4: Interest Rates and Rates of Return
Multiple-Choice Questions
4-1
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
When you place your funds in a savings account at a bank, those funds are
a. an asset to you and a liability to the bank.
b. a liability to you and an asset to the bank.
c. an asset both to you and the bank.
d. a liability both to you and bank.
4-2
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
Debt instruments are also called
a. equities.
b. credit market instruments.
c. prospectuses.
d. units of account
4-3
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
A debt instrument represents
a. an ownership claim by the purchaser on the issuer.
b. a promise by a borrower to repay principal plus interest to a lender.
c. an attempt by a borrower in default to restore his or her credit.
d. a nontaxable asset, owned primarily by large corporations.
4-4
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
Simple loans and discount bonds differ from coupon bonds and fixed-payment loans in
that
a. interest on simple loans and discount bonds is taxable, while interest on coupon
bonds and fixed-payment loans is not.
b. interest on coupon bonds and fixed-payment loans is taxable, while interest on
simple loans and discount bonds is not.
c. interest rates on simple loans and discount bonds are generally higher than interest
rates on comparable coupon bonds and fixed-payment loans.
d. Interest on simple loans and discount bonds is paid in a single payment, while issuers
of coupon bonds and fixed-payment loans make multiple payments of interest and
principle.
4-5
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
Issuers of coupon bonds
4-6
Answer: c
Difficulty: E
4-7
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
1.
2.
3.
4.
make multiple payments of interest and principal.
make a single payment of interest and principal.
make multiple payments of principal, but a single payment of interest.
make a single payment of principal at the time the bond is issued and
multiple payments of interest over the life of the bond.
A simple loan involves
a. interest payments from the borrower to the lender periodically during the life
of the loan.
b. no payment of interest by the borrower to the lender.
c. payment of interest by the borrower to the lender only at the time the loan
matures.
d. no repayment of principal by the borrower to the lender.
The amount of funds the borrower receives from the lender with a simple loan
is called the
2  Test Bank
4-8
Answer: d
Difficulty: E
a.
b.
c.
d.
principal.
equity.
maturity.
collateral.
4-9
Answer: d
Difficulty: E
The total payment to a lender for a simple loan is
1. P.
2. P + i.
3. i(1 + i).
4. P(1 + i).
Suppose First National Bank makes a one-year simple loan of $10,000 at 5% interest to
Acme Widget. At the end of one year Acme Widget will pay First National
4-10
Answer: D
Difficulty: E
4-11
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
1.
2.
3.
4.
$9500.
$9523.81.
$10,050.
$10,500.
Suppose First National Bank makes a one-year simple loan of $10,000 to Acme
Widget. If at the end of one year Acme Widget pays First National $10,700,
then the interest rate on this loan must have been
1. .07%.
2. .7%.
3. 1.07%.
4. 7%.
4-12
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
The most common type of simple loan is
a. an automobile loan from a bank.
b. a mortgage loan from a bank.
c. a commercial loan from a bank.
d. a corporate bond.
4-13
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
A discount bond resembles a simple loan in that
a. the interest on neither is taxable.
b. the borrower repays in a single payment.
c. both represent assets to the borrowers who issue them.
d. both have par values greater than their face values.
4-14
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
A discount bond involves
a. interest payments from the borrower to the lender periodically during the life
of the loan.
b. payment by the borrower to the lender of the face value of the loan at
maturity.
c. no payment of principal by the borrower to the lender.
d. payment of interest by the borrower to the lender every six months during the
life of the loan.
4-15
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
Which of the following is NOT a discount bond?
Chapter 4 Interest Rates and Rates of Return  3
4-16
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
4-17
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
a.
b.
c.
d.
A U.S. savings bond
A U.S. Treasury bill
A U.S. Treasury note
A zero-coupon bond
Suppose Acme Widget issues a one-year discount bond with a face value of
$10,000, and received $9434, repaying $10,000 after one year. The interest rate
on this bond would be
1. 4.34%.
2. 5.66%
3. 6%.
4. 10%.
Suppose Acme Widget issues a discount bond with a face value of $10,000
payable in one year with an interest rate of 5%. How much will Acme receive
for the bond?
1. $9500
2. $9524
3. $15,000
4. $10,500
4-18
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-19
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
4-20
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
4-21
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
4-22
Answer: c
Difficulty: E
4-23
Answer: c
A coupon bond involves
a. interest payments from the borrower to the lender periodically during the life of the
loan and payment by the borrower to the lender of the face value of the loan at
maturity.
b. Interest payments from the borrower to the lender periodically during the life of the
loan, but no payment by the borrower to the lender of the face value of the loan at
maturity.
c. periodic payments by the borrower to the lender that include both principal and
interest.
d. periodic payments by the borrower to the lender that include principal, but not
interest.
The coupon rate is the
a. yearly coupon payment divided by the face value of the bond.
b. yearly coupon payment divided by the market value of the bond.
c. difference between the face value of the bond and its par value.
d. difference between the face value of the bond and its market value.
Which of the following is a coupon bond?
a. A U.S. savings bond
b. A U.S. Treasury bill
c. A U.S. Treasury note
d. A zero-coupon bond
Which of the following is NOT true of a fixed payment loan?
a. The borrower is required to make regular periodic payments to the lender.
b. The payments made by the borrower include both interest and principal.
c. The borrower is left with a substantial unpaid principal at the maturity of the loan.
d. Home mortgages are an example of fixed payment loans.
Which of the following is a fixed payment loan?
4  Test Bank
Difficulty: M
4-24
Answer: d
Difficulty: H
4-25
Answer: c
Difficulty: E
4-26
Answer: c
Difficulty: H
4-27
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
4-28
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
a.
b.
c.
d.
A home mortgage
A U.S. Treasury bill
A U.S. Treasury note
A zero-coupon bond
Which of the following is NOT a fixed payment loan?
a. A home mortgage
b. A car loan
c. A U.S. Treasury note
d. A student loan
Treasury STRIPS are
a. coupon bonds.
b. simple loans.
c. discount bonds.
d. fixed payment loans.
Treasury STRIPS came into existence because
a. investors demanded a tax-free long-term bond.
b. the Treasury wished to shift from long-term borrowing to short-term borrowing.
c. high inflation rates led to an increase demand for high-yield bonds.
d. investors demanded long-term discount bonds.
The concept of present value
a. reveals that discount bonds have higher interest rates than coupon bonds.
b. reveals that fixed payment loans have higher interest rates than discount bonds.
c. is useful in comparing interest rates for different financial instruments.
d. shows that it is unlikely that a simple loan will have a lower interest rate than a
discount bond.
The key difficulty in answering the question: “Would you be better off financing your
new home with a 15-year mortgage at 9% or by borrowing for five years at 8% and
refinancing thereafter?” is that
a. housing prices are very erratic.
b. the tax deductibility of mortgage interest payments has changed over time.
c. dollars paid in different periods are not in the same units.
d. 15-year mortgages are fixed-payment loans while 5-year mortgages are simple loans.
4-29
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
The key to present value calculations is that they
a. allow easy comparison of taxable and non-taxable investments.
b. provide a common unit for measuring funds at different times.
c. provide accurate answers only in a low-inflation environment.
d. provide accurate answers only in a high-inflation environment.
4-30
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
Compounding refers to
a. the calculation of interest rates after the compounding effect of taxes has been
allowed for.
b. the paying back of both interest and principle during the life of a fixed payment loan.
c. the process of earning interest on both the interest and the principal of an investment.
d. the increased value of an investment that arises from the payment of periodic
interest.
4-31
If you deposit $5000 in a savings account at an annual interest rate of 10%, how much
will you have in the account at the end of seven years?
Chapter 4 Interest Rates and Rates of Return  5
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
4-32
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
4-33
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-34
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-35
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-36
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
4-37
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
4-38
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
a.
b.
c.
d.
$5500
$850
$9744
$10,718
If you deposit $10,000 in a savings account at an annual interest rate of 5%, how much
will you have in the account at the end of eight years?
a. $10,500
b. $12,763
c. $14,775
d. $16,289
$1 received n years from now has a value today of
a. ($1 + i)/i.
b. $1/(1 + i).
c. ($1 + i)n/i.
d. $1/(1 + i)n.
At an interest rate of 6%, what is the present value of $10,000 to be received five years
from now?
a. $5000
b. $7473
c. $10,000
d. $13,382
At an interest rate of 5%, what is the present value of $5000 to be received five years
from now?
a. $3918
b. $4762
c. $5000
d. $12,763
If the interest rate is 8%, what would you expect to pay for a discount bond paying
$10,000 in ten years?
a. $4632
b. $9259
c. $10,000
d. $21,589
If the interest rate is 6%, what would you expect to pay for a discount bond paying
$10,000 in seven years?
1.
2.
3.
4.
$6651
$9434
$10,000
$15,036
The yield to maturity is equal to
a. the interest rate at which the present value of an asset's returns is equal to its
value today.
b. the face value or par value of a coupon bond.
6  Test Bank
c. any payments received from an asset at the date the asset matures.
d. interest rate on the asset minus any taxes owed on the interest received.
4-39
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-40
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
4-41
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
4-42
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
4-43
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
For simple loans, the yield to maturity
a. is always less than the specified simple interest rate.
b. is always greater than the specified simple interest rate.
c. is always equal to the specified simple interest rate.
d. may be less than, greater than, or equal to the specified simple interest rate,
depending on the maturity of the loan.
What is the yield to maturity on a simple loan that requires payment of $5000
plus $200 in interest one year from now?
a. 4%
b. 4.17%
c. 10.4%
d. Not enough information has been provided to determine the answer.
The yield to maturity on a one-year discount bond equals
a. (F - D)/D.
b. (D - F)/D.
c. (F - D)/F.
d. (D - F)/F.
A one-year discount bond with a par value of $10,000 sold today, at issuance,
for $9500 has a yield to maturity of
a. 5.00%.
b. 5.26%.
c. 9.50%.
d. 10.00%.
4-44
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
A one-year discount bond with a par value of $1000 sold today, at issuance, for
$943 has a yield to maturity of
a. 4.30%
b. 5.70%
c. 6.04%
d. 9.43%
4-45
Answer: c
Difficulty: H
On a coupon bond, the yield to maturity
a. always equals the coupon rate.
b. equates the present value of all the bond’s payments to its price today.
c. increases when the market price of the bond increases.
d. equals the coupon payment divided by the current price of the bond.
4-46
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
What is the price of a coupon bond that has annual coupon payments of $85, a par value
of $1000, a yield to maturity of 10%, and a maturity of three years?
a. $211.38
b. $898.84
c. $962.70
d. $1255.0
Chapter 4 Interest Rates and Rates of Return  7
4-47
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
What is the price of a coupon bond that has annual coupon payments of $90, a par value
of $1000, a yield to maturity of 10%, and a maturity of two years?
a. $820.38
b. $982.64
c. $1000.00
d. $1180.00
4-48
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
What is the yield to maturity of a consol with a coupon of $85 and a price of $944.44?
a. 5.56%
b. 8.50%
c. 9.00%
d. Not enough information has been provided to determine the answer.
4-49
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
If i is the yield to maturity of a fixed-payment loan,
a. the value of the loan today equals i times the sum of the values of all the loan
payments.
b. i equals the present value of the loan payments.
c. the value of the loan today equals the sum of the values of the loan payments.
d. the value of the loan today equals the present value of the loan payments discounted
at rate i.
4-50
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
If, while you are holding a coupon bond, its market price falls, you can be sure that
a. the coupon payment you are receiving must have been reduced.
b. the interest rate on other similar bonds must have fallen.
c. the interest rate on other similar bonds must have risen.
d. the par value of the bond must have declined.
4-51
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
If, while you are holding a coupon bond, the interest rates on other similar bonds fall,
you can be sure that
a. the coupon payments on your bond will fall.
b. the market price of your bond will rise.
c. the market price of your bond will fall.
d. the par value of your bond will rise.
4-52
Answer: c
Difficulty: E
If investors are willing to pay more than the par value for a bond, you can be sure that
4-53
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-54
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-55
Answer: a
1.
2.
3.
4.
the tax rate on the bond must be very low.
the coupon rate on the bond must be higher than on other similar bonds.
the coupon rate on the bond must be lower than on other similar bonds.
the par value for the bond must be very low.
The current yield is equal to
a. the coupon divided by the market price of the bond.
b. the yield to maturity, if the bond is a coupon bond.
c. the coupon divided by the par value of the bond.
d. the market price of the bond divided by its par value.
A coupon bond has a coupon of $75, a par value of $1000, and a market price
of $750. Its current yield equals
a. 7.50%.
b. 10.00%
c. its yield to maturity.
d. Not enough information has been provided to calculate the current yield for
8  Test Bank
Difficulty: M
4-56
Answer: b
Difficulty: M
this bond.
Which of the following is NOT fixed on a coupon bond?
a. The coupon
b. The coupon rate
c. The market price
d. The par value
4-57
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
Which of the following is fixed on a coupon bond?
a. The coupon rate
b. The current yield
c. The market price
d. The yield to maturity
4-58
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
4-59
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
4-60
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
4-61
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
4-62
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
4-63
If the current price of a bond is equal to its face value,
a. there is no capital gain or loss from holding the bond until maturity.
b. the yield to maturity must be greater than the current yield.
c. the current yield must be greater than the coupon rate.
d. the coupon rate must be greater than the yield to maturity.
If the current price of a bond is less than its face value,
a. an investor will receive a capital gain by holding the bond until maturity.
b. the yield to maturity must be less than the current yield.
c. the coupon rate must be greater than the current yield.
d. the coupon rate must be equal to the current yield.
If the current price of a bond is greater than its face value
a. an investor will receive a capital gain by holding the bond until maturity.
b. the yield to maturity must be less than the coupon rate.
c. the coupon rate must be less than the current yield.
d. the coupon rate must be equal to the current yield.
A bond’s price and its yield to maturity are inversely related because
a. discounting future payments at a higher rate reduces the present value of the
payments.
b. discounting future payments at a higher rate increases the present value of
the payments.
c. an increase in the yield to maturity will lower a bond’s coupon rate and
hence its price.
d. a fall in a bond’s price will lower its par value and hence its yield to
maturity.
For a specific change in the yield to maturity
a. the shorter the time until a bond matures, the greater will be the change in its
price.
b. the longer the time until a bond matures, the greater will be the change in its
price.
c. the longer the time until a bond matures, the greater will be the change in its
par value.
d. the shorter the time until a bond matures, the greater will be the change in its
Chapter 4 Interest Rates and Rates of Return  9
Answer: a
Difficulty: H
4-64
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-65
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
4-66
Answer: b
Difficulty: H
4-67
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
4-68
Answer: a
Difficulty: M
4-69
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
4-70
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
coupon rate.
If an investor is certain that market interest rates will decline in the future,
which of the following will she be most likely to purchase?
a. A 6-month Treasury Bill.
b. A 2-year Treasury Note.
c. A 20-year Treasury Bond.
d. A 50-year Tennessee Valley Authority bond.
An investor who buys a 50-year corporate bond
1. must be expecting to still be alive in 50 years.
2. is subject to substantial reinvestment risk.
3. is probably expecting market interest rates to increase in the future.
4. is probably expecting market interest rate to decrease in the future.
U.S. Treasury bonds
a. carry no risk of default and are therefore not risky investments.
b. have constant yields to maturity and are therefore not risky investments.
c. have constant coupon rates and are therefore not risky investments.
d. are subject to fluctuations in their market prices and are therefore risky
investments.
Investors who attempt to reduce their risk of fluctuating market interest rates by
holding only short-term instruments
a. will succeed as long as the short-term instruments are Treasury Bills.
b. will fail because short-term instruments are affected more by fluctuations in
market interest rates than are long-term instruments.
c. will expose themselves to reinvestment risk.
d. will incur large capital gains.
Suppose that a coupon bond is listed in The Wall Street Journal as having a
coupon rate of 8.25% and a bid price of 120:19. Its current yield is
a. 6.84%
b. 6.86%
c. 8.50%
d. 8.52%
When a bond is listed as having two maturity dates,
a. the bond is callable and may be redeemed by the issuer on the first maturity
date.
b. half of the par value of the bond will be paid on the first date and the other
half on the second date.
c. interest payments on the bond begin on the first date and end on the second
date.
d. the purchaser may insist on being paid the par value of the bond on the first
maturity date.
The bid price for a bond is
a. the minimum price that you are allowed to bid for a bond that is being
auctioned by the government.
10  Test Bank
4-71
Answer: d
Difficulty: M
4-72
Answer: c
Difficulty: E
4-73
Answer: c
Difficulty: H
4-74
Answer: c
Difficulty: M
b. the maximum price that you are allowed to bid for a bond that is being
auctioned by the government.
c. the price that you will receive from a securities dealer if you sell the bond.
d. the price that you must pay a securities dealer to purchase a bond.
With respect to U.S. Treasury Bills,
1. the bid price is always greater than the asked price.
2. the asked price is always greater than the bid price.
3. the bid price is only greater than the asked price if investors expect interest
rates to decline in the future.
4. the asked price is only greater than the bid price if investors expect interest rates to
decline in the future.
What is the yield on a discount basis for a U.S. Treasury bill that has a face value of
$10,000, has a price of $9500, and will mature in 180 days?
a. 5.00%
b. 5.25%
c. 10.00%
d. 10.67%
In comparing the yield to maturity on a Treasury bill with the yield on a discount basis
on the same bill, we can say that the yield to maturity
a. will always be greater than the yield on a discount basis.
b. will always be less than the yield on a discount basis.
c. will always be equal to the yield on a discount basis, provided the holding period is
the same as the number of years to maturity.
d. rises whenever the yield on a discount basis falls.
4-75
Answer: c
Difficulty: E
The current yield is
a. always equal to the yield to maturity on a coupon bond.
b. always equal to the coupon rate on a coupon bond.
c. roughly equal to the yield to maturity on very long-term bonds.
d. roughly equal to the yield to maturity on a short-term bond.
4-76
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
We would expect that yields on long-term corporate bonds to be
a. always equal to the coupon rate on those bonds.
b. far more stable than their market prices.
c. to vary inversely with their par values.
d. always higher than the yields on long-term U.S. Treasury bonds.
4-77
Answer: b
Difficulty: E
4-78
Answer: d
Difficulty: E
The only case for which the bond price does not react to a change in the yield to
maturity is when
a. the bond is a U.S. Treasury security.
b. the bond’s coupon rate equals its current yield.
c. the bond’s market price equals its par value.
d. the bond’s holding period is the same as the number of years to maturity.
The total rate of return is equal to the
a. sum of the coupon rate and the current yield.
b. yield to maturity.
c. sum of the current yield and the actual rate of capital gain.
d. sum of the current yield and the expected rate of capital gain.
Chapter 4 Interest Rates and Rates of Return  11
4-79
Answer: a
Difficulty: E
4-80
Answer: c
Difficulty: H
What is the total rate of return on a bond with a coupon rate of 6.25% that was
purchased for $900 and sold one year later for $990?
a. 6.25%
b. 16.25%
c. 16.94%
d. 96.25%
Which of the following statements about the total rate of return is NOT correct?
a. The total rate of return may be greater or less than the current yield.
b. The total rate of return may be greater or less than the rate of capital gain.
c. The total rate of return may never be negative.
d. The total rate of return is greater is the coupon, holding everything else constant.
The total rate of return is equal to
1.
2.
3.
4.
the coupon rate plus the rate of capital gains.
the coupon rate plus the current yield.
the current yield plus the rate of capital gains.
the coupon rate multiplied by the rate of capital gains.
The expected real interest rate equals
a. the nominal interest rate minus the tax rate.
b. the nominal interest rate minus the expected rate of inflation.
c. the nominal interest rate plus the expected rate of inflation.
d. the yield to maturity on a coupon bond held to maturity.
Which of the following is the correct expression for the expected real interest
rate?
a. r = i + pe
b. r = i - pe
c. r = i/pe
d. r = ipe
The Fisher hypothesis holds that
a. in the long run the nominal interest rate equals the real interest rate.
b. the yield to maturity equals the real interest rate.
c. the nominal interest rate equals the coupon rate if the bond is held to
maturity.
d. the nominal interest rate rises or falls point-for-point with expected inflation.
Nominal interest rates are higher than real interest rates
a. as long as expected inflation is positive.
b. the government taxes interest income.
c. inflation is expected to decline in the future.
d. long-term interest rates are higher than short-term interest rates.
If the nominal interest rate is 10%, the tax rate is 25%, and the expected
inflation rate is 5%, what is the real after-tax return?
a. -2.5%
b. 1.25%
12  Test Bank
c. 2.5%
d. 3.75%
Essay Questions
1. Suppose that the inflation rate is currently 8% and that most investors believe that inflation will remain at
this level indefinitely. You are convinced, however, that the inflation will decline to 5% or less. Should
you buy a 10-year Treasury bond or a 10-year TIPS?
2. Suppose you are considering buying one of two coupon bonds. Bond A has a current market price of
$975 and a face value of $1000. Bond B has a current market price of $1025 and a face value of $1000. Is
Bond A the better investment?
3. Winners of state lotteries are often given the choice of receiving their winnings either as one lump sum
or as annual payments spread out over a period of 20 or more years. For example, a state lottery winner
may be given the choice of receiving $1.2 million at once, or $125,000 per year for 20 years. In states
where it is allowed, investors will sometimes approach lottery winners and offer to pay them a lump sum
greater than the state is offering them (in this case, say, $1.4 million) in exchange for the lottery winner
signing over to the investor the right to receive the annual payments. Under what circumstances might this
be a good deal for both the lottery winner and the investor?
4. During the late nineteenth century many farmers in the American Midwest complained that the real
interest rates they were paying on their mortgages were higher than the nominal rates. Is this possible?
Aren’t real rates always lower than nominal rates?
Answers
1. You should buy the 10-year Treasury bond. If the inflation rate does decline, the coupon rate on newly
issued bonds will decline. This will increase the market price of existing 10-year bonds, raising your total
return above what you would receive if you held a 10-year TIPS.
2. Assuming all other characteristics of the bonds are same, the bonds should have the same yields to
maturity and the same expected returns, even though they have different market prices. Presumably, the
bond with the higher price has a higher coupon rate.
3. There are three discounts rates involved here: the discount rate used by the state to convert the annual
lottery payments into a lump sum payment, the discount rate used by the lottery winner to convert the lottery
payments into a lump sum payment, and the discount rate used by the investor. If the lottery winner’s
discount rate is lower than the state’s discount rate, but higher than the investor’s discount rate, then both
the lottery winner and the investor will be made better off by the deal. In the example, the state is
discounting the 20 annual payments at a rate of about 10% to arrive at the lump sum. Suppose the lottery
winner’s discount rate is 8%. Then the present value to him of the annual payments is about $1.325 million
and he will choose to take the annual payments rather than the lump sum offered by the state. If the investor
has a discount rate of 6%, the annual payments will have a present value to her of about $1.52 million. She
is able to offer a payment of $1.4 million to the lottery winner – which the lottery winner will accept
because it is greater than the lump sum offered by the state and greater than the lottery winner’s own
evaluation of the present value of the annual payments – and will receive in exchange the right to receive a
series of annual payments whose present value she evaluates as being greater than payment she makes to the
lottery winner.
4. If there is inflation, real interest rates will be lower than nominal interest rates. In the late nineteenth
century, the United States experienced deflation. So, the real interest rate on farm mortgages was in fact
higher than the nominal rate.