UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
limba şi literatura engleză la Facultatea de Litere a Universităţii din
FACULTATEA DE LITERE
Craiova. Programa cuprinde următoarele teme:
INVATAMANT LA DISTANTA
1. Articolul
- The Articles in English
PROGRAMA ANALITICĂ
-
The Indefinite Article; functions
Disciplina: LIMBA ENGLEZA CONTEMPORANA
-
The Definite Article; functions
Morfologie – partea nominală şi verbală
-
The Functions of the Zero Article
Specializarea: ROMANA -ENGLEZA
2. Substantivul
ANUL I
a) The category of number in nouns:
Semestrul I
Titularul disciplinei: Conf. Univ.dr. IOANA MURAR
- The plural paradigm of English nouns; irregular nouns in English
-
I.
Countable and uncountable nouns in English
OBIECTIVELE DISCIPLINEI
b) The category of case: the Possessive Case in English
-
descrierea categoriilor nominale ale limbii engleze
c) The Category of Gender: means of expressing gender
-
analiza şi descrierea categoriilor gramaticale ale verbului:
3. Adjectivul
categoria de timp, aspect, mod
-
-
consolidarea cunoştinţelor teoretice legate de categoriile
Classification of adjectives according to position (attributive,
predicative)
nominale (număr, caz, gen, determinare) şi verbale (timp,
-
aspect, mod, diateză) din limba engleză, prevăzute
4. Pronumele
a fi studiate în anul I
-
II. TEMATICA CURSULUI
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
The forms and functions of the Personal Pronoun; The functions of
the Pronoun IT
Programa cursului de morfologie, partea nominală şi verbală se
-
Reflexive, Emphatic and Reciprocal Pronouns
adresează studenţilor de la învăţământul deschis, la distanţă care studiază
-
Relative and Interrogative Pronouns
-
Indefinite and Negative adjectives and pronouns
1
5. Verbul (timpurile verbale)
8. The category of voice.
-
The category of tense
-- The active – passive transformation
-
The category of aspect: the opposition simple vs progressive /
-
continuous aspect; verbs not normally used in the progressive /
III. EVALUAREA STUDENTILOR
Verbs normally used in the passive voice
continuous aspect
Forma de evaluare (E – examen; LP – teme de control)
-
The uses and values of the Present Tense Simple and Continuous
Stabilirea notei finale (procente):
-
The uses and values of the Past Tense Simple and Continuous
-
răspunsurile la examen: 70 %
-
The uses and values of the Present Perfect Simple and Continuous
-
teme de control: 30%
-
The uses and values of the Past Perfect Simple and Continuous
-
Means of Expressing Futurity: shall /will -Future (Future Simple);
Future Continuous; Future Perfect Simple and Continuous; Be
Going-to form; Be to; Be About To
6. The Category of Mood.
-
The Indicative and the Subjunctive Mood
-
The forms and distribution of the Subjunctive
7. Morphological, syntactic and semantic properties of modal verbs
-
Modal verbs expressing ability: can / could
-
Modal verbs expressing permission: may / might, can / could
-
Modal verbs expressing possibility: may / might, can / could
-
Modal verbs expressing obligation and necessity: must, should,
ought to, need
-
IV.
BIBLIOGRAFIE OBLIGATORIE SI FACULTATIVA
1. Bădescu, Alice, 1980. Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiinţifică şi
enciclopedică, Bucureşti
2. Gălăţeanu, Georgiana, Comişel, Ecaterina, 1992. Gramatica limbii
engleze pentru uz şcolar, Omegapress, Bucureşti
3. Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană. Morfologie,
Bucureşti, EDP,
4. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, I., 1972. A
Grammar of Contemporary English, Longman, London
5. Stefănescu, Ioana, 1988. English Morphology. The Nominal and
Verbal Categories, TUB, Bucureşti
6. Thomson, A.J., Martinet, A.V., 1980. A Practical English
Grammar, OUP, Oxford
Modal verbs expressing supposition, probability: must, should,
ought to, will, would
2
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
- Folosirea adjectivelor în poziţie atributivă şi predicativă.
FACULTATEA DE LITERE
- Gradele de comparaţie al adjectivului: pozitiv, comparativ, superlativ;
adjective cu grade de comparaţie neregulate; construcţii cu
INVATAMANT LA DISTANTA
comparativul şi superlativul.
SUPORT DE CURS
4. Pronumele: folosirea pronumelui personal, posesiv, reflexiv, de
întărire, relativ, interogativ, nehotărât, negativ
Disciplina: LIMBA ENGLEZA CONTEMPORANA
Morfologie – partea nominală şi verbală
Specializarea: ROMANA -ENGLEZA
ANUL I
Semestrul I
5. Verbul:
i. Categoruiile gramaticale de timp şi aspect
- Valorile timpurilor verbale:
-
Present Tense Simple şi Continuous
-
Past Tense Simple şi Continuous
Cursul de morfologie, partea nominală şi verbală se adresează
-
Present Perfect Simple şi Continuous
studenţilor de la învăţământul deschis, la distanţă care studiază limba şi
-
Past Perfect Simple şi Continuous
literatura engleză la Facultatea de Litere a Universităţii din Craiova.
-
Mijloace de exprimare a viitorului
Programa cuprinde următoarele teme:
ii.
Categoria gramaticală de mod:
-
Distincţia dintre Indicativ şi Subjonctiv
-
Formele de Subjonctiv în engleza conteporană
-
Folosirea Subjonctivului sintetic şi analitic
Titularul disciplinei: Conf. Univ.dr. IOANA MURAR
I.
1. Determinarea: articolul hotărât, nehotărât, determinarea cu marcă
zero
2. Substantivul:
-
Substantive cu plural regulat, neregulat; clase şi subclase de
iii.
substantive în funcţie de număr; substantive nenumărabile
(uncountable nouns)
-
Genitivul: folosirea genitivului sintetic şi prepoziţional.
3. Adjectivul:
Caracteristicile morfologice, sintatice şi semantice ale verbelor
modale
-
valorile şi utilizările verbelor modale: can / could, may / might,
must, shall / should, will / would
iv. Diateza pasivă
3
2. The generic definite article: the noun is used in its most general sense.
a) With count nouns: The tiger has no mane. (Here the tiger indicates
tigers in general, not one individual).
THE ARTICLE
The articles are a subclass of the determiners. Determiners are words
which specify the range of reference of a noun, i.e. by making it definite
(the book), indefinite (a book) or by indicating quantity (many books).
The most important groups of determiners include the articles (the,
a(n), the demonstratives (this,that etc) and the possessives (my,your,etc)
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
The Definite Article stands before a noun or before modifiers and other
determiners if they are placed before the noun: the pupil, the good pupil.
The functions of the Definite Article:
1. Anaphoric (something mentioned or known): shows that the noun to
which it is attached has already been mentioned previously, or is known
to the reader / interlocutor.
e.g. They have a son and two daughters, but the son is already grown up.
Several kinds of anaphoric function can be distinguished:
a) The anaphoric demonstrative function: Give me the pencil (= that);
in set phrases:. at the (= that) time; under the circumstances.
b) The anaphoric situation function:
Ann is in the garden (the garden of the house – a specific garden).
b) With adjectives e.g. the poor, the rich, the unemployed.
3. Epiphoric function (the forward-pointing use): the article introduces
a new piece of information. This use can be encountered when identity is
established by a modifier such as a Relative Clause or an of-phrase that
follows the noun, e.g. The wine of France is the best in the world.
4. The definite article with proper names (non-significant) is used with
names of rivers, oceans, seas, mountains: the Thames, the Atlantic.
5. in set phrases: in the morning/ afternoon/ evening; on the one hand,
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The indefinite article has the following functions:
1. The epiphoric function: it introduces a new element that has not been
mentioned before. The indefinite article is used to express indefinite
meaning of singular count nouns, e.g. I see a bird; I need a visa
2. The numeric function, e.g. a / one pound; I’ve bought a book and
three magazines. In certain contexts a and one are normally
interchangeable.
3. The generic function: The article is used before a singular count noun
which is used as an example of a class of things.
4. The indefinte article in set phrases: once upon time, once in a while,
for a time, to have a headache, as a matter of fact, as a rule.
4
THE ZERO ARTICLE
THE NOUN
Zero article can have various functions:
The grammatical categories of nouns: Nouns are characterized by the
1. The generic function: This function is expressed with plural count
grammatical categories of number, case and gender.
nouns and mass nouns: Books are man’s best friend.
When the nouns have a specific use they are preceded by the definite
article: Where are the books?
2. The indefinite numeric function (meaning ‘a number of’, ‘a quantity
of’): We bought books and magazines. They ate bananas.
3. a non-significant determiner, e.g. with proper nouns, names of
I. NUMBER:
Number in English is associated with the concept of countability.
Nouns fall under two classes referred to as countables and uncountables.
The uncountables have no plural form, *informations) and they do not
occur with the indefinite article (*an information), while countables do.
According to the idea of number nouns may be classified into:
countries, towns, continents; the months of the year, etc.
1. Individual nouns:
4. after prepositions: go to bed (to sleep), to church (to pray) (the places
i. Individual nouns proper have a singular and a plural form; they agree
are used for their primary purpose). The visitors went to the church to see
in number with the verb; they can take indefinite articles, etc.
the carvings.( the places are used for other reasons)
a) Regular plurals: the plural of a noun is usually formed by adding –s to
5. in set phrases: from time to time, by means of, at random, by sea / land
the singular: book / books, writer / writers etc.
QUESTIONS
b) Irregular plurals – there are nouns that form their plural:
1. What are determiners? Give examples of determiners.
- By vowel change, e.g. man / men, woman / women, foot / feet,
2. The functions of the Definite Article
tooth / teeth, goose / geese, mouse / mice, child / children, ox/ oxen
3. The functions of the Indefinite Article.
- foreign plural: basis / bases, axis / axes; radius / radii
4. The functions of the Zero Article
c) The plural of compound nouns:
5. Determiners used with mass nouns
- The last word is made plural if the last word is a noun, e.g. boy-friends.
6. What articles can express the generic function?
- The first word is made plural: mothers-in-law
- both parts are made plural: women-drivers.
ii. Defective individual nouns are always plural and take a plural verb;
5
2. Unique nouns:
e) nouns denoting chronological divisions, distances, weight, worth:
i. Proper noun equivalents: they have only the singular number and
yesterday’s newspaper, ten miles’ distance, a pound’s worth of sweets
denote unique objects: the sun, the moon, nature, heaven
f) personifications and the nouns denoting vehicles: ships, trains, cars,
ii. Nouns of material (mass nouns): they denote materials and
planes: the ship’s mast, the glider’s wings
substances, e.g. bread, coffee, glass, paper, soap etc.They take a singular
g) in phrases and idioms: at a stone’s throw, for heaven’s sake,
verb and are not normally used with the indefinite article.
h) in a double genitive (an analytical genitive and a synthetic one): He
iii. Uncountable nouns (advice, news, information, knowledge, etc) take a
was a friend of Smith’s
singular verb and cannot be used with the indefinite article.
2. The Analytical / Prepositional Genitive
3. Collective nouns proper, e.g. crew, committee, family, team, jury, etc.
Form: object possessed + OF + possesor, e.g. the cover of the book
can take a singular or a plural verb:
Uses of the analytical genitive:
4. Nouns of multitude are a variety of collective nouns that take only a
- With inanimate possessors the prepositional genitive may be replaced
plural verb: people, police, poultry, cattle
by attributive constructions, e.g. the keys of the car = the car keys
II. CASE: There are four cases in English: the nominative, the genitive,
- The analytical genitive is used instead of the synthetic genitive when
the dative and the accusative.
differences of meaning are involved, e.g. a picture of Tom = a picture
The Nominative (subject, a predicative, an apposition).
representingTom; a picture of myTom’s = a picture belonging to Tom.
The Genitive has two forms: the Synthetic and the Analytical genitive.
The Dative (indirect object) is marked by prepositions to/ for or by
The synthetic genitive is marked by an ‘s or only by an (’), depending
strict word order: She gave the boy a book = She gave a book to the boy
on the form of the noun it is attached: the boy’s book; : the boys’ books
The Accusative (direct object) is placed after a transitive verb: He
Uses of the synthetic genitive:
wrote a letter.
a) with nouns denoting persons: the woman’s son, Jack’s car
III. GENDER: English does not have, what is commonly called
c) nouns denoting animals: the cat’s bowl, Spot’s tail
‘grammatical gender’ (of the type existing in Romance languages).
d) names of countries: England’s sons have fought for her freedom
6
English nouns fall into two classes: a) animate – within this class, nouns
7. Uncountable nouns
can denote males or females, usually referred to as he or she: b)
8. Nouns of multitude
inanimate, i.e. nouns denoting things, abstractions, natural phenomena.
9. Cases in English
Within class a) sex (male / female) is rendered by:
10. The Synthetic genitive: formation, uses
1. pairs of distinctive words, e.g. man / woman, boy / girl, uncle / aunt
11. The Analytical genitive: formation, uses
2. suffixation from nouns denoting male creatures: -ess: actor / actress,
THE ADJECTIVE
waiter / waitress, lion / lioness, tiger / tigress; - ine : hero / heroine.
A. According to derivation adjectives are divided into:
3. using words that clearly state the ‘sex’ of the key noun: man / woman
a) adjectives without formal indices: dear, nice
boy / girl: man servant / woman servant
b) with formal indices (by means of suffixes): accidental, dangerous.
4. the personal pronoun he and she are used: he-wolf / she-wolf.
Personification may affect a large variety of ‘inanimate’ nouns and,
B. According to position adjectives can be attributive and predicative:
1. attributive position adjectives can be placed before or after the noun:
consequently, these nouns take ‘sex-marked’ determiners (her/his):
a) In general, adjectives precede the noun they modify: interesting book
a) ships and cars (feminine); b) nouns denoting natural elements charac-
early train, blue-eyed woman, Anglo-Saxon literature
terized by force (wind, sun - masculine); c) nouns denoting less violent
b) the adjectives follow the nouns they modify, forming a sort of
forces, attachment, fertility (sea, nature, earth – feminine); d) nouns
compounds: knight errant, attorney general, court martial, poet laureate
representing names of countries (feminine when they are personified)
2. In predicative position adjectives of quality follow a link verb (be,
QUESTIONS
1. Types of nouns according to various criteria
become, get, grow, etc: He became rich, She looks happy.
According to this criterion, adjectives fall into four classes:
2. The grammatical categories of the noun
a) Adjectives that can function as both attributes and predicative without
3. The category of number in nouns
change of meaning
4. The formation of the plural number: rules , exceptions
b) Adjectives that function as attribute and predicatives but whose
5. Irregular and foreign plurals
meaning depends on the position: a small farmer /The farmer is small
6. Characteristics of individual nouns
7
c) Adjectives that can function only as attributes: medical, woollen etc:
This is a medical book but *This book is medical.
d) Adjectives that function only as predicatives: afraid, alike, alone,
- by negating the comparative of equality: not so/as + adj. in the
positive degree + as: The book is not so / as interesting as the film
- by using less + adj. in the positive degree + than (with pluri-
ashamed, asleep: The boy is afraid / a frightened boy
syllabic adjectives): The book is less interesting than I thought.
C. According to content and function adjectives can be:
c) The comparative of superiority: expressed with a suffix (adjective in
1. Modifying (modifiers) adjectives show the quality of an object. They
the positive degree+-er) or with an adverb (more + adjective in the
include a) qualitative adjectives and b) relative adjectives
The relative adjective shows qualities characterizing an object by
positive degree) + than: nicer than; more interesting than
3. The superlative degree:
referring it to another object. Generally, relative adjectives are used
a) relative: it is formed either with a suffix (an adjective in the positive
attributively and do not have degrees of comparison: a brick house
degree +-est) or with the adverb most + an adjective in the positive
2. Determinative adjectives (determiners): demonstrative, indefinite,
degree, In both cases the construction is preceded by the definite article
negative, possessive, interrogative.
the: the nicest person in our class; the most interesting book
DEGREES OF COMPARISON are the forms assumed by an
b) absolute: it is made up of the adverb very + an adjective in the positive
adjective to show that a quality may exist in various degrees with two
degree: This is a very interesting book.
objects or with one and the same object at different times.
The formation of the comparative of superiority and relative superlative:
There are three degrees of comparison in English: the positive, the
- Monosyllabic adjectives take the suffix –er/ –est to form the compara-
comparative and the superlative degree.
tive of superiority and the relative superlative: great / greater / greatest
1. The positive degree: the basic form of the adjective
- Bisyllabic adjectives ending in –er, -y, -ow, take the suffix -er, -est:
2. The comparative: a comparison between two or more objects:
clever / clever / cleverest
a) The comparative of equality: the quality exists in equal amount in two
- Plurisyllabic adjectives take only the adverbs more and the most:
objects. The form is as + adj. in the positive degree + as: Her dress is as
beautiful / more beautiful / the most beautiful.
nice as mine; The book is as interesting as the film
b) The comparative of inferiority is expressed in two ways:
There are several adjectives that have irregular comparison:
good/ well - better - the best); bad(ly)/ ill - worse - the worst;
8
little - less - the least; much,/many – more - the most;
1. Classification of adjectives according to position
far - farther - the farthest (of distance)/ further - the furthest
2. Adjectives in attributive position
near - nearer - the nearest / the next;
3. Adjectives in predicative position
old - older - the oldest (of people, things)/elder - the eldest (of people)
4. Classification of adjectives according to content and function
late - later - the latest / latter - the last
5. Degrees of comparison of adjectives
Other constructions with comparisons:
Parallel increase is expressed by the + comparative…the +comparative:
The more attentive he was the fewer mistakes he made.
Gradual increase or decrease is expressed by two comparatives joined
by and: The weather is getting colder and colder.
Synonyms of the Absolute Superlative: The absolute superlative is
6. The comparative degree of adjectives (comparative of equali- ty,
inferiority, superiority)
7. The superlative degree of adjectives
8. Synonyms of Absolute Superlative
9. Adjectives that have irregular comparison
DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
constructed with the adverb very + an adjective in the positive degree.
1. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
Other forms which can express the same idea are:
adjectives: this / these; that / those; the same, another, the other, other
a) adverbs like extremely: He was extremely tired when he came home
pronouns: this / these, that / those, the same, another, the other(s),
b) rather can be used with certain ‘positive’ adjectives like: amusing,
clever, interesting, beautiful, its meaning being nearly equivalent to very:
others
This / these, that / those: adjectives agree in number with the nouns they
He is rather clever (=He is very clever)
determine:; These boys came yesterday. Pronouns: refer either to one
c) quite is used instead of very in the following instances:
object or to more than one: These are longer than those (ones).
- when it is used with a word which can express the idea of comp-
When there is some idea of comparison, selection the pronoun one /ones
leteness: certain, full, ready, right, sure, wrong: You are quite right
is placed after this/these, etc: This chair is too low. I’ll sit on that (one)
- when it is used with adjectives such as amazing, extraordinary, perfect
The same: The same person(s) I saw yesterday told me to buy the book.
etc: It was quite extraordinary to hear it from him.
Another is singular in meaning and as an adjective takes a singular noun
QUESTIONS
while as a pronoun it replaces a singular countable noun: Give me
9
another book, I don’t like this (one). Other (adjective) can take plural
As pronouns some and any follow the same rules: Did you buy any
count nouns: Other things are more important now.
books? Yes, I bought some; No I didn’t buy any.
2. Indefinite / negative adjectives and pronouns:
Any is used with in interrogative and negative constructions , as an
Numerical indefinite / negative adjectives and pronouns:
equivalent of some: Did you buy any apples yesterday? Any is also used:
Several is not followed by one unless there is a qualitative adjective
- in affirmative sentences with the meaning of ‘orice’, ‘oricare’: Take
after it: Several people told me the same thing;
any book you like.
Many is possible with affirmative verbs when preceded by a good or
-with words implying a negative meaning: hardly, scarcely, without: I
when modified by so / as / too / very: You’ve bought too many tomatoes.
have hardly any spare time; He did it without any difficulty.
When not modified many is usually replaced by a lot / lots of (+ noun) or
- after if, whether: If you need any money let me know.
by a lot / lots (pronoun): I saw a lot / lots f seabirds.
No (adjective) and none (pronoun) can be used with affirmative verbs to
Little and few (adjectives and pronouns) denote scarcity or lack and have
express a negative (as an alternative to any + negative verb); it can be
almost the force of a negative: Little is known about the side effects of
used with count or mass nouns: I have no apples (= I don’t have any
this drug; Few towns have such splendid trees.
apples); None of the tourists wanted to climb the mountain.
All / each / every: all means a number of people/ things consi dered
Some/any and no combine with body, one, thing, the resulting
as a group; each / every means a number considered individually.
compounds being pronouns: Somebody gave me a ticket for the concert;
Either / neither are adjectives and pronouns. Either ( ‘any one or two’)
These pronouns have a singular meaning and take a singular verb.
takes a singular verb: I have two books: you can take either (of them).
However, plural forms are common: No one saw Tom go out, did they?
b) Numerical and quantitative adjectives and pronouns :
3. Possessive adjectives and pronouns
Some and any are used with plural countable nouns and mass nouns:
Possessive adjectives and pronouns do not agree in number, gender or
There are some students waiting for you; I need some milk.
Some is used in affirmative structures while any is mainly used in
interrogative and negative structures: Are there any students there?
case with the object possessed: This is our room and that is yours.
Possessive adjectives are used with parts of one’s body, pieces of
clothing, personal belongings: Put on your coat; Wash your hands.
10
Own can be used after possssive adjectives to emphasize the idea of
possession: He couldn’t trust his own friends.
- for things: N., D., Acc. which / that; G. whose / of which: This is the
picure which / that caused such a sensation In the accusative the
4. Interrogative adjectives and pronouns
pronoun is which, that or is left out completely: The car which / that / - I
For persons: Nominative case: who (pronoun); dative /accusative:
hired broke down.
whom /who, of which whom is the technically correct one, but who is
The preposition may precede the relative pronoun but this construction
used especially in spoken English; possessive: whose (adjective and
is rather formal; in spoken English it is kept after the verb it belongs to:
pronoun); Eg. Who took my pen?; Whom / who did you see?
The man with whom I was travelling was from London (formal)/ The
What (adjective and pronoun) can also be used for persons and its form is
man I was travelling with was from London (spoken)
invariable.
b) Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns that are definite
For things: What caused the explosion? What kind of tree is that?
already, so they do not define the noun, but merely add something to it.
For persons and things when the choice is restricted: which (adjective
Unlike defining clauses, they are not essential in the sentence and can be
and pronoun): Which hand do you use?; Which of you has taken my pen?
omitted; the pronouns, however, can never be omitted as they play an
5. Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses which can be a) defining
important role in the clause. Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses:
relative clauses or b) non-defining relative clauses.
- for persons: N. who; D., Acc. who(m), G. whose: My brother, who
a) Defining relative clauses are essential to the clear understanding of
doen’t like fishing at all, went fishing yesterday;
the noun, e.g. The man who came yesterday refused to give me his name.
- for things: N., D., Acc. which; G. whose, of which: These books, which
Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses:
you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the information you need.
- for persons: N. who / that; D. and Acc. who(m) / that; G. whose. E.g.
The man who robbed her has been arrested
A defining relative clause is put between commas, or comes after a
comma, at the end of a sentence. The presence of commas is very
The pronoun that is an alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one,
important as the meaning changes when commas are inserted.
nobody, those:
6. Personal pronouns: It has an anaphoric function, i.e. it replaces a
The man whom/ who / that/ - I saw told me to come back on Monday.
noun previously mentioned. It has forms to indicate the grammatical
11
categories of number (singular and plural), gender (maculine, feminine
2. Indefinite adjectives and pronouns
and the inanimate it) and case (nominative and dative/accusative).
3. Negative adjectives and pronouns
The functions of the pronoun IT:
4. Possessive adjectives and pronouns
- demonstrative: the pronoun it could be replaced by a demonstra- tive:
5. Interrogative adjectives and pronouns
Who is it? It is all right.
6. Relative pronouns used in Relative clauses
- impersonal: used with time, weather, distance: It is late; It is raining;
7. Personal pronouns
It is ten miles’ distance away.
8. The functions of the pronoun IT
- introductory-anticipatory: It is easy to learn English;
9. Reflexive and Emphatic pronouns
- introductory-emphatic: It was the teacher who told me what to do;
10. Reciprocal pronouns
7. Reflexive and emphatic pronouns:
Form: sg: myself / yourself / himself / herself / itself; pl: ourselves/
yourselves / themselves; indefinite reflexive / emphasizing: oneself
Reflexive pronouns are used as objects of a verb when the subject and
the object are the same person. e.g. I cut myself; He can’t shave himself.
Reflexive pronouns can be used after verb + preposition: He spoke to
THE VERB
The grammatical categories of the verb
The English verb has grammatical forms determined by its categories of
person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood.
The categories of person and number
The English verb has only one formal indicator to mark these categories,
himself; He was sitting there by himself ( = He was sitting there alone)
namely the -s for the 3rd person singular Present Tense, Indicative Mood.
Emphatic pronouns:
Because of the scarcity of specific endings in the verb, these two
Ann herself opened the door / Ann opened the door herself.
categories are usually identified by means of the subject. E.g. I/you work:
8. Reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another.
The category of tense
Both can be used for two or more but each other is preferred when
Tense and time are two distinct concepts. Time is a universal,
there are no more than two: Tom and Ann looked at each other.
QUESTIONS
extralinguistic concept having three divisions: Past, Present or Future.
Time can be expressed linguistically by means of the grammatical
1. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
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category of tense. By tense we understand the form of the verb whose
auxiliary be + the Present Participle of the main verb. The simple aspect
function is to mark the time at which an event takes place.
refers to an action which is complete. On account of their meaning, some
Events may be viewed as being simultaneous with the reference points or
verbs do not normally occur in the Continuous Aspect.
perfected before these reference points.
There are two classes of verbs from the point of view of their lexical
I. If the reference point of time is Present, events simultaneous with the
present moment are expressed by the Present Tense; events perfected
before the present are expressed by the Present Perfect.
aspect: I. Dynamic (Activity) verbs and II. State (Stative) verbs.
I. Dynamic verbs describe actions that happen in a limited time. They
are normally used in the continuous aspect.They can be subdivided into:
II. If the reference point of time is Past, events simultaneous with the
1. Durative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting actions that last in time: read,
past moment are expressed by the Past Tense; events perfected before the
write, etc. This is a class of verbs typically used in the continuous aspect:
past are expressed by the Past Perfect.
- the Continuous forms show that the action is in progress at a certain
III. If the reference point of time is future, events simultaneous with the
future moment are expressed by the Future tense; events perfected before
the future are expressed by the Future Perfect.
English tenses are verbal constructions expressing points of time
combined with aspect.
time; the Simple forms are used when the duration is irrelevant:
He is reading a book / He seldom reads books.
- the Continuous forms denote an action of limited, temporary duration;
the simple aspect denotes unlimited, permanent duration:
I’m living with my aunt at present./My parents live in the country.
The category of aspect refers to the manner in which the verbal action
- the Continuous aspect suggests an incomplete action, while the Simple
is regarded: it shows whether the action is complete or still in progress.
forms suggest a complete action. I have mended the car this morning./ I
There are two aspectual oppositions in English:
have been mending the car this morning.
1. Perfective vs. Non-perfective: perfective indicates that an event was
2. Non-durative (Momentary) verbs: verbs denoting momentary events,:
accomplished at/before a given point in time.
catch, find, hit, jump, kick, etc. Since these verbs refer to momentary
Perfective is formed of the auxiliary have + Past Participle of the verb.
actions, they cannot normally be used in the continuous aspect: She
2. The progressive (Continuous) vs. Simple aspect: The progressive
describes an action in progress at a given time. It is formed of the
slammed the door. When these verbs are used in the continuous aspect,
they denote a repeated action: He nodded / He was nodding.
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II. State verbs describe states which continue over a period of time.
Since they denote a permanent duration of an action they are not
normally used in the continuous forms. They can be subdivided into:
- perception verbs (see, hear): Do you see that house over there? /The
director is seeing the new applicants
QUESTIONS:
1. Relational verbs (verbs of being and possessing): be, belong, com-
1. The category of tense – definition
prise, consist, contain, have, lack, need, etc: He has a new car.
2. The category of aspect– definition
2. Verbs denoting physical perception: feel, hear, look, notice, see,
smell, taste: I see a car coming towards us.
3. Verbs of cognition: believe, consider, doubt, forget, expect, guess,
know, etc. They understand my problem now.
4. Verbs referring to feelings, emotions (likes and dislikes): like, love,
hate, prefer, want, wish: I want to go to London.
3. Classes of verbs from the point of view of their lexical aspect
4. Verbs not normally used in the Continuous Aspect
THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD
THE PRESENT TENSE
I. THE PRESENT SIMPLE
Form: it has the same form as the Short Infinitive except for the 3rd
Some of these verbs may be used in the Continuous aspect: a) when the
pers.sg. which adds an -(e)s: I work/you work/he works
speaker wishes to emphasize a temporary action, situation, not a
Uses and values: The present simple denotes:
permanent one: Be - to express a temporary state, quality or behaviour:
1. Facts which are always true:
Ann is a good girl / Ann is being a good girl today (

verbs denoting feelings - if they express temporary actions:
(at a party): Hello, Ann! Are you enjoying the party?
- general truths or laws of nature: Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
- permanent situations or states: She works in a bank.
2. Habitual/repeated actions: A frequency adverb (often, usually, always,
b)Verbs smell, taste, sound - to express a voluntary action on the part of
etc.) is often used: I usually take the bus to work.
the subject: The cake tastes good. /The cook is tasting the soup
3. Momentary actions completed at the same time they are performed (in
c) When the verbs are recategorized: when they an activity not a state:
- Verbs of possession (have, hold, possess) Compare:
He has a new car / He is having lunch.
contexts such as: announcements, stage directions, radio or TV
commentaries): We accept your offer.
4. Past time reference:
- Some verb of thinking (think, expect, consider, imagine)
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- Summaries of historical events, plots of stories, use present present
2. Future time reference: Fixed arrangements in the near future. The time
We’re going to the cinema tonight.
tenses: May 1945: The war in Europe comes to an end.
of the action must be mentioned:
- Headlines: Ship sinks in midnight collision.
3. A frequently repeated action which annoys the speaker. A frequency
- with ‘communication verbs’: They tell me that you have been abroad.
adverb is necessary: He’s always getting into trouble.
5. Future time reference:
a) Planned future actions, when the future action is considered part of
QUESTIONS:
1. General and habitual actions expressed by Present Simple
an already fixed programme, timetable. The adverbials indicating future
2. Present Simple with other temporal values: past, future
time are obligatory: The train leaves at 8:00.
3. Actions in progress expressed by Present Continuous
b) In temporal and conditional clauses, when there is a future/ present/
4. Future time reference expressed by Present Simple and Continuous
imperative in the main clause: We shall be late if you don’t hurry.
5. Adverbials of time used with the Present Simple and Continuous
II. PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE)
PRESENT PERFECT
Form: It is formed of the Present tense of the auxiliary be + the present
I. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
Participle of the main verb: I am working, etc.
Form: It is formed of the Present Tense of the auxiliary have and the
Uses and values:
Past Participle of the main verb: I have worked, etc.
1. Actions which are in progress at the moment
Uses and values:
- The action can be actually in progress at the moment of speaking:
1. Recent events, without a definite time given. A time expression may
The wind is blowing (now).
- Or the action can be generally in progress but not actually happening
at the moment): I am reading a novel by John Fowles.
- The action can be temporary: I’m staying in a hotel until I find a flat.
- changing or developing situations:
More and more people are giving up smoking.
emphasize recentness (just): He has just left.
2. Indefinite events, which happened at an unknown time in the past.
No definite time is given:
Jim has had three car accidents. (up to the present).
3. Indefinite events which may have an obvious result in the present:
I’ve twisted my ankle. (That’s why I’m limping)
4. With state verbs, a state which lasts up to the present:
15
I’ve lived here for the past ten years.
Time expressions with Present Perfect: just, ever, never, already, yet,
always, how long, so far, recently, today, this week/month, since
(expresses a starting point in the past), for (expresses the duration of an
action): I’ve been here since March/ I’ve been here for three months.
Contrasts with Past Simple: Past simple is used with time expressions
which refer to definite time (yesterday, last week). The time may be
stated or understood: I’ve bought a new car. (indefinite)
I bought a new car last week. (definite time)
II. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE)
Form: It consists of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary be + the Present
Participle of the main verb: I have been working, etc.
Uses and values:
He has been feeling unwell for days.
Contrasts with Present Perfect Simple:
1. There may be little contrast when some state verbs are used:
How long have you lived / have you been living here?
2. There may be a contrast between completion (Present Perfect Simple)
and incompletion (Present Perfect Continuous), especially if the number
of items (actions) completed is mentioned: I’ve ironed five shirts this
morning / I’ve been ironing my shirts this morning.
QUESTIONS:
1. Main values of Present Perfect Simple
2. Resultative use of Present Perfect Simple and Continuous
3. Time expressions with the Present Perfect Simple and Continuous
4. Aspects of contrast between Present Perfect Simple and Continuous
1. It expresses actions started in the past and continuing up to the
present: I’ve been living in this house for five years.
It expresses an incomplete activity:
I’ve been cleaning the house but I still haven’t finished.
2. Resultative use: The Present Perfect continuous indicates a recently
finished action which explains a present result:
He has been running. That’s why he’s out of breath.
3. Repeated actions: They have been meeting like this for years.
Present Perfect Continuous is normally used with for, since, how long to
emphasise the duration of the action:
THE PAST TENSE
I. THE PAST SIMPLE
Form: a) Regular verbs form their Past Tense by adding –ed to the short
infinitive, e.g. to work → I/you/he worked
b) Irregular verbs: sing - sang (internal vowel change); lend - lent
(change in the last consonant); cut – cut (invariable forms); go – went
Uses and values:
1. Actions/events completed in the past at a definite time:
a) when the time/place is given: Ann phoned me at 6 o’clock. /…as soon
as she got home/… from school.
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b) when the action clearly took place at a definite time even if this time is
- with another action in the simple past it expresses an action that began
not mentioned: The train was five minutes late.
and probably continued after the other (shorter) action which interrupted
c) When there is a sequence of past events (narrative use):
it:
I got up, switched off the radio, and sat down again.
2. Habits in the past:
- The past simple is used to describe past habits or states. A time
While I was jogging, a man stopped me and asked me the time.
2. The Past Continuous can be used to describe a repeated action in the
past, often an annoying habit. A frequency adverb is necessary:
Tom was always ringing me up late at night.
expression is necessary: I always got up at six in those days.
3. With an adverb of future time it expresses a definite future
. Used to: is used to describe past habits, usually in contrast with the
arrangement seen from the past:
present. A time expression is not necessary:
I used to get up at six, but now I get up at eight.
Used to can also describe past states: I used to own a horse.
Dan was busy packing, for he was leaving the next day.
QUESTIONS:
1. Main values of Past Simple
Would is used to describe a person’s typical activities in the past: .Every
2. Ways of expressing habits in the past
evening Jack would turn on the radio, light his pipe and fall asleep.
3. Time expressions used with Past Simple and Continuous
II. THE PAST CONTINUOUS
Form: The Past Continuous is formed of the Past Tense of the auxiliary
be and the Present Participle of the main verb: I was working, etc
1. It is used to describe actions still in progress:
- with a point in time it expresses an action in progress (going on)
precisely at that moment:
At 12.30 yesterday we were having a walk in the park.
- with a period of time it expresses an action that continued for some
PAST PERFECT
I. PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Form: It consists of the past tense of the auxiliary have and the past
participle of the main verb, e.g. I had worked, etc.
Uses and values:
1. Past Perfect Simple is used to describe a past event that took place
before another past event or before a given past moment:
By the time I got to the station the train had left.
time (background description in narrative):
Yesterday morning I was writing letters.
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The Past Perfect is not always necessary if a time expression makes the
2. Resultative use: The verb in the Past Perfect Continuous occurs in
order of events clear (in temporal clauses introduced by after, until,
Adverbial Clauses of Cause or Reason (introduced by because) to
before): After he (had) graduated he got a job
express a previous action whose result was obvious at a certain past time:
2. Continuative use: The action began before a given past moment and
I was very tired when I arrived home. I’d been working hard all day
continued up to that past moment. The Past Perfect Simple has this value
QUESTIONS:
for those verbs not used in the continuous aspect:
1. Main values of Past Perfect Simple
He had been ill for two weeks when I learnt about it.
3. With the verbs hope, intend, mean, expect, etc. the Past Perfect
2. Main values of Past Perfect Continuous
3. Time expressions used with Past Simple and Continuous
Simple indicates that the action did not materialize: He had intended to
call but was prevented by some unforeseen business.
THE FUTURE
There are several ways of expressing future time in English:
II. THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
1. Future Simple
Form: It is formed of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary be and the Present
Form: the auxiliaries shall/will + the short infinitive of the main verb.
Participle of the main verb: I had been working, etc.
Shall is used in the 1st pers. sg/pl. (formal British English; in informal
Uses and values:
contexts, in American English it is replaced by will). Will is used in the
1. The Past Perfect Continuous indicates an action which began before a
2nd and 3rd pers. sg/pl.
point in the past, continued right up to it and may have continued after.
Uses and values: The Future Simple is used to denote actions to be
The past point of time before which the action expressed by the verb
performed in the future (i.e. after the present moment. Thus, the Future
may be indicated by:
Simple is used for announcements of future plans, predictions about the
- an adverbial phrase introduced by the preposition by:
future):
By that time he had been studying English for ten years.
- a clause of time (the verb in the Past Tense): I had been waiting for my
friend for an hour when he finally turned up.
I shall/will be 20 next week (formal/colloquial English).
Syntactically, the Future Simple is particularly common in:
- the main clause of Temporal and Conditional sentences (the future is
not used in the subordinate clause of Time and Condition):
When it gets warmer, the snow will start to melt.
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- Object clauses introduced by verbs which express the speaker’s opinion
or assumption about the future: Do you think it will rain?
Uses and values:
a) It denotes an action in progress at a given time in the future:
This time next year she’ll be running her own business.
Time expressions: tomorrow, next week/month, in the future, in 2 years
Shall and will can acquire modal value in some special constructions
(interrogative, negative). Thus,
b) A future-as-a-matter-of-course: When will you be visiting us again?
c) Supposition, strong probability referring to the present:
She’ll be sleeping now.
Shall acquires special values:
a) in the 1st pers. sg/pl. interrogative sentences:
- request for advice or suggestion: Where shall I put the books?
- making an offer: Shall I open the door?
b) in the 2nd and 3rd pers. sg/pl. shall expresses
- the speaker’s intention to perform a certain action:
They shall have my support.
- command, formal instruction: Each competitor shall wear a number.
3. Future Perfect
Form: It consists of the future tense of the auxiliary have + the Past
Participle of the main verb: I shall/will have worked
Uses and values:
a) It expresses an action completed before a future moment. The future
moment may be indicated by means of:
- an adverbial phrase introduced by the prepositions by, before, in;
Will expresses modal values:
They will have emigrated to Canada by Christmas.
a) in the 1st pers. sg/pl. will expresses unpremeditated intention,
- a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions before,
immediate decision: ‘Can somebody help me?’ ‘I will.’
when, by the time: By the time we get there, the film will have started.
b) in the 2nd, 3rd pers. sg/pl/, interrogative sentences will expresses
The Future Perfect becomes the Present Perfect in temporal clauses:
willingness, request, invitation: Will you do me a favour?
c) in negative sentences will expresses absence of willingness, i.e.
refusal:
I won’t see him again.
He won’t forgive you till you have apologised.
b) It expresses supposition about an action performed at a previous
moment:
No doubt you will have heard of this writer
2. Future Continuous
4. Future Perfect Continuous
Form: It is formed of the Future simple of the auxiliary be + the Present
Form: It consists of the Future Perfect of the auxiliary be + the present
participle of the main verb: I shall/will be working
participle of the main verb: I shall/will have been working. It expresses
19
an action begun before a given future moment and still going on at that
c) Be about to + infinitive expresses an immediate future action whose
future moment. The given future moment can be expressed by:
fulfilment is imminent: Hurry up! The train is (just) about to leave.
- an adverbial phrase introduced by next, by:
d) Present Simple (with future meaning): an official plan or
By his sixtieth birthday he will have been teaching for 35 years.
arrangement regarded as unalterable:
The play begins at 7 o’clock this evening.
- a subordinate clause of time (with the verb in the Present Tense):
When Mr. Brown retires he will have been working in the same
office for 45 years.
5. Other means of expressing futurity (Future Time)
a) Be going to
e) Present Continuous (with future meaning): a future event anticipated
by virtue of a present plan, programme or arrangement (fixed arrangements in the near future): She’s meeting her aunt this weekend.
6. Future actions seen from past perspective (Future in the Past):
Form: the be going to - construction is formed of the continuous form
a). Future in the past means a future action viewed from a past moment.
of the verb go + the long infinitive (infinitive with to) of the main verb,
There are several ways for describing future actions viewed from a past
e.g. I am going to write, etc.
moment:
The going to – construction has two values:
- auxiliary verb construction with would (literary narrative style):
- The subject’s intention (plan, decision) to perform a certain future
action: ‘What are you going to do tonight?’ ‘I’m going to stay at home.
- Prediction (the speaker’s feeling of certainty, strong probability, likelihood):
Those dark clouds mean it’s going to rain.
b) Be to + infinitive expresses the following meanings:
The time was not far off when he would regret his decision.
- was/were going to + infinitive (unfulfilled intention)
He was going to invite me to the cinema (but he didn’t).
- Past progressive: I was meeting him in the same place the next day.
- was/were to+inf.: The meeting was to be held the following week
- an arrangement which has been planned for the future:
b) The future in the past is used in reporting the past words or thoughts
The meeting is to begin at 8 o’clock.
of someone. All the future forms dealt with so far can be turned into a
- an order, instruction, command, usually an indirect one:
You are to be back by 10 o’clock.
future in the past by substituting should/would for shall /will:
I shall see you tomorrow →I told him I should see him the next day.
QUESTIONS:
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1.Main values of Future Continuous
helped; Future simple: He will be helped; Future Perfect: He will have
2. Main values of Future Perfect Simple
been helped.
3. Intention expressed by Shall/Will Future and Be Going to forms
The English verb has passive forms for only two tenses of the
4. Constructions used to express Future in the Past
continuous aspect: The Present and Past. Present Continuous: He is
5. Time markers used with future forms
being helped; Past Tense Continuous: He was being helped.
THE CATEGORY OF VOICE
Voice is the grammatical category which shows the relationship
Get is used as a resulting, dynamic auxiliary to emphasize the idea of
change. With verbs of result such as break, burn, steal, stick the auxiliary
between subject and the action expressed by the verb phrase. There are
get expresses a detrimental meaning: actions that happen suddenly,
two voices in English: the active and the passive.
unexpectedly or by accident: My money got stolen.
The active voice (e.g. Tom wrote the letter) shows that the grammatical
subject performs the action.
The passive voice (The letter was written by Tom) indicates that the
grammatical subject is the goal/recipient of the action.
The active-passive transformation involves three grammatical levels: I.
morphological; II. syntactic; III. semantic / pragmatic level.
I. The morphological level: the form of the verb. The passive form of
the verb consists of the auxiliary Be (or get in some cases) + the Past
Participle of the main verb. The auxiliary (Be/Get) marks the categories
of person, number, tense, aspect.
A passive verb has forms for all the tenses of the indicative, simple
aspect. The conjugation of a verb in the passive voice, indicative mood:
II. The syntactic level (the clause level): Changing from active to
passive involves the transformation in the position and status of the
subject NP and the Object NP. a) The subject of the active construction
becomes an object of agent introduced by the preposition by; b) the
object of the active construction becomes the subject in the passive.
The prepositional object of agent (the by-phrase) is generally an
optional element. The Object of agent is only expressed when it is
important to mention, when it conveys relevant information:
Edison invented the electric bulb → The electric bulb was
invented by Edison.
The prepositional object of agent is not expressed (it is omitted) when:
- it is unknown to the speaker: That pyramid was built around 4000 AD
The Simple aspect: Present tense: he is helped; Past tense: He was
- it is indefinite: the subject of the sentence would be expressed by an
helped; Present Perfect: He has been helped; Past Perfect: He had been
indefinite noun or pronoun (people, they, someone, one). In such cases
21
the passive is generally preferred and the resulting object of agent is
ii. Verbs like deny, grant, hand, lend, offer, etc. are followed by two
omitted: People speak English all over the world → English is spoken…
objects: a [+animate] Indirect Object and a [-animate] Direct Object.
- passive-like causatives:
With these verbs either the Indirect Object or the Direct Object can
Mr. Brown can’t type. His secretary types his letters for him
→ Mr. Brown has his letters typed.
Types of verbs used in passive constructions
1. Transitive verbs: represent the largest class of verbs which allow
passivization.
become the grammatical subject of the passive verb:
They offered Tom a very good job → A very good job was offered
to Tom. / Tom was offered a very good job.
c) Transitive verbs + THAT-clauses: Verbs like believe, consider,
expect, know, etc. are followed in the active voice by a That-clause
a) transitive verbs + one object (Monotransitive verbs): according to the
They consider that dolphins are very intelligent.
rule, any transitive verb followed by a direct object can be passivized
These sentences normally have two passive constructions:
(the Direct object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the
- an impersonal construction: it is only the main clause that undergoes
passive): The board has already discussed the matter → The matter
passivization while the rest of the sentence is left unchanged:
has already been discussed by the board.
Some transitive verbs (state verbs) do not occur in the passive: contain,
fit, have, hold, lack, possess, resemble. Thus, the following active
sentences have no passive correspondent: He lacks confidence.
John resembles his father.
b) transitive verbs with two objects (Ditransitive verbs)
i. a small number of verbs - ask, teach, envy – are followed by two
objects: a [+animate] object and a [-animate] one. The [+animate] object
usually becomes the subject in the passive:
They asked the pupils some questions → The pupils were asked
It is considered that dolphins are very intelligent.
- a Nominative + Infinitive construction:
Dolphins are said to be very intelligent.
2. Intransitive verbs
a) Some intransitive verbs such as live, sleep, sit:
Nobody has slept in the room. - The room has not been slept in.
b) Prepositional and phrasal verbs like account for, laugh at, look after:
They will deal with the matter. – The matter will be dealt with.
III. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the passive: The passive is far
more common in English than in other languages.
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1. The passive voice is especially useful when the doer, agent of the
action is unknown or unimportant:
I have been robbed (<Someone has robbed me).
2. The passive is especially associated with impersonal style (in
scientific writing) where the question of who performs the action
described by the verb is unimportant or irrelevant: The new methods that
have been introduced will increase productivity.
The Subjunctive mood is non-assertive, it presents non-factual,
hypothetical statements.
The forms of the subjunctive
The subjunctive mood is represented by two forms: A. the Synthetic
forms (Synthetic subjunctive); B. the Analytic forms.
A. The Synthetic Subjunctive: The Synthetic subjunctive has forms for
the Present, past, perfect.
QUESTIONS:
I. The Present Subjunctive (the old form)
1. Auxiliary verbs used in the passive.
Form: it is identical in form with the base form of the verb (short
2. Cases when the Object of Agent is omitted.
infinitive): ask, be.
3. Classes of transitive verbs used in the passive.
Distribution: The Present subjunctive occurs in
4. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the passive.
a) Independent Sentences: It occurs in some phrases (formulaic
THE CATEGORY OF MOOD
Mood is the grammatical category by means of which modality is
expressions):
i. wishes: Long live peace! God bless you!
expressed, i.e. the attitude of the speaker towards the action denoted by
ii. oaths, curses: The devil take him! Damn him!
the verb. By means of this category, the speaker can present the action as
iii. Expressions denoting urge, advise: So be it!, Suffice it to say that…
being: 1. real, existing in fact; 2. not real, non-factual, hypothetical.
b) Subordinate clauses
Traditional grammars distinguish four finite moods: the Indicative, the
1. Subject clauses, after constructions of the type: It is + Adjective
Subjunctive, the Conditional, the Imperative. Modern grammars limit the
(advisable, essential, necessary, important):
number of moods to only two: the Indicative and the Subjunctive. The
It is essential that the mission not fail.
Indicative mood is the mood of assertion, it presents the action as real or
2. Object clauses, after verbs like demand, desire, insist, order, propose,
as factual. The tenses of the Indicative Mood cover all the divisions of
recommend, require, suggest, urge:
time on the temporal axis: past, present or future.
They demand that the committee reconsider its decision.
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3. Attributive-appositive clauses, after abstract nouns belonging to the
same semantic field: demand, request, etc.
There was a proposal that he be elected chairman.
4. Adverbial Clauses of Condition:
If any person be found guilty he shall have the right of appeal.
5. Concesion: Though everyone desert you I will not.
The use of the Present Subjunctive is found in older English and in
formal (official and legal) style, as well as in American English.
If only I were still your age!
4. Adverbial Clauses of unreal comparison (introduced by as if, as
though):
She treats him as if he were a child.
5. Adverbial clauses of concession (introduced by even if, even
though):
Even though he were ill he wouldn’t miss school.
III. The Perfect Subjunctive.
It is identical in form with the Past perfect Indicative Mood: had asked.
Distribution: The Perfect Subjunctive occurs in subordinate clauses:
II. The Past Subjunctive
1. Object Clauses. After the verbs wish, would rather, the Perfect
Form: It is identical in form with the Past Tense Indicative Mood:
Subjunctive expresses regret about a past situation or about an action
contrary to past reality: I wish I hadn’t spent so much money.
asked, wrote.
Distribution. The Past Subjunctive occurs in Subordinate clauses.
1. Subject clauses: The Past Subjunctive occurs after the construction It
is (about/high) time:
It’s time we went/were off.
2. Object Clauses. The Past Subjunctive occurs after the verbs wish,
would rather, would sooner. After wish the Past Subjunctive expresses
regret about a present action which does not occur: I wish he were here =
2. Conditional Clauses. (Type3).
If he had been here he would have helped us.
3. Clauses of Comparison introduced by as if, as though:
I remember the movie as if I had seen it yesterday.
4. Clauses of Concession introduced by even if, even though:
Even if he were ill, he wouldn’t miss school.
B. The Analytic Subjunctive. It represents combinations of modal
I’m sorry /I regret he isn’t here.I’d rather you stayed at home.
verbs used as auxiliaries + the Short Infinitive of the main verb. The
3. Conditional Clauses. (Type2 Cond.Cl.):
modal auxiliary verbs are: should, may/might, can/could, will/would.
If I saw him I would give him your message.
The Past subjunctive after if only expresses regret about an action
contrary to present reality (if only is used in a similar way to wish):
SHOULD occurs in:
1. Independent sentences or main clauses:
a) to form the Present/Perfect Conditional in the 1st pers.sg/pl:
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I should like to see him.
Whatever he may say we must not change our plan.
b) in Direct or Indirect Questions introduced by who, what, why
WILL/WOULD occurs in:
(‘rhetorical’ questions): Why should we quarrel over such a trifle?
1. Independent sentences or main clauses to form the Present or Perfect
2. Subordinate clauses:
conditional in the 2nd and 3rd pers.sg/pl: She would like to see him.
a) Subject clauses:
2. Object Clauses after wish: it expresses a not very hopeful wish about
After the construction It is + Adjective (advisable, essential, etc)
the future: I wish it would stop raining (= but I don’t think it would);
It is important that he should not make a mistake.
3. Conditional Clauses introduced by if only: Oh, if only it would rain!
b) Object Clauses. After verbs expressing command, order, like agree,
c) Clauses of Purpose: I hurried so that I wouldn’t be late.
command, demand, etc.
d) Clauses of concession introduced by as:
He proposed that we should postpone our departure.
c) Attributive-Appositive Clauses. After abstract nouns such as demand,
Try as you will you won’t manage it.
OUESTIONS
desire, etc. There is no reason why he should be late.
1. The Distribution of the Synthetic Subjunctive Present.
d) Conditional Clauses. The Analytic Subjunctive with should Cond.Cl.)
2. The Distribution of the Synthetic Subjunctive Past
expresses a higher degree of improbability: more uncertainty:
3. The Distribution of the Synthetic Subjunctive Perfect
If he should come we shall let you know.
e) Clauses of purpose.
He spoke slowly so that there should be no mistakes.
4. The distribution of the Analytical Subjunctive with SHOULD
5. The distribution of the Analytical Subjunctive with MAY
6. Subjunctive forms used in Subject Clauses
MAY / MIGHT occurs in:
7. Subjunctive forms used in Object Clauses
1. Exclamatory sentences to convey a wish: May you live long!
8. Subjunctive forms used in Adverbial Clauses of Condition
2. Object Clauses after be afraid/apprehensive, fear:
I’m afraid the news may upset her.
3. Clauses of Concession introduced by compound conjunctions in ever (whoever, whatever, etc), the phrase no matter (who, what etc.), as:
THE MODAL VERBS
The modal verbs are a special group of auxiliary verbs which have
some features in common:
1. They have the same formal characteristics:
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a) they are uninflected: they don’t add -s for the 3rd pers. sg.
b) They form the interrogative and negative patterns without do/did
Particular past ability is expressed by could in negative sentences only:
I ran but I couldn’t catch the bus.
c) Some of their forms are missing: i. They have no non-finite forms
Particular past ability, i.e. a particular event which was successfully
(Infinitive, -ing forms); ii. They cannot be conjugated in all tenses or
performed in the past (in affirmative sentences) is expressed by was able,
moods, e.g. they do not occur in the perfect and future tenses.
managed to, succeeded in: I ran and I was able to catch the bus.
d) They are followed by a main verb in the (short) infinitive (Present or
Could + perfect infinitive expresses past ability with a conditional
Perfect infinitive).
reading. It implies that the subject had the ability or opportunity to do
2. Semantic characteristics: The modal verbs make up a system of items
something, but he didn’t do it:
specialized for expressing the speaker’s attitude towards the action of the
He could have helped us (=he was able to help us but he didn’t).
sentence: the action is seen as possible, necessary, probable, befitting.
The missing forms of can/could are supplied by the appropriate forms of
They are polysemantic words. They can be divided into two main types:
be able to:
a) those having deontic values (ability, permission, obligation); b) those
This is all the information I’ve been able to get so far.
II. PERMISSION is expressed by may/might, can/could. Can/could is
having epistemic values (likelihood, probability).
used in less formal situations (in familiar colloquial speech) than may/
I. ABILITY: The modal verbs can/could express physical or mental
might to express permission.
ability to perform a certain action. Can + Present Infinitive has present or
future time reference: He can speak several languages.
Can you come to the meeting tomorrow?
Could + Present Infinitive expresses:
i. Present or Future time reference with a hypothetical value:
I could help him now/tomorrow.
1. Requests for permission: Can/could I make a suggestion?
More formal requests are expressed with may/might:
May/might I use your pen? (more formal)
2. Giving permission (someone is allowed to do something):
a) Present or future reference:
You can /may borrow that pen if you want to.
ii. Past reference: could implies permanent ability in the past, i.e.
Can has a wider use than may, for it can be used to express permission
potential performance of an action, not the actual performance:
given by the speaker, but also to express the idea of having permission.
He could play like a professional when he was young/10 years ago
In You can park here – can expresses both meanings: i. permission given
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by the speaker (I give you permission); ii. the idea of having permission
(You have a right to park / you are allowed to park).
Refusal of permission is expressed by may not, cannot, must not
(prohibition):
May I go out? No, you may not.
b) past reference, i.e. permission in the past is expressed by might, could
only in reported/indirect speech after a past reporting verb:
I asked if I might/could invite my friends over next Saturday.
The missing forms are supplied by to be allowed to, to be permitted to:
Nobody was allowed to enter the room.
III. OBLIGATION is expressed by must, need, shall, should, ought to.
Must expresses:
1. Present/future time reference. Several distinctions can be made within
the concept of obligation:
a) internal / external obligation: internal obligation, i.e. obligation
imposed by the speaker is expressed by must; external obligation, i.e.
obligation that arises from outside is expressed by have to:
I must go (it’s my decision).
I have to go (obligation imposed by external circumstances).
b) habitual / limited obligation: habitual obligation (obligation to
perform a habitual action) is expressed by have to; limited obligation
(one particular occasion) is expressed by have got to:
c) in negative sentences a distinction is made between obligation not to
do something (prohibition), expressed by must not and absence of
obligation expressed by don’t have to, needn’t: You mustn’t move any of
my papers on my desk. / I don’t usually have to work on Sundays.
2. Past time reference after a past reporting verb:
I told her she must be more careful.
The missing forms of must are supplied by have to:
The team had to leave the sinking ship.
Modal need has no -s in the 3rd pers. sg; it forms questions and negations
without do; it has no perfect or future forms; it is followed by the short
infinitive of a main verb; it does not occur in affirmative sentences.
Need + present infinitive expresses:
i. Present / future time reference:
Need I get up early tomorrow? (I hope not).
In negative sentences needn’t is synonymous with don’t have to (
absence of obligation): You needn’t come if you don’t want to.
ii. Past time reference after a past reporting verb:
I assured him that he needn’t worry.
Need + perfect Infinitive expresses absence of obligation of an action
which was nevertheless performed: He needn’t have hurried.
Didn’t need to + Present Infinitive expresses absence of obligation of
I have to be at the office at 8 o’clock a.m. (habitual).
an action which was probably not performed. It is synonymous with
Sorry, I’ve got to go now (single obligation).
didn’t have to: He didn’t need to hurry.
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Should and ought to express recommendation, advisability. They are
c) Negative sentences. May/might occurs in negative sentences only
preferred in those contexts in which must would sound too peremptory.
when the meaning of the modal is excluded: He may not be at school =It
Should / ought to + Present Infinitive expresses:
a) present or future time reference:
You’ve watched enough television: you should go to bed.
b) Past time reference after a past reporting verb:
He told me I ought to be ashamed of myself.
Should/ought to + Perfect Infinitive expresses a past obligation which
was not carried out; regret or strong reproach of non-fulfilment is
implied:
is possible that he isn’t at school. In negative sentences with can/could
the meaning of the modal is included: He can’t be at school =It is not
possible that he should be at school.
2. Past time reference:
a) Might and could are used:
i. after a past reporting verb: He said it might rain.
ii. if there is an adverb denoting past time:
They should have telephoned to say they were not coming.
IV. POSSIBILITY is expressed by may/might, can/could
1. present or future time reference:
In those days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime.
b) may/might/can/could + Perfect Infinitive express a possibility about a
past action: I wonder how Tom knew about it. He may/might/could have
a) affirmative sentences: may is used to denote factual, actual possibility,
while can is used to denote a more general, theoretical possibility:
The road may be blocked (= it is possible that the road is blocked).
The road can be blocked (= it is possible to block the road).
heard it from John.
ii. in interrogative and negative sentences can, could are frequently
used:
She is two hours late. What can have happened?
In the negative, the meanings between might not and could not differ:
Might and could express a hypothetical possibility, i.e. a more remote
Ann might not have seen Tom yesterday (=perhaps she didn’t see him
possibility than may, can.
Ann couldn’t have seen Tom yesterday (negative deduction).
‘I wonder where Tom is.’ ‘He may/might/could be in the library.’
b) Interrogative sentences: can is common in interrogative and negative
V. PROBABILITY (supposition, likelihood) is expressed by must,
ought to, will, would.
sentences where may is rather infrequent; may does not normally occur
Must is used to indicate strong likelihood, a high degree of certainty.
in questions: in the interrogative may is replaced by can/could, is it
Must + Present infinitive indicates supposition about a present action:
likely:
It may be true – Can it be true?
That church must be very old.
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Must + Perfect infinitive indicates logical deduction about a past action:
She must have left her umbrella on the bus (= I suppose she left it).
Must is used to express logical deduction only in affirmative sentences.
In interrogative and negative sentences can is used instead:
‘He must be at least 60.’ ‘He can’t be as old as that.’
Should and ought to are weaker equivalents of must in the sense of
deduction: they express a lesser degree of certainty than must.
Judging by his accent he should be a foreigner.
Will + Present infinitive expresses suppositions about a present action:
That will be the hotel we are looking for.
Will + Perfect infinitive expresses a present supposition about a past
action: They will have arrived by now (= I’m sure they have arrived )
Would is weaker than will in expressing suppositions:
Would your name be Brown, by any chance?
VI. VOLITION, WILLINGNESS is expressed by will, would, shall.
Will expressing strong volition, determination is stressed and cannot be
contracted to ’ll. It is used in all persons:
ii. questions expressing invitation or request:
Will you come in, please? Will you help me?
c) with a 2nd and 3rd person subject will expresses obstinate determination, insistence (strong volition): You will have your way.
d) in negative sentences will not (usually contracted to won’t) expresses
absence of willingness, i.e. refusal. It has present time reference:
I won’t do it (= I refuse to do it)
Would expresses volition, willingness in the following contexts:
a) With a 2nd person subject would expresses more polite, more tentative
willingness than will. It has present time reference and occurs in:
i. conditional clauses (Type 2):
If you would lend me the book I would be grateful to you.
ii. questions expressing polite invitation or request (would is more
tactful than will): Would you come to dinner tomorrow?
b) With a 2nd and 3rd person subject would indicates obstinate
determination. It has past time reference:
She would come though we warned her it would be rough.
a) With a 1st person subject, the speaker makes his own volition and
c) In negative sentences would not expresses absence of willingness, i.e.
determination felt: ‘Can somebody help me?’ ‘I will.’
refusal. It has past time reference:
I will go to the dance and no one shall stop me. (determination)
b) With a 2nd person subject, will expresses volition in:
He was angry because I wouldn’t give him the book
QUESTIONS
i. conditional clauses (Type I): it is used to express a polite request or
1. Semantic characteristics of Modal Verbs
invitation: If you will help me we can finish in time .
2. Formal characteristics of Modal Verbs
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3. Modal verbs expressing ability
4. Modal verbs expressing permission
5. Modal verbs expressing obligation, necessity
6. Modal verbs expressing supposition, probability
7. Modal verbs expressing volition, willingness
8. The uses and values of the modal verbs CAN, COULD
9. The uses and values of the modal verbs MAY, MIGHT
10. The uses and values of the modal verb MUST
11. The uses and values of the modal verbs SHALL, SHOULD
12. The uses and values of the modal verbs WILL, WOULD
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gălăţeanu, G., Comişel, E. 1982 – Gramatica limbii engleze. Pentru
uz şcolar, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti
2. Leech, G.N. 1971 – Meaning and the English Verb, Longman,
London
3. Palmer, F.R. 1987 – The English Verb, Longman, London
4. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1985 –
A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language,
Longman, London
5. Ştefănescu, I. 1988 – English Morphology: The Nominal and Verbal
Categories, TUB, Bucureşti
6. Thomson, A.J., and Martinet, A.V. 1982 - A Practical English
Grammar, third edition, London, Oxford University Press
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