492 Granada fell to the
Christian army of the Spanish monarchs (Ferdinand and Isabella)
Inquisition – a tribunal held by the Church to suppress heresy, inquisitors suspected
Jewish and Muslim converts of heresy, a person who was suspected of heresy might
be questioned for weeks or even tortured, once a suspect confessed they were
often burned at the stake, in 1492 the monarchs expelled all practicing Jews and
Muslims from Spain
 heretics – people whose religious beliefs differed from the teachings of the Church
Disadvantages of the Crusades
Advantages of the Crusades
1. the failure of the later Crusades lessened the
1. they played a part in stimulation trade between
power of the pope
Europe and Southwest
Asia, imported spices, fruits and cloths
2. the Crusades weakened feudal nobility,
2. European traders who lived and traded in the
thousands of knights lost their lives and fortunes
Crusader states were
encouraged to continue their trading after the
collapse of the states,
this trade with the West benefited both Christians
and Muslims
3. the intolerance and prejudice displayed by
3. the same energy that started the Crusades could
Christians in the Holy Land
now be seen in the
left behind a legacy of bitterness and hatred, this
growth of trade, towns, and universities in Medieval
legacy continues to the
Europe
present
4. for Christians and Jews who in remained in the
region after the fall of
the Crusader states relations with their Muslim
masters worsened
The Jews and the Crusades (B87-93)





Crusade – an attempt by the Christians of Western Europe to take the Holy Land
back from the Muslims (especially Jerusalem)
First Crusade – called by Pope Urban II in 1096, many Jews and Muslims were killed
in the process of capturing Jerusalem, Christians thought "why travel so far to
Jerusalem to kill infidels—the Jews are right here!" so about 10,000 Jews were killed
"on the way" in the towns of Cologne, Speyer, Worms, and Mayence
Second Crusade – called by Pope Eugene III in 1144, the Jews suffered much less
than in the first Crusade, Rabbenu Tam was attacked by the crusaders but managed
to escape, St. Bernard (the spiritual father of the Crusade) said that it was against
Christianity to attack Jews and that Jews should be encouraged to convert without
violence
Third Crusade – called by Frederick Barbarossa (emperor of Germany), Philip
Augustus (king of France), and Richard the Lion-Hearted (king of England) in 1187,
the Jews endured attacks (especially in England), in York about 500 Jews committed
suicide (including two tosafists)
Cologne – Jewish community in the Rhineland that was attacked during the first
Crusade, about 1,500, principal economic center of the Rhineland, major fair were
held there three times a year and Rabbinic synods were also held there, when the



crusaders came the bishop of Cologne attempted to protect the Jews but he was
unsuccessful and most of the Jews died (including R. Moses Kohen Zedek – a highly
regarded rabbi)
Speyer – the bishop here was able to rescue the Jews, ten Jews were killed at the
hands of the crusaders but the rest survived, some Jews were hidden by the bishop
himself and others were sent to fortified villages that were under his protection
Worms – as the Jews became aware of the approaching crusaders they divided
themselves into two groups – some remained in their homes (having been assured
protection of the townspeople) and the others went to the bishop's palace
(confident that he would protect them), the crusaders first struck the group of Jews
in their homes and killed them and took their property, the crusaders then went to
the bishop's palace where many Jews committed suicide before the crusaders could
kill them, about 800 Jews died in the palace with no serious effort by the bishop to
protect them
Mayence – about 12,000 crusaders led by Emicho (a German noble) came here, the
people of Mayence welcomed the crusaders and opened the city gates before
them, the bishop let the Jews stay in his palace in exchange for their money,
however once the crusaders came the bishop and his men fled, they Jews thought
they had bribed the bishop but they were tricked, at first they tried to defend
themselves but once they saw that it was useless they chose to do kiddush haShem (killing family members and then taking their own lives), 1,100 Jews were died
here
Trade, Towns, and Financial Revolution (348-351)










three-field system – a system of farming developed in medieval Europe in which
farmland was divided into three fields of equal size and each of these was
successively planted with a winter crop (wheat, rye), planted with a spring crop
(oats, barley, peas, beans), and left unplanted
guild – medieval association of people working at the same occupation which
controlled its members' wages and prices, like a union today, enforced standards of
quality, only masters of the trade could be guild members
apprentice – children were apprenticed for 5-9 years to a master to learn the trade,
then becomes a journeyman
journeyman – made an item that qualified as a "master piece," if their products met
guild standards they were welcomed into the guild as masters
burghers – medieval town dwellers, resented the interference of lords in their trade
and commerce so they organized themselves and demanded privileges
university – people made up the medieval university, European institution, center of
the growth of learning
vernacular – the everyday language of people in a region or country
Geoffrey Chaucer – wrote The Canterbury Tales in English from 1387-1400
Dante Alighieri –wrote The Divine Comedy in Italian in 1321
Christine de Pisan – wrote The City of Ladies in French in 1405
Thomas Aquinas – argued that the most basic religious truths could be proved by
logical argument, wrote the Summa Theologica between 1267-1273 which was
influenced by Aristotle, it combined ancient Greek thought with Christian thought of
his time
 scholastics – scholars who gathered and taught at medieval European universities
1. What factors increased the food supply?
a) From about 800-1200 there was a warmer climate. Therefore, farmers were
able to cultivate land in regions that used to be too cold to farm in.
b) Before, peasants used oxen to pull their plows. Oxen were easy to keep
because they ate very cheap food but they moved very slowly. Once peasants started
using horses they twice as much land. Although horses needed better food, they moved
much faster. Also, in the early Middle Ages horses had a harness around its neck that
almost strangled it when the horse pulled the plow. After 900 farmers began using
harnesses that went on the horse's chest which took the pressure off the horses neck.
c) Before, farmers used to split their land in half and use one half to grow food
and left the other half unplanted. Around 800, farmers began to use 1/3 of their land in
the winter, another 1/3 in the spring and left the rest unplanted. This way, farmers could
use 2/3 of their land instead of just ½.

This all resulted in a population increase. People could raise larger families. Also, because
they were well-fed, they could resist disease and live longer.
2. What were the guilds?
A guild was a medieval association of people working at the same occupation which
controlled its members' wages and prices.
3. Describe the revival of learning in the High Middle Ages.
Universities stood at the center of the growth of learning. During a time when most
scholars wrote literature in Latin, writers and poets began writing in their everyday
languages which brought literature to many other people. The revival of learning sparked
interest in ancient scholars and Europeans began to acquire a huge body of knowledge.
The Crusaders learned and brought back superior Muslim technologies.
England and the Norman Conquest (352-353)





800s – Britain suffered many invasions from the Danish Vikings
Alfred the Great - king of Britain from 871-899, managed to turn back the Viking
invaders, he and his successors gradually united the kingdom of Britain under one
rule and called it England
England – "land of the Angles," the Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that
had invaded Britain
Canute – Danish king, conquered England in 1016, he molded the Anglo-Saxons
(people of England) and the Vikings to one people
King Edward the Confessor – descendant of Alfred the Great, took the throne in
1042, died in 1066 with no heir



William the Conqueror – duke of Normandy, claimed the crown in England because
he was Edward's cousin
Normandy – region in the north of France that had been captured by Vikings,
Normans had descended from Vikings, French language and culture, after his
victorious battle he declared all of England was his personal property, all of the
English nobles lost their lands and William gave them to about 200 Norman lords
who swore loyalty to him personally, he laid the foundation for centralized
government in this way
Harold Godwinson – William's rival, an Anglo-Saxon who had claimed the thrown
after Edward died, he was killed by the Normans who shot an arrow through his eye
in battle
England's Evolving Government (353-354)
Henry II – English king, married Eleanor of Aquitaine, his marriage brought a large
territory in France called Aquitaine, since he had lands in England he was a vassal to
the French king but he was also the king of England, ruled from 1154-1189,
strengthened the royal courts of justice by sending royal judges to every part of
England at least once a year, the judges collected taxes settled lawsuits and
punished crimes, also introduced the use of the jury in English courts
 Eleanor of Aquitaine – brought lands from France (adding to England's holdings),
one of the most remarkable women in history, wife to Henry II and Louis VII of
France, after she came to the Holy land with Louis (on Crusade) their marriage was
annulled so she married Henry, she and Henry produced four sons (tow of whom
would become kings) – Richard the Lionhearted and John,
Goals of English kings:
1. hold and add on to their French lands
2. strengthen their own power over the nobles and the Church
 jury – Henry II introduced the use of a jury in English courts, a group of loyal people
(usually 12 neighbors of the accused) who answered a royal judge's questions about
the facts of a case, jury trials became popular means of settling disputes, only the
king's courts were allowed to conduct them
 Richard the Lionhearted – Henry's first son and successor, hero of the Third Crusade
 John – Richard's younger brother, took the thrown when Richard died, ruled from
119-1216, he failed as a military leader and got them nickname "John Softsword",
lost Normandy and all and all his lands in northern France, he was mean to subjects
and tried to squeeze money out of them, raised taxes to an all time high to finance
wars, his nobles revolted and on June 15, 1215 they forced him to agree to the
Magna Carta
 Magna Carta – most celebrated document in English history, "Great Charter", drawn
up by English nobles and reluctantly approved by King John, guaranteed certain
basic political rights, nobles wanted to safeguard their own feudal rights and limit
the king's powers, guaranteed rights included no taxation without representation, a
jury trial, and the protection of the law, guaranteed what are now considered basic
legal rights both in England and the United States





Edward I – in 1295 he needed to raise taxes for a war against the French, he got two
burgesses from every borough and two knights from every country to serve as
parliament
parliament – legislative group, in November 1295 knights, burgesses, bishops and
lords met together at Westminster in London, now called the Model Parliament
because its new makeup (commoners, or non-nobles as well as lords) served as a
model for later kings, provided a check on royal power
House of Commons – knights and burgesses formed their own group in parliament
House of Lords – nobles and bishops met separately in parliament
The Jews of England: Massacre and Expulsion (Nutshells #43)
1. When had Jews come to England?
Jews had come to England with the Norman Conquest in the 11th century.
2. What happened to the Jews standing in society over time?
Jews (like the Christians in Europe) turned to money lending, banking, and other financial
activities. They became prosperous and contributed to the economic life of England.
However, when Richard the Lionhearted took the throne in 1889, conditions for the Jews
began to deteriorate and throughout the 13th century there was a systematic confiscation of
Jewish property until they were finally expelled in 1290.
3. Describe the various persecutions of Jews in England.
1222 – the Council of Oxford declared that Jews had to wear badges to identify themselves
as Jews
1255 – Jews of Lincoln were accused of a ritual murder of a Christian boy which led to the
arrest of 91 Jews (and did not receive a trial – some were hanged)
1275 – Edward I prohibit usury ed usury (money lending) which took away the only real
source of Jewish income
1279 – death penalty was imposed on Jews who blasphemed (spoke badly) against
Christianity
1280 – Jews were forced to listen to sermons by the Dominicans to convert them to
Christianity
1281 – Synod the Exeter deprived them of rights such as holding public office, hiring
Christians, eating with Christians, and building synagogues
4. What was the ultimate fate of the medieval English Jews?
On July 18, 1290 the Jews were ordered to leave England and were only allowed to take
with them the property they could carry. Their houses and land were confiscated by the
Crown. Jews were forbidden to settle in England for almost 400 years until they were
readmitted by Oliver Cromwell in 1655.
Capetian Dynasty Rules France (354-355)

Louis the Sluggard – last member of the Carolingian family, died in 987











Hugh Capet – succeeded Louis the Sluggard, undistinguished duke from the middle
of France, his family only ruled a small territory his family only ruled a small territory
(with France at its heart), started the Capetian dynasty, Hugh was a weak ruler (like
his son and his grandson)
Capetian dynasty – started with Hugh Capet, dynasty of French kings that ruled
France from 987-1328, in time geography favored the Capetians because their
territory sat astride important trade routes in northern France, for 200 years kings of
the Capetian dynasty tightened their grip on this strategic area and the power of
the king gradually spread out from Paris, this would eventually unite France
Philip Augustus – Philip II, one of the most powerful Capetians, ruled from 11801223, when he was a child he watched his father lose to King Henry II of England so
when Philip became king (at age 15) he set out to weaken the power of the English
kings in France, he was willing to do whatever was necessary to achieve his goals,
he had little success against Henry II or Henry's son (Richard the Lion-Hearted) but
when King John became king he had much success, he probably earned the name
Augustus because he greatly increased the territory of France, sized Normandy
from King John in 1204 and gained another territory within two years, by the end of
his reign he had tripled the lands under his direct control and for the first time a
French king had become more powerful than any of his vassals, wanted more land
and a stronger central government, established bailiffs
bailiffs – royal officials, sent from Pairs to every district in the kingdom to preside
over the king's courts and collect the king's taxes
Louis IX – Philip's grandson, ruled from 1226-1270, strengthened France's central
government, he was pious and saintly and was known as the ideal king, after his
death he was made a saint by the Catholic Church, created a French appeals court
French appeals court – could overturn the decisions of local courts, these royal
courts strengthened the monarchy while weakening feudal ties
Philip IV – ruled from 1285-1314, was involved in a quarrel with the pope because
the pope refused to allow priests to pay taxes to the king, Philip IV disputed the
right of the pope to control Church affairs in the kingdom, a French king would
usually call a meeting of his lords and bishops when he needed support for his
policies but Philip IV decided to include commoners in the meeting in order to win
wider support against the pope
First Estate – in France Church leaders were known has the First Estate
Second Estate – in France the great lords were known as the Second Estate
Third Estate – the commoners that Philip IV invited to participate in council became
known as the Third Estate, centuries later it would be the key to overthrowing the
French monarchy
Estates-General – Philip IV's meeting with the First Second and Third Estates, helped
to increase royal power against nobility, never became an independent force that
limited the king's power
A Church Divided (356-357)
Pope Boniface VIII – pope in 1300, stubborn Italian, tried to enforce papal authority
on kings, when King Philip IV asserted his authority over bishops he issued a papal
bull that said that kings must always obey popes, after he was imprisoned he was
rescued but died a month later, a pope would never again be able to force
monarchs to obey him
 King Philip IV – France, asserted his authority over French bishops, instead of
obeying Pope Boniface's bull Philip imprisoned him and planned to bring the pope
to France for a trial, in 1305 he persuaded the College of Cardinals to chose a
French archbishop as the new pope
 papal bull – official document issued by the pope
 Pope Clement V – chosen as pope after Boniface died
 Avignon – Pope Clement V moved from Rome to Avignon when he was chosen
pope, a city in France, popes would live there for the next 67 years, it weakened the
Church
 Pope Gregory XI – died in 1378 while visiting Rome
 Pope Urban VI – the College of Cardinals were choosing a new pope after Gregory
XI died and they heard mobs outside screaming to chose a Roman or an Italian,
chose an Italian, many cardinals regretted their choice almost immediately, his
passion for reform and his arrogance caused the College of Cardinals to chose
another pope a few months later, lived in Rome
 Pope Clement VII – Robert of Geneva – chosen by the college of cardinals when
they didn’t like Pope Urban VI, French, lived in Avignon
There were now two popes – Urban and Clement. They each declared the other a false
pope and they each excommunicated the other. This began the Great Schism.
 Great Schism – division, caused by Pope Clement VII and Pope Urban VI
 Council of Constance – had to end the Great Schism by choosing a new pope,
began its meetings in 1414, at this time there were three popes (a third that was
elected by an earlier council at Pisa), the council forced all three popes to resign in
1417 and chose a new pope Martin V, this ended the Great Schism
 John Wycliffe – preached that Jesus (not the pope) was the true head of the Church,
challenged the papacy in the 1300s and 1400s, offended by the wealthy and
luxurious lives of the clergy, believed that the clergy should own no land or wealth,
taught that the Bible alone (not the pope) was the final authority for Christian life,
helped spread this idea by inspiring an English translation of the New Testament
(which was only available in French or Latin), his radical ideas were discussed widely
in England
 Jan Hus – influenced by Wycliffe, professor in Bohemia, taught that the authority of
the Bible was higher than that of the pope, excommunicated in 1412
 German Emperor Sigismund – in 1414 he asked Hus to attend the Council of
Constance and gave him safe conduct, when Hus arrived he was seized and tried as
a heretic and burned at the stake in 1415

The Black Death (357-359)
bubonic plague – deadly disease, in the 1300s approximately 1/3 of the population
of Europe died from it, began in Asia, infected most of Asia and the Muslim world
through trade and eventually reached Europe, took about four years to reach all
over Europe, in any community about 1/3 of those who got the disease died, before
it ran its course about 25 million Europeans and many more in Africa and Asia were
killed, returned every few years but never stuck as severely and the first outbreak
but they still further reduced the population
 Black Death – in 1347 a fleet of Genoese merchant ships arrived in Sicily carry a
dread cargo (diseased), this disease became known as the Black Death, it got its
name from the purplish blackish spots it produced on the skin, swept through Italy
and followed trade routes to France Germany England and other parts of Europe,
this epidemic was so terrifying that it ripped apart the very fabric of society,
 Jews – scapegoats, blamed for bringing on the plague by poisoning the wells, all
over Europe Jews were driven from their homes or even massacred
Effects of the bubonic plague:
1. economic – town populations fell, trade declined, prices rose, fewer
people meant less workers, farmland was abandoned or used to
pasture sheep (required less work), serfs had often been unpaid or
poorly paid for their labor and left the manor in search of better wages,
the old manor system began to crumble, nobles resisted peasant
peasant demands for higher wages causing peasant revolts
2. Church – the Church suffered a loess of prestige when its prayers
and
penances failed to stop the bubonic plague, many clergy deserted
their flocks or
charged high fees to perform services for the dying
3. Pessimism – many people became pessimistic when they saw how
abruptly life could end, feared the future, art and literature of the time
reflect an unusual awareness of death
4. Pleasure – many people became occupied with pleasure and selfindulgence, displayed the attitude of "eat drink and be merry, for
tomorrow you may die"
5. disrupted medieval society – hastened changes that were already in
the makings, society of Middle Ages was collapsing, century of war
between France and England was the society's final death struggle

The Hundred Years' War (359-361)



Edward III – when the last Capetian king died with no successor Edward the III
claimed the right to the French thrown (as grandson of Philip IV)
Hundred Years' War – the war that Edward III launched for the thrown, continued
on and off from 1337-1453, added to the century's miseries, fought on French soil,
victory passed back and forth between the two countries, between 1421 and 1453
the French rallied and drove the English out of France entirely (except for the port
city of Calais)
Battle of Crecy – the first and most spectacular battle of the war, English won, some
of the soldiers were still operating under the medieval ideals of chivalry, anxious to
perform noble deeds in war, English archers won the day, English and French met
near Crecy on August 26 1346, English (men at arms, longbow men) were
outnumbered by a French army (armored knights, force of archers with crossbows,
mounted on warhorses, protected by heavy armor) three times the size, French
were very confident and attacked, longbow men won the war and more than 1/3 of
the French lay dead at the end of the battle (among them some of the most
honored in chivalry)
 Battle of Poitiers – English won, in 1356, the French thought they caught the English
at a disadvantage and charged but they English won with their longbows, French
king John and his son Philip were captured and held for ransom
 Battle of Agincourt – 1415, English won, English led by King Henry V were
outnumbered with 6,o00 and French with 20,000-30,000, French, English longbows
won the battle,
 Joan of Arc – in 1420 the French and English signed a treaty stating that Henry V
would inherit the French crown after the death of the French kin Charles VI because
the French had lost hope, in 1429 Joan of Arc felt moved by god to rescue France
from its English conquerors, believed heavenly voices spoke to her that said to drive
the English out of France and to give the French crown to France's true king
(Charles VI's son), convinced Charles VI that she was sincere, on May 7 1429 she led
the French army into battle against an English fort that blocked the roads to
Orleans, the English besieged the city of Orleans for over six months, it was a hard
battle and the French finally retreated but Joan and a few soldiers charged back
toward the fort and the entire French army followed her, the siege of Orleans was
broken, after the victory she persuaded Charles VII to go with her to Reims,
captured in battle in 1430 by the Burgundians (England's allies) and turned her over
to the English, the English gave her to the Church and they condemned her a witch
and burned to death on May 30 1431, Charles VII did nothing to save her
 Charles VII – crowned king in Reims on July 17 1429
Impact of Hundred Years' War:
- English only left with the French port of Calias
- French lost many lives, property, and money
- French ultimately raised the power and prestige of the French monarch
- it took a long time for some regions in France to recover
- caused a feeling on nationalism in both countries
- people didn't just think of the king as a feudal lord – he was a national leader fighting
for the glory of the country
- strengthened English Parliament, Edward III asked for money to finance the war about
27 times
 War of Roses – period of internal turmoil in England following the Hundred Years'
War, two noble houses fought for the thrown
The end of the Hundred Years' war in 1453 is considered by some the end of the Middle
Ages. Intense religious devotion and the code of chivalry both crumbled. The Age of Faith
died a slow death which was caused by the Great Schism, the scandalous display of wealth
by the Church, and the discrediting of the Church during the bubonic plague. The Age of
Chivalry died on the battlefields of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt.
Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance (417-422)
Renaissance – 1300-1600, explosion of creativity in Europe, "rebirth," rebirth of art
and learning, began in northern Italy around 1300 and later spread north
Why did it start in Italy?
1. France and England were locked in the Hundred Years' War
2. Italy had three advantages: thriving cities, wealthy merchant class,
classical heritage of Greece and Rome
Thriving Cities – overseas trade (spurred by Crusades) led to the growth of large city-states
in northern Italy, that region had many large towns as well, therefore northern Italy was
urban while the rest of Europe was mostly rural, cities are usually places where people
exchange ideas so the cities of northern Italy were a perfect place for an intellectual
revolution, the bubonic plague killed about 60% of the population here which brought
economic changes, since there were less laborers they could demand higher wages, also
since there were fewer people opportunities for business expansion shrank and wealthy
merchants began to pursue other interests (like art)
Wealthy Merchant Class – since city-states were relatively small many of the citizens could
be very involved in politics, merchants were the wealthiest and most powerful class so they
dominated politics, they did not inherit their status (like nobles did) but it depended on
their success in business, therefore the merchants felt that they deserved their power
(which became an important Renaissance theme), although the Medici did not have a true
republican government they helped the Renaissance by supporting the arts
 Medici – a family that made a fortune in trade and banking, ruled Florence, Cosimo
de' Medici was the wealthiest European of his time, in 1434 he won control of
Florence's government, he did not get political office for himself, instead he
influenced the ruling council by giving them loans, he was basically dictator of
Florence for 30 years, he died in 1464 but his family remained in control of Florence,
his grandson Lorenzo de' Medici (Lorenzo the Magnificent) took control in 1469, he
ruled as a dictator the same way his grandfather had, the Medici supported the arts
Classical Heritage of Greece and Rome – Renaissance scholars looked down on the art and
literature of the Middle Ages and wanted to return to the learning of the Greeks and
Romans, artists and scholars in Italy drew inspiration from the ruins of Rome that
surrounded them, in the 1300s scholars studied ancient Latin manuscripts which had been
preserved in monasteries, when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 the
Byzantine scholars fled to Rome with ancient Greek manuscripts (which Italian scholars
thought had been lost forever)
As the Italian scholars studied these classical texts, they developed a new outlook on life
which had several characteristics:
1. Humanism – focused on human potential and achievements, instead of trying to make
the classical texts agree with Christian teaching (like medieval scholars had) humanists
studied them to understand ancient Greek values, humanists influenced artists and

architects to carry on classical traditions, they also made it popular to study subjects that
were common to classical education (like history, literature, philosophy)
 humanism - a Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical
texts and focused on human potential and achievements
 humanities – subjects common to classical education, history literature and
philosophy
2. Enjoyment of Worldly Pleasures – humanists suggested that a person could enjoy life
without offending god (unlike people in the Middle Ages), the wealthy openly enjoyed
material luxuries and fine music and tasty foods, most people remained devout Catholics
but the basic spirit of the Renaissance was secular, even church leaders became more
worldly (lived in beautiful mansions, threw lavish banquets, wore expensive clothing)
 secular – worldly, concerned with the here and now
3. Patrons of the Arts – Renaissance popes beautified Rome by spending huge amounts of
money for art, they were patrons of the arts, wealthy families (Medici) also supported the
arts by having their portraits painted or by donating public art to the city, this also
demonstrated their own importance
 patron – financial supporter
 "Renaissance Man" – "universal man," man who excels in many fields
 The Courtier – written by Baldassare Castiglione in 1528, taught how to become a
Renaissance Man, taught how women should behave as well
 Isabella d'Este – exercised power, born into the ruling family of the city—state of
Ferrara, married the ruler of another city-state (Mantua), brought many Renaissance
artists to her court and had a great art collection that was famous throughout
Europe, skilled in poetics, when her husband was taken captive in war she defended
Mantua and won his release
 Michelangelo Buonarrroti – painter, sculptor, architect, poet, glorified the human
body, a true Renaissance Man, explored the Renaissance theme of human potential
 Donatello – made sculpture more realistic by carving natural postures and
expressions that reveal personality, revived a classical form by carving the statue
David which was the first European sculpture of a large free standing nude since
ancient times
 Masaccio – rediscovered the technique of perspective
 perspective – indicates three dimensions
 Leonardo da Vinci – painter, sculptor, inventor, scientist, deeply interested in how
things work, painted the Mona Lisa, also painted a famous religious painting The
Last Supper
 Raphael – learned from studying the works of Michelangelo and Leonardo, filled
the walls of Pope Julius II library with several paintings (including School of Athens)
 Sofonisba Anguissola – the first woman artist to gain international reputation,
known for her portraits of her sisters and prominent people (like King Phillip II of
Spain)
Artemisia Gentileschi – trained with her painter father and helped with his work, painted
pictures of strong heroic women
The Northern Renaissance (423-427)








northern Renaissance – England, France, Germany, Flanders, developed its own
characteristics because the Renaissance ideas that had spread out of Italy were
mingled with northern traditions, many humanists were more interested in religious
ideas than in the secular themes popular in Italy, the Renaissance ideal of human
dignity inspired some northern humanists to develop plans for social reform based
on Christian values
Albrecht Durer – German artist, son of a goldsmith, after serving an apprenticeship
he traveled to Italy to study in 1494, when he returned to Italy he made wood cuts
and engravings that became influential, many of his prints portray religious subjects
and others portray classical myths, also painted classical realistic landscapes and a
self portrait(in which he portrayed himself as a Renaissance man), the popularity of
his work helped to spread Renaissance styles and inspired other German artists,
emphasis on realism
Hans Holbein the Younger – German artists, inspired by Durer's emphasis on
realism, specialized in painting portraits that were almost photographic in detail,
had great success in England were he painted portraits of King Henry VIII and other
members of the royal family
Jan van Eyck – first great Flemish Renaissance painter, lived from sometime late in
the 1300s to 1441, worked at the height of the Italian Renaissance, used oil-based
paints (which had just been developed) to develop techniques that painters still use,
oil painting became popular and spread to Italy, his paintings display unusually
realistic details and reveal the personality to their subjects, his work influenced later
artists in northern Europe
Peter Bruegel the Elder – Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the work
of Bruegel, interested in realistic details and individual people, captured scenes
from every day peasant life (like weddings, dances, harvests, changing seasons),
also made paintings that taught a moral (some of his paintings protested harsh
Spanish rule over Flanders), his rich colors and vivid details and balanced use of
space give a sense of life and feeling, very skilful in portraying large numbers of
people, he inspired two sons and three grandsons to become painters as well
Christian humanists – some northern humanists are also called Christian humanists
because they adopted the ideal of humanism but gave it a more religious slant
Desiderius Erasmus of Holland – one of the best known of the Christian humanists,
close friends with Thomas More, born in Rotterdam, received honors for his brilliant
writings, wrote his most famous work The Praise of Holly in 1509, some of his works
were aimed at the clergy but he work is still strongly Christian, believed in
Christianity of the heart and not of ceremonies or rules, thought that in order to
improve society people should read the Bible
Thomas More of England – one of the best known of the Christian humanists, close
friends with Desiderius Erasmus, concerned with society's flaws, tried to show a


better model of society and wrote Utopia in 1516 about an imaginary land inhabited
by peace-loving people
Utopia – means "no place" in Greek, in English it has come to mean an ideal place
(because of More's book)
Francois Rabelais – French humanist, wrote Gargantua Pantagruel, believed human
beings were basically good and they should live by their instincts rather than
religious rules
Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More
Francois Rabelais
wrote in Latin
wrote in vernacular French
more religious
more secular
 William Shakespeare – wrote in Renaissance England, regarded as the greatest
playwright of all time, born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon (small town 90 miles
north west of London), by 1592 he was living in London and writing poems and
plays, his works display a masterful command of the English language and a deep
understanding of human beings, most famous plays include Macbeth and King Lear
and Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Night's Dream, admired the
classics and drew on them for inspiration and plots
 Elizabethan Age – the Renaissance in England, named this for Queen Elizabeth I
 Queen Elizabeth I – reigned from 1558-1603, well educated and knew French and
Italian and Latin and Greek, wrote poetry, patronized arts and writers
 Johann Gutenberg – craftsman from Mainz, Germany, reinvented movable type
around 1440, this method was practical for Europeans because their languages had
a small number of letters in their alphabets (unlike Chinese), then invented the
printing press, using this invention he printed the Gutenberg Bible
 printing press – a machine that presses paper against a tray full of inked movable
type, by 1500 presses in about 250 cities had printed between 9 and 10 million
books, had a revolutionary impact on European society:
-enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies (all exactly alike) of a
single work
-for the first time, books were cheap enough that many people could buy
them
-new ideas spread more quickly than ever before
-availability of books encouraged people to learn to read and caused a rise
in literacy
-writing in vernacular languages increased because even people who could
not afford a classical education could now buy books
-printers printed the Bible in vernacular which allowed more people to read
it – people then began to interpret the Bible for themselves which
eventually led to demands for religious reform
 Gutenberg Bible – Gutenberg printed a complete Bible in about 1455 using the
printing press, first full-size book printed with movable type
The Protestant Reformation (428-432)
What caused the Reformation?
1. the Renaissance's emphasis on the secular and on the individual
2. the printing press spread these secular ideas
3. rulers did not like the popes' attempts to control them
4. it was hard for the pope to impose any central authority in Germany
because it was divided
5. northern merchants did not like paying taxes to Rome
6. many popes were very worldly and lived luxuriously
7. many priests and monks were poorly educated
8. some priests and monks broke their priestly vows
9. many Europeans read religious works for themselves and formed their
their own opinions about the Church
 Pope Pius II – admitted that "the luxury and pomp of our courts is too great,"
too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have much time for spiritual duties
 Pope Alexander VI – admitted that he had several children (popes were
supposed to be celibate), too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have much time
for spiritual duties
 Girolamo Savonarola – Italian friar, in 1490s came to Florence and preached
fiery sermons calling for reform, in 1497 the people of Florence responded by
burning their worldly possessions, a year later the Florentines turned against
Savonarola and he was executed for heresy
 Martin Luther – son of a miner, became a monk in 1505, from 1512 till his death
he taught scripture at University of Wittenberg in Saxony (state in Germany), in
1517 he decided to take a stand against Johann Tetzel, he wrote 95 theses
attacking "pardon-merchants" and on October 31 1517 he posted them on the
door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate
him, someone took Luther's theses and brought them to a printer to be copied
and his name quickly became known all over Germany, soon he went beyond
criticizing indulgences and wanted a full reform of the Church, since many
people had been unhappy with the Church for political and economic reasons
the saw Luther's protests as an excuse to throw the Church out of control, at
first the Church thought that Luther was just a rebellious monk who needed to
be punished, however as his ideas became more radical the Church realized
that he was a serious threat, even after threatened Luther did not take back his
words and his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered
as he threw the pope's decree into flames, Luther was then excommunicated,
Luther translated the New Testament into German while he was in Prince
Frederick's castle, returned to Wittenberg in 1522 and realized that many of his
ideas were already being put into place, his teachings rested on three main
ideas:
1. People could win salvation only by faith in God's gift of forgiveness. The
Church taught that faith and "good works" were needed for salvation.












2. All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible.
The pope and church traditions were false authorities.
3. All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did not need priests to
interpret the Bible for them.
Johann Tetzel – friar, raided money to rebuild St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome,
raised money by selling indulgences, gave people the impression that by
buying indulgences they could buy their way into heaven
indulgence – a pardon, released a sinner from performing penalty (like saying
certain prayers) that a priest imposed for sins, were not supposed to affect
God's right to judge
Reformation – Lutheran's actions began the Reformation, a movement for
religious reform, led to the founding of Christian churches that did not accept
the pope's authority
Pope Leo X – in 1520 issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunication
unless he took back his statements, excommunicated Luther
Emperor Charles V – only 20 years old, devout Catholic, opposed Luther's
teaching, controlled a vast empire (including Germany), summoned Luther to
Worms in 1521 to stand trial
Edict of Worms – a month after Luther stood trial at Worms Charles issued an
imperial order, declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic, no one in the empire
was allowed to give Luther food or shelter and all his books were to be burned
Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony – ruler where Luther lived, disobeyed the
Edict of Worms, sheltered Luther in one of his castles for almost a year
Lutherans – Luther and his followers had become a separate religious group
Peasants' Revolt – in 1524 German peasants demanded an end to serfdom,
bands of angry peasants went about the country side raiding monasteries and
pillaging and burning, this revolt horrified Luther and he wrote a pamphlet
urging the German princes to show the peasants no mercy and their armies
crushed the revolt and killed as many as 100,000 people, many peasants felt
betrayed by Luther and rejected his religious leadership, Luther still remained
influential until the end of his life
Protestant – the princes who supported Luther and signed a protest against the
agreement (the princes who remained loyal to the Church would join forces
against Luther's ideas), eventually this term was applied to Christians who
belonged to non-Catholic churches
Peace of Augsburg – Charles V ordered all German princes (both Protestant
and Catholic) to meet in Augsburg, at the meeting the Princes agreed that the
religion of each German state was to be decided by its ruler, signed in 1555
Henry VIII – king of England, devout Catholic, had no son and feared that a civil
war would break out after his death (like after his father's death) if he had no
heir, was married to Catherine and had a daughter Mary with her (but no
female had ever successfully claimed the English throne), in 1527 he was
convinced that Catherine would not have any more children so he wanted to
annul his marriage and marry a younger queen, so he asked the pope to annul









his marriage but the pope said no because he did not want to offend
Catherine's nephew (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V), so in 1529 Henry VII
called Parliament and asked them to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's
power in England, Parliament then legalized Henry VIII's divorce from
Catherine, he secretly married Anne Boleyn in 1533, Anne gave birth to a baby
girl (not a male heir) and Henry VII no longer liked her, he had her imprisoned
in the Tower of London and beheaded in 1536, Henry married four more wives
and his third wife gave him a son named Edward, died in 1547, each of his
three children eventually ruled
Catherine of Aragon – Henry's first wife, had a daughter Mary
Mary – Henry's oldest daughter
annul – set aside, since the Church did not allow divorce Henry wanted to
annul his marriage
Reformation Parliament - in 1529 Henry VII called Parliament and asked them
to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's power in England, Parliament then
legalized Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine
Anne Boleyn – Henry VIII's second wife, Anne gave birth to a baby girl Elizabeth
(not a male heir) and Henry VII no longer liked her, had her imprisoned in the
Tower of London and beheaded in 1536
Act of Supremacy – Parliament voted to approve this act in 1534, made the
English king (not the pope) the official head of England's Church, he soon
closed all English monasteries and seized their wealth and lands (which was
about 20% of the land in England), this vastly increased royal power and
enriched Henry's treasury
Edward VI – Henry VIII's only son, became king at age nine (after his father's
death) and only ruled for six years
Mary – Catherine and Henry VIII's daughter, ruled after Edward VI, she was
Catholic and returned the English Church to the rule of the pope, had many
Protestants killed
Elizabeth I – Henry VII and Anne's daughter, ruled after Mary, inherited the
throne in 1558, returned her kingdom to Protestantism, in 1559 Parliament
followed her request and set up a national church (much like the one under
Henry VIII's rule), wanted to make a state church that both moderate
Protestants and moderate Catholics might accept, on the Protestant side –
priests in the Church of England were not allowed to marry and they could
deliver sermons in English (not Latin), and on the Catholic side – the Church of
England kept some of the trappings of the Catholic service (like rich robes and
golden crucifixes) and the Book of Common prayer was revised to be
somewhat more acceptable to Catholics, soon faced the threat of invasion from
Philip II but defeated him, although her rule was triumphant she did face some
money problems, in the late 1500s the English began to consider building an
American empire as a new source of income



Anglican Church – Parliament declared that Elizabeth I was the head of the
Church of England, people were required to attend its services or pay a fine,
only legal church in England
Philip II – king of Catholic Spain, planned to attack England for many reasons
and one was because Elizabeth had supported Protestant subjects who
rebelled against him, in 1522 he assembled the Spanish Armada and reached
England on July 29 but bad weather and the English fleet defeated him
completely
Spanish Armada – in 1522 Philip assembled an invasion force of 130 ships and
8,000 sailors and 19,000 soldiers, this force reached the southwest coast of
England on July 29
The Reformation Continues (433-436)










John Calvin – born in France, had as much influence on Protestants as Luther did,
gave order to the new faith that Luther began, in 1536 he published the book
Institutes of the Christian Religion, he taught that men and women are sinful by
nature and said that God chooses very few people to save (like Luther said), in 1541
Calvin was asked by Protestants in Geneva (Switzerland) to run their city (which was
self governing), Calvin and his followers ran the city according to strict rules:
-everyone attended religion class
-no one wore bright clothing
-no one played card games
any one who broke these rules would be imprisoned or excommunicated or
banished, anyone who preached different doctrines might be burned at the stake,
many Protestants loved this, Swiss and Dutch and French reformers also adopted
the Calvinist form of church organization, today many Protestant churches trace
their roots back to Calvin but many of them have softened Calvin's strict teachings
Institutes of the Christian Religion – published by Calvin in 1536, expressed Calvin's
ideas about God and salvation and human nature, also created a system of
Protestant theology
the "elect" – the few people that god chooses to save
predestination – God knows from the beginning of time who will be saved
Calvinism – the religion based on Calvin's teachings
theocracy – a government controlled by religious leaders, Calvin believed this was
the ideal government
John Knox – preacher from Scotland, admiring visitor of Geneva, when he returned
home in 1559 he put Calvin's ideas to work in Scottish towns, in 1560s Protestant
nobles led by Knox succeeded in making Calvinism Scotland's official religion and
overthrew their queen in favor of her infant son
presbyters – each community church was governed by a small group of laymen
called elders or presbyters
Presbyterians – followers of Knox became known as Presbyterians
Huguenots – Calvin's followers in France, hatred between them and Catholics often
led to violence, in Paris on August 24 1572 (Catholic feast of St. Bartholomew's Day)











Catholic mobs began hunting for Protestants and brutally murdering them, these
massacres spread to other cities and lasted six months and up to 12,000 Huguenots
were killed
Anabaptists – "baptize again", only baptized people who were old enough to
decide to be Christian were baptized, if a person was baptized as a child they
should be baptized again as an adult, church and state should be separate, refused
to fight in wars, shared their possessions, both Catholics and Protestants viewed
them as radicals who threatened society and persecuted them, the Anabaptists
survived and became forerunners of the Mennonites and the Amish, their teachings
influenced the later Quakers and Baptists (who split from the Anglican church)
Marguerite of Navarre – sister of King Francis I, protected john Calvin from being
executed for his beliefs while he lived in France
Katherina Zell – married to prominent reformer Mathew Zell of Strasbourg, she
once scolded a minister for speaking harshly of another and the minister told her
that she had "disturbed the peace", she answered with criticism
Katherina von Bora – Luther's wife, sent to a convent at age ten and took the vows
of a nun by age sixteen, she was inspired by Luther's teachings and escaped (some
stories say she escaped in an empty barrel that had contained smoked herring), she
had six children with Luther and managed the family and finances and fed all who
visited her house and supported Luther's work, was respectful of Luther but also
argued with him about woman's equal role in marriage, their household became a
model for others to follow
Catholic Reformation – a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself
which helped Catholics remain loyal
Ignatius of Loyola – great Catholic reformer, grew up in his father's castle in Loyola
(Spain), in 1521 he was injured in a war and during his recovery he thought about
his past sins and about Jesus, he believed his daily devotions cleansed his soul
Spiritual Exercises – in 1522 Ignatius began writing a book that laid out a day by day
plan of mediation and prayer and study, he compared spiritual and physical
exercise
Society of Jesus – in 1540 the pope made Ignatius's followers a religious order
called the Society of Jesus
Jesuits – members of the Society of Jesus, concentrated on three activities:
1. founded superb school throughout Europe
2. converted non-Christians to Catholicism (sent out missionaries)
3. stop Protestantism from spreading
Pope Paul III – pope from 1534-1549, took four important steps toward reform:
1. directed council of cardinals to investigate indulgence selling and other
abuses within the Catholic Church
2. approved the Jesuit order
3. used the Inquisition to seed out and punish heresy in papal territory
4. decided to call a great council of Church leaders to meet in Trent
Council of Trent – 1545-1563, Catholic bishops and cardinals agreed on several
doctrines:
1. The church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who
substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic
2. Christians need faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved
by faith alone, as Luther argued.
3. The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for
guiding Christian life.
4. Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. (But the false selling of
indulgences was banned.)
 Pope Paul IV – vigorously carried out the council's decrees
 Index of Forbidden Books – in 1559 Paul IV had officials make a list of books that
were considered dangerous to Catholic faith, bishops throughout Europe were
ordered to gather the offensive books (including Protestant Bibles) and burn them,
in Venice alone 10,00 books were burned in one day
Effects of the Reformation:
1. Protestant churches flourished (despite religious wars and persecution)
2. religion no longer united Europe
3. as the Church's power declined individual monarchs and states gained
power (which led to modern nation-states)
4. the reformers' successful revolt against Church authority laid the
groundwork for a rejection of Christian belief that occurred in Western
culture in later centuries
5. helped set the stage for the modern world
Absolutism in France (518-523)




St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre – in 1572 a massacre in Paris sparked a nationwide
slaughter of Huguenots, this massacre occurred when many Huguenot nobles were
in Paris for the wedding of Catherine de Medicis's daughter to Henry of Navarre (a
Huguenot prince), most of the Huguenot nobles died but Henry of Navarre
survived
Henry IV – Henry of Navarre, survived the massacre, when Catherine de Medicis
and her last son died he inherited the throne, first king of the Bourbon dynasty in
France, he was decisive and fearless in battle and a clever politician, many Catholics
opposed Henry IV so for the sake of his country he decided to give up
Protestantism and became a Catholic, in 1598 he made the Edict of Nantes, devoted
his reign to rebuilding France and its prosperity, restored French monarchy to a
strong position, most people welcomed this peace but some hated Henry IV for his
religious compromises, in 1610 a fanatic leaped into Henry IV's carriage and stabbed
him to death
Edict of Nantes – in 1598 Henry IV made this declaration of religious toleration,
Huguenots could live in peace and could set up their own houses of worship in
some cities
Louis XIII – Henry IV's son, weak king but in 1624 he appointed Cardinal Richelieu
who made up for Louis XIII's weaknesses







Cardinal Richelieu – Louis XIII's minister, became in effect the ruler of France, for
several years he had been a hard-working leader of the Catholic church in France,
although he tried to lead according to moral principles he was ambitious and like
exercising authority, as minister he was able to pursue his ambitions in a political
arena, took two steps to increase the power of the Bourbon monarchy:
1. moved against Huguenots – believed that Protestantism often served as
an excuse for political conspiracies against the Catholic king, he did not end
the Huguenots' right to worship but he forbade Protestant cities from
having walls (did not want them to be able to defy the king and then
withdraw behind strong defenses)
2. weaken the nobles' power – ordered nobles to take down their fortified
castles, increased the power of the government agents who came from
middle class, ended the need for the king to use noble officials
he also wanted to make France the strongest state in Europe but he believed the
greatest obstacle to this was the Hapsburg rulers (whose lands surrounded France),
he involved France in the Thirsty Years' War in order to limit Hapsburg power
Hapsburgs – ruled Spain, Austria, Netherlands, parts of Germany, surrounded
France, Frances' greatest obstacle to becoming the most powerful state in Europe
skepticism – the idea that nothing can ever be known for certain, French thinkers
had witnessed religious wars with horror which had turned them to skepticism,
expressed an attitude of doubt toward churches and claimed to have the only
correct set of doctrines, they thought doubting old ideas was the first step to
finding truth
Michel de Montaigne – lived during the worst years of the French religious wars,
after his dear friend died he retired to his library and thought deeply about the
meaning of life, he developed the essay, believed that humans could never have
absolute knowledge of what is true
essay – a brief work that expresses a person's thoughts and opinions
Rene Descartes – French writer, brilliant thinker, wrote Meditations of First
Philosophy and examined the skeptical argument the once could never be certain
of anything, he created a philosophy that influenced modern thinkers and helped to
develop the scientific method, he therefore became an important figure in the
Enlightenment
Louis XIV – most powerful ruler in French history, he believed that he and the state
were one and the same, he began his reign in 1643 when he was five years old,
even after the riots ended nobles threatened to kill Louis XIV which he never forgot,
he determined to become so strong that they could never threaten him again, in
1661 he took control of government himself when Cardinal Mazarin died, weakened
the power of nobles by excluding them from his councils, increased the power of
intendants, made sure local officials communicated regularly with him so he could
keep power under control, devoted himself to helping France attain economic and
political and cultural brilliance, after Colbert died he announced a policy that
slowed France's economic progress, in 1685 he cancelled the Edict of Nanes, spent
a fortune to surround himself with luxuries, had the nobles at the palace (to serve
him), made the opera and ballet more popular, the chief purpose of art was no
longer to glorify God (as it was in Middle Ages) – it was to glorify the king and
promote values that supported his absolute rule, imposed new taxes to finance his
wars, realizing that his wars had ruined France Louis XIV regretted the suffering he
had brought to his people, died in bed in 1715, news of his death prompted
rejoicing in France
having nobles at the palace increased royal authority:
1. made nobility totally dependent on Louis XIV
2. took them from their homes which gave more power to the
intendants
 Cardinal Mazarin – Richeliu's successor, true ruler of France in 1643, in 1648 at the
end of the Thirty Years' War he made a peace treaty which made France the most
powerful country in Europe, many people in France (especially nobles) hated him
because he increased taxes and strengthened central government, anti-Mazarin
riots (led by nobles) tore France apart, died in 1661
Why did the rebellion fail?
1. It's leaders distrusted one another even more than they distrusted Mazarin
2. Government used violent repression
3. Peasants and townspeople grew weary of disorder and fighting
For many years afterward the people of France accepted the oppressive law of an absolute
king because they thought a rebellion was even worse.
 intendants – government agents who collected taxes and administered justice
 Jean Baptiste Colbert – Louis XIV minister of finance, believed in the theory of
mercantilism, tried to make France self sufficient to prevent wealth from leaving the
country, wanted France to be able to manufacture everything it needed instead of
relying on imports, recognized the importance of colonies (which provided raw
materials and a market for manufactured goods) and encouraged people to
migrate to France's colony in Canada (fur trade added to France's commerce)
to expand manufacturing: gave government funds and tax benefits to French companies
to protect France's industries: placed a high tariff on goods from other countries
 Edict of Nantes – protected the religious freedom of Huguenots, Louis XIV canceled
it in 1685, in response thousands of Huguenot artisans and business people fled the
country which robbed France of many skilled workers
 Palace at Versailles – Louis XIV required hundreds of nobles to live with him at this
palace, 11 miles southwest of Paris, everything was immense, faced a huge
courtyard with a statue of Louis XIV, about 500 yards, like a small royal city, rich
decoration and furnishings showed Louis XIV's wealth and power to everyone who
came, elaborate ceremonies there that impressed everyone (even other monarchs),
center of the arts
 Moliere – one of Louis XIV's favorite writers, wrote some of the funniest plays in
French literature
examples:
1. Tartuffe – mocks religious hypocrisy
2. The Would-be Gentleman – mocks the newly rich
3. The Imaginary Invalid – mocks hypochondriacs







1667 – Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands, gained 12 towns
1672 – Louis XIV personally led an army into the Dutch Netherlands, Dutch saved
their country by opening dikes and flooding the countryside, ended in 1678 with
Treaty of Nijmegen, France gained several towns and a region called FrancheComte
King William of Orange – Dutch prince, became king of England in 1689, joined the
League of Augsburg
League of Augsburg – consisted of the Hapsburg emperor and the kings of Sweden
and Spain and the leaders of several smaller European states, joined together these
countries equaled Frances strength
Philip of Anjou – Louis XIV's grandson, became king of Spain after Charles II died,
both Spain and France (enemies) were ruled by Bourbons
War of Spanish Succession – other countries were threatened by the increase in
Bourbon Dynasty's power, started after England and Austria and Dutch Republic
and Portugal and several German and Italian states joined together against France
and Spain, dragged on until 1713, Great Britain was the big winner, Britain took
Gibraltar and got permission to send enslaved Africans and North American
territories of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and abandoned claims on the Hudson
Bay region, Austrian Hapsburgs took the Spanish Netherlands and other Spanish
lands in Italy, Prussia and Savoy were recognized as kingdoms
Treaty of Utrecht – signed in 1713, Philip of Anjou was allowed to stay king of Spain
as long as the thrones of France and Spain were not united
Central European Monarchs Clash (526-530)
Protestant Union – Lutherans joined together in 1608
Catholic League – Catholic (German) princes joined together in 1609
Ferdinand II –Holy Roman Emperor, head of Hapsburg family, ruled the Czech
kingdom of Bohemia, foreigner and Catholic (so Protestants of Bohemia did not
trust him)
 Thirty Years' War – began in 1618 when Ferdinand II closed some Protestant
churches in Bohemia so the Protestants revolted and Ferdinand II sent an army into
Bohemia to crush the revolt, German Protestant princes took this chance to
challenge Ferdinand II, conflict over religion and territory and for power among the
ruling families, lasted from 1618-1648, two phases:
1. Hapsburg Triumphs – first 12 years of war, Hapsburg armies from Austria and Spain
crushed troops hired by Protestant princes, put down revolt in Bohemia, defeated the
German Protestants who supported the Bohemians, Ferdinand II paid his army (125,000
men) by allowing the to plunder and rob German villages, the army destroyed
everything in its path
2. Hapsburg Defeats – 1630, drove the Hapsburg armies out of northern Germany,
Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin were Catholic but they feared the Hapsburgs
more than they feared the Protestants and did not want other European rulers to have
as much power as the French king so in 1635 they sent French troops to join the
German and Swedish Protestants in their fight against the Hapsburg armies



affects of the war:
-did great damage to Germany--population dropped from 20 million to 16 million,
disrupted trade and agriculture, economy was ruined, this was the main reason it did
not become a unified state until the 1800s
 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden – Protestant, army of 13,000, shifted tide of war
in 1630, he was killed in battle in 1635
 Peace of Westphalia – 1648, ended the war, weakened Hapsburg states of
Spain and Austria, strengthened France by awarding it German territory, made
German princes independent of the Holy Roman Emperor, ended religious
wars in Europe, introduced a new method of peace negotiation (all participants
meet to settle the problems of a war and decide the terms of peace),
abandoned the idea of a Catholic empire that would rule most of Europe and
recognized Europe as a group of independent states that could negotiate for
themselves, each state was seen as equal to the others, marked the beginning
of the modern state system (most important result of Thirty Years' War
Why did formation of strong states occur more slowly in Central Europe?
1. Economic Contrasts – economy of Central Europe developed differently than economy of
western Europe:
Western Europe
late Middle Ages – serfs slowly won freedom
and moved to towns
Central Europe
land owning aristocracy passed laws
restricting serfs to gain freedom and move
to cities
wanted to keep serfs on land so they could
produce large harvests – by 1700 increased
control over serfs
serfs joined middle class townspeople who
gained economic power because of the
commercial revolution and the development
of capitalism
monarchs taxed the towns and used the
nobles sold the surplus crops to western
money to raise armies and reduce influence European cities at a great profit
of nobility
2. Several Weak Empires – landowning nobles in Central Europe also blocked development
of strong kings (Polish elected king and sharply limited his power), two empires of Central
Europe were weak (Ottoman Empire declined and Holy Roman Empire was weakened by
Thirty Years' War)
3. Austria Grows Stronger – Austrian Hapsburgs took steps towards becoming absolute
monarchs:
-reconquered Bohemia during Thirty Years' War, wiped out Protestantism there and
created new Czech nobility that pledged loyalty to them
-Hapsburg ruler centralized government and created a standing army after war
-by 1699 Hapsburgs had retaken Hungary from Ottomans
 Charles VI – became Hapsburg ruler in 1711, hard empire to rule because there was
a diverse assortment of people living within its borders – Czechs and Hungarians
and Italians and Croatians and Germans, persuaded other European leaders to sign







and agreement recognizing his eldest daughter as heir to all his Hapsburg
territories
Maria Theresa – Charles VI's eldest daughter, married for love and had 16 children,
most famous child was Marie Antoinette (wife of Louis XVI of France), decreased the
power of nobility, very religious, cared for peasants well being, limited amount of
labor nobles could force peasants to do
Hohenzollerns – ruling family of Prussia, Hapsburgs' main enemy
King Frederick William I – Hohenzollern, Great Elector, in 1640 he inherited the title
of elector of Brandenburg, having a strong army is the only way to ensure safety,
moved toward absolutism to protect his lands, in early 1700s bought the Junkers'
cooperation by giving
Junkers – Prussia's landowning nobility, resisted the king's growing power
Frederick II –Frederick the Great, patron of the arts, practical and atheistic,
encouraged religious toleration and legal reform, achieved his goals in domestic
and foreign affairs, followed his father's military policies but also soften some of his
father's laws because he believed a ruler should be like a father to his people
War of the Austrian Succession – Frederick II wanted the Austrian land of Silesia
which bordered Prussia, in 1740 Frederick II sent hi troops into Silesia, Maria
journeyed to Hungary with her infant and asked the Hungarian nobles for help and
even though they resented the Hapsburgs they agreed to give her an army, Great
Britain also joined Austria to fight France and Prussia, although Maria stopped
Prussia's aggression she lost Silesia at the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748
Seven Years' War – in 1756 Frederick II attacked Saxony (a Austrian ally) an soon
every great European power was involved in the war, fought in Europe and India
and North America, lasted until 1763, did not change territorial situation in Europe,
British emerged as real victors, France lost its colonies in North America and Britain
gained sole economic dominance of India
The Triumph of Parliament (536-539)


James Stuart – king of Scotland, Elizabeth's closest relative, since Elizabeth had no
child James became King James I of England in 1603, England and Scotland now
shared a ruler, believed he had absolute authority to rule, thought it was beneath
him to try to win Parliament's favor, worst struggles with Parliament were over
money and Parliament was reluctant to pay for James's expensive court and foreign
wars, James was a Calvinist and he offended the Puritan members of Parliament, he
did not make reforms to purify the English Catholic church but he did agree to
making a new translation of Bible, died in 1625
Charles I – James I's son, took the throne in 1625, was at war with Spain and France
and always needed money, Charles I dissolved Parliament several times when they
refused to give him money, in 1629 he dissolved Parliament again and refused to
call it back into session, he imposed all kinds of fees on the English people in order
to get money, his popularity decreased each year, offended Puritans by keeping
church ritual and a formal prayer book, in 1637 he tried to force the Presbyterian
Scots to accept a new version of the Anglican prayer book because he wanted both









of his kingdoms to follow one religion, the Scots rebelled and assembled a huge
army and threatened to attack England, Charles I needed an army but he did not
have money so he was forced to call back Parliament, in 1641 Parliament passed law
to try to limit royal power and in turn Charles tried to arrest Parliaments leaders in
1642 but they escaped, a mob of Londoners raged outside the palace and Charles I
fled to northern England where people were loyal to him and raised an army
Petition of Right – Charles I was forced to call Parliament again and they refused to
give him money until he signed this document, the king agreed to four points, but
after agreeing to it he ignored it, the petition still set forth the idea that the law was
higher than the king and contradicted theories of absolute monarchy:
1. He would not imprison subjects without due cause
2. He would not levy taxes without Parliament's consent
3. He would not house soldiers in private homes
4. He would not impose martial law in peacetime
English Civil War – 1642-1649, supporters and opponents of King Charles I fought a
war, at first neither side could gain a lasting advantage, Oliver Cromwell defeated
the Cavaliers in 1646, by 1647 the Cavaliers held King Charles I prisoner, Cavaliers
brought him to trial in 1649 for treason and found him guilty so they sentenced him
to death, this execution was revolutionary because never before had a reigning
monarch faced a public trial and execution
Royalists/Cavaliers – those who remained loyal to King Charles I
Roundheads – Puritan supporters of Parliament, these men wore their hair short
over their ears so the Cavaliers mockingly called them Roundheads
Oliver Cromwell – general for the Puritans starting in 1646, his New Model Army
defeated the Cavaliers, after King Charles I's execution he held the reins of power,
abolished monarchy and the House of Lords and established a commonwealth, in
1653 he sent the remaining members of Parliament home, he eventually ripped up
the constitution and ruled as a military dictator, almost immediately had to put
down a rebellion in Ireland, in 1649 e landed on Irish shores with an army and
crushed the uprising, lands and homes of Irish were taken from them and given to
English soldiers, fighting and plague and famine killed about 616,000 Irish, Cromwell
and Puritans sought to reform society and made laws that promoted Puritan
morality and abolished activities they found sinful (ex: going to theatre), he was a
strict Puritan but he favored religious toleration for all Christians except Catholics,
even welcomed back Jews who had been expelled in 1290, ruled until he died in
1658
commonwealth – a republican form of government
John Lambert – Oliver Cromwell's associate, in 1653 he drafted a constitution which
was the first written constitution of any modern European state
Charles II – son of Charles I, after Cromwell died English people were sick of military
rule, in 1659 Parliament voted to ask Charles I's older son to rule, when he entered
London in 1660 crowds shouted joyfully, died in 1685
Restoration – the period of King Charles II's rule is called this because he restored
the monarchy, also restored theater and sporting events and dancing (which











Puritans had banned), theater and especially comedy flourished, for the first time
women appeared on the English stage
habeas corpus – Parliament passed this law in 1679, gave every prisoner the right to
obtain a writ or document ordering that the prisoner be brought before a judge,
the judge would then decide whether the prisoner should be tried or set free, this
prevented a monarch from putting someone in jail just for opposing the ruler, also
prisoners could not be held indefinitely without trials
Whigs – opposed Charles II's brother James
Tories – supported James, Tories and Whigs are ancestors of England's first political
parties
James II – became king in 1685, Charles II's brother and heir because Charles II did
not have children, Catholic, soon offended his subjects by flaunting his Catholicism,
appointed several Catholics to high office (which was against English law) and when
Parliament protested he dissolved it, in 1688 his wife gave birth to a son and English
Protestants became terrified at the prospect of a line of Catholic kings
Mary – James's older daughter, married to William of Orange, Protestant, at their
coronation Mary and William recognized Parliament as their partner in governing
England
William of Orange – prince of Netherlands, married to Mary
Glorious Revolution - seven members of Parliament invited Mary and William to
overthrow James II for the sake of Protestantism, in 1688 William led his army into
London and James II fled to France
constitutional monarchy – a monarchy where laws limited the ruler's power
Bill of Rights – in 1689 Parliament drafted this document to make clear the limits of
royal power, listed many things a ruler could not do (which William and Mary
consented to):
1. No suspending of Parliament's laws
2. No levying of taxes without a specific grant from Parliament
3. No interfering with freedom of speech in Parliament
4. No penalty for a citizen who petitions the king about grievances
cabinet – group of government ministers, developed in 1700s, acted in the ruler's
name but in reality represented the major party of Parliament, became the link
between the monarch and the majority in Parliament, remedied the potential
problem of the government coming to a standstill in monarch and Parliament
disagreed, over time it became the center of power and policymaking
prime minister – leader of the majority party in Parliament heads the cabinet
The Enlightenment in Europe (551-556)


Enlightenment – the Age of Reason, reached its height in mid-1700s, ideas of the
Scientific Revolution paved the way for this movement, started from some key ideas
put forth by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke
Thomas Hobbes – English political thinker, experienced political turmoil of England
in early 1600s, wrote Leviathan in 1651, the horrors of English Civil War convinced
him that all humans are naturally selfish and wicked, he believed that without
governments to keep order there would be "war of every man against every man"
and then life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short", he thought that
people gave up their rights to a strong ruler in order to prevent this miserable life
and got law and order in return, since people acted in their own self-interest the
ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control, he thought the best
government was an absolute monarchy which could impose order and demand
obedience
 social contract – this agreement (people gave up their rights to a strong ruler in
order to prevent a miserable life and got law and order in return) by which people
created government
 John Locke - English political thinker, philosopher, experienced political turmoil of
England in early 1600s, believed people could learn from experience and improve
themselves, he thought people had the natural ability to govern their own affairs
and to look after the welfare of society, did not like absolute monarchy and favored
the idea of self-government, believed all people are born with three natural rights
and the purpose of government is to protect those rights, so if government fails to
protect natural rights the citizens have the right to overthrow it, wrote Two Treatises
on Government in 1690 and it served to justify the overthrow of James II, his theory
had a great influence on modern political thinking, his statement that power comes
from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy, his ideas
of government by popular consent and the right to revel against unjust rulers
helped inspire struggles for liberty in Europe and in the Americas
 natural rights – life, liberty, property
 philosophes – the critics of this period (the Enlightenment) in France, French word
for philosophers, believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life,
challenged many assumptions about government and society but often took a
traditional view toward women, they mainly lived in the world of ideas, formed and
popularized new theories but were not active revolutionaries, inspired American
and French revolutions and other revolutionary movements, there were five
important concepts that formed the core of their philosophy:
1. reason – believed truth could be discovered through reason (logical thinking),
absence of intolerance or bigotry or prejudice in one's thinking
2. nature – what was natural was good and reasonable, believed there were natural
laws of economics and politics just as there were natural laws of motion (Newton)
3. happiness – a person who lived by nature's laws would find happiness, wanted wellbeing on earth and believed it was possible (unlike in medieval times)
4. progress – philosophes were first Europeans to believe in progress for society,
believed society and humankind could be perfected (now that people used a scientific
approach)
5. liberty – believed that society could be set free through reason, there were many
restrictions (on speech, religion, trade, personal travel) in France and the philosophes
envied the liberties the English had won in the Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights




Voltaire – real name was Francois Marie Arouet, probably the most brilliant and
influential of the philosophes, published more than 70 books of political essays and
philosophy and history and fiction and drama, often used satire against his
opponents and his targets were often clergy and aristocracy and government which
made him enemies at the French court, he was sent to prison twice and after his
second jail term he was exiled to England for two years, he came to admire the
English government more than his own French government and when he returned
to France his work mocked the laws and customs of France, he even raised doubts
about the Christian religion, the French king and Catholic bishops were so angry so
he fled France in 1734 because he was scared he would be sentenced to another jail
term, he never stopped fighting for tolerance and reason and freedom of religious
belief and freedom of speech
Baron de Montesquieu – influential French writer, devoted himself to the study of
political liberty, aristocrat and lawyer, studied the history of ancient Rome and
concluded that its collapse was directly related to its loss of political liberties,
believed that England was the best governed country (but he oversimplified the
British system), wrote On the Spirit of Laws in 1748 which proposed that separation
of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of
government, his book was admired by political leaders in the British colonies of
North America
separation of powers – power was balance among three groups of officials, his idea
that each branch would serve as a check on the other two would later be called
"checks and balances", this is the basis for the United States Constitution,
Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches separation of
powers:
1. executive power – British king and his ministers, carried out law of the
state
2. legislative power – Parliament, lawmaking power
3. judicial power – judges of English courts, interpreted the laws to see how
each applied to a specific case
Jean Jacques Rousseau – great philosophe, passionately committed to individual
freedom, was the son of a poor Swiss watchmaker and he worked as a engraver
and a music teacher and a tutor and a secretary, he eventually made his way to
Paris and won recognition as the writer of essays, he became friends with other
philosophes but felt out of place in their circles of Paris high society, strongly
disagreed with other Enlightenment thinkers on many matters (ex: he believed
civilization corrupted people's natural goodness), believed the only good
government was a direct democracy, wrote The Social Contract in 1762, his social
contract was an agreement among free individuals to create a society and a
government, argued that legitimate government came from the consent of the
governed, argued that all people were equal and that titles of nobility should be
abolished, his ideas inspired many of the leaders of the French Revolution who
overthrew the monarchy in 1789, developed many progressive ideas about
education, believed a girl's education should mainly teach her how to be a helpful
wife and mother
 direct democracy - government hat was freely formed by the people and guided
by the general will of society, people could agree to give up some of their freedoms
in favor of the common good
 Cesare Bonesana Beccaria – Italian philosophe, believed law existed to preserve
social order (not to avenge crimes), wrote On Crimes and Punishments in 1764 and
rallied against common abuses for justice (torturing of witnesses and suspects,
irregular proceedings in trials, arbitrary or cruel punishments), argued that a person
accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial and that torture should never be
used, said the degree of punishment should be based on the seriousness of the
crime, believed capital punishment should be abolished, based his ideas on the
principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number
of people, his ideas influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and North America
 Mary Astell – English writer, wrote A Serious Proposal to the Ladies in 1694 which
addressed the lack of educational opportunities for women, later used
Enlightenment arguments about government to criticize the unequal relationship
between men and women in marriage
 Mary Wollstonecraft – published the essay A Vindication of the Rights of Women in
1792 in which she disagreed with Roseau (that women's education should be
secondary to men's) and argued that women need education to become virtuous
and useful, believed women should not only be nurses but should also become
doctors, argued for women's right to participate in politics
 salons – in Paris and other European cities wealthy women helped spread
Enlightenment ideas through these social gatherings
 Emilie du Chatelet – a woman fortunate enough to receive an education in the
sciences, aristocrat, trained as a mathematician and a physicist, translated Newton's
work from Latin to French and helped stimulate interest in science in France
Enlightenment thinking produced three long-term effects that helped shape Western
civilization:
1. belief in progress
2. more secular outlook
3. importance of the individual