Introduction to Personality Theory
Personality- underlying causes within the person of individual behavior and
experience.
Description-ways in which we should characterize a person- compare
traits between people or study an individual in depth?
Dynamics- how do people change and adjust to life situations?
Influences of culture, thought processes
Development – biological factors vs. experiences; variable influences
of early experiences vs. later experiences; potential for change later in life
Concepts for describing personality
Differences between people- individual differences indicate how
much people differ from one another; how do we classify them- into groups
(type approach) or by gradations of dimensions (trait approach) –
quantitative measures.
Types- suggests that personality comes in a number of distinct
categories (qualitative groups). Personality types are categories of people
with similar characteristics. Eysenck’s types, enneagram, Myers- Briggs
Personality types
Traits- characteristics that vary from one person to the next &
presumably cause behavior. They demand quantitative assessment- scoring
a trait from one extreme to the opposite: introversion vs. extroversion. A
trait is a more focused set of characteristics. A person can be assessed on
every trait.
Factors- are broader than traits, quantitative, but combine like traits
into groups. Fewer factors describe people. ( Big Five Factors)
Comparing people or studying individuals
Nomothetic approach- groups of people are studied by comparing
their trait/ factor scores and relating them to specific behaviors or
background experiences. People are complex, however, and these studies are
somewhat simplistic, so not always helpful in understanding human
behavior. Also many of these studies are done on college students who
aren’t particularly representative of the population as a whole.
Idiographic approach- studies an individual one at a time without
comparing them to others. The challenge is to understand the uniqueness of
a person, within the influence of a culture, family, and regarding universal
principles of behavior.
Personality dynamics- how personality is expressed, motivations,
behaviors, attitudes. Different theories emphasize different reasons for
behavior- Freud/ unconscious sexual drives, Jung/ archetypal trends, Rogers/
drive toward self-actualization, Murray/ multiple motivations, Maslow/
progression of need states. Dynamics includes:
Adaptation-a person’s way of coping, adjusting to demands &
opportunities life offers.
Cognitive processes- how we think, what beliefs we have developed
over time, labels for ourselves & others, expectations for the future.
Culture – different cultures place different expectations on members.
Individualistic cultures stress competition and personal striving for success.
Communal cultures stress harmony, aiding the group, deemphasizing
personal uniqueness. Cultures mold different personality types through
reinforcement and expectations.
Personality development- what causes changes in personality over time? Is
it subject to direct influence or manipulation?
Biological influences – temperament refers to consistent styles of
behavior and emotional reactions present from infancy. They are presumed
to have strong biological (genetic) substrates. (Kagan)
Life experiences- early vs. late – is early life experience more
permanently affecting of personality than later life experiences? Effects of
types of attachment on later relationship successes. Effects of life trauma.
Scientific method- is rigorous systematic observation in search of evidence
to support a theory or hypothesis. Determinism is the idea that things,
behaviors have causes & these causes can be determined by research.
Example: high self-esteem causes social responsibility. The thesis can be
worded in the opposite format: social responsibility relates to high selfesteem. To test this correlation, we must have some behaviors that can be
measured, are observable. There must be measures of social responsibility.
Tests may then be designed to show predictive value if these 2 are
correlated.
Theory – is an overarching belief system that includes concepts (constructs)
& relationships between those concepts (propositions.)
Constructs- concepts of a theory (personality trait is a construct.
They are assumed to be stable and determine behavior, producing
consistency across situations.)
Operational definitions- statements that identify what are observable
evidences of a trait. A trait is self-esteem- observed by talking about
successes rather than failures, dressing nicely, not slovenly.
Theoretical propositions- describe how the constructs are related.
They are abstract statements, not directly observable. To test a theory, the
propositions must be tested: Frustration leads to aggression.
Hypothesis- a statement of a proposition in terms of observable
phenomena. A working premise for experimentation/ observation.
Empirical observation- the testing of observable phenomena used to
validate or disprove a hypothesis.
Criteria of a good theory- theories are always abstract, but may be
supported by facts determined by testing. Theories do not become facts.
Verifiability- theory should be testable by empirical/ observational
methods. Constructs must be defined precisely so others could replicate the
test. There are many ways to observe behavior. Disconfirmation of a thesis
is still useful, telling scientists what is not useful to study and shifting the
emphasis of science to more fruitful directions.
Comprehensiveness – a theory should explain a range of behaviors to
be useful. If a theory is too broad, however, it becomes useless for
prediction.
Applied value – theory that offers practical strategies for improving
human life, rather than just satisfying intellectual curiosity.
Applied research is done to solve practical problems.
Basic research is to advance theory/ knowledge.
Parsimony means a theory is as simple as possible to explain the
concept studied.
Heuristic value means a theory suggests new directions for studyfertility. Scientists build on the earlier work of scientists to improve
understanding.
Relationship between theory and research
Theory leads to research. Research without adequate theory wanders
aimlessly, proving little of worth.
Research leads to theory. Theory without adequate research
becomes stagnant.
Implicit theories of personality are common, unscientific beliefs
about personality that people hold. Assuming that beautiful people are also
smart, warm, trustworthy, etc. – the halo effect.
Methods in personality research
Personality measurement- the most common personality
measurement is the self-report personality test.
1) Reliability is consistency of scoring over time by an instrument.
Test-retest reliability consists of testing a group of people on
an instrument over time to see if scores are similar.
Alternative forms reliability retests a group over time with
alternative forms of the test to avoid test skill enhancement with practice.
Split-half reliability is testing the reliability of a test by
comparing the even answers to the odd answers.
Short vs. long tests- short tests are less reliable than longer
ones.
Homogeneous items vs. heterogeneous items- tests using
more similar items are more reliable than tests using very different items.
2) Validity is assessing whether a test really measures what it says it
does.
Predictive validity is determined if a test actually predicts a
behavior accurately: SATs predict college success (somewhat); tests for
employment success (Seligman for MET Life sales success- optimism)
Construct validity – is the test actually measuring the
designated characteristic. A new depression inventory should show similar
scores of depression as the gold standard- the Beck Depression Inventory.
3) Measurement techniques
a) Direct self-report measures- useful but people don’t always
know how they are or think, and they give false answers to please researcher
or be socially acceptable (particularly re: sexual behaviors, beliefs.)
Multiple-choice format
Questionnaires – measure one trait
Inventories (MMPI) – measure several traits
b) Indirect methods are less clear in what is being assessed,
hopefully to avoid subjects deliberately shaping a response.
Open-ended questions
Journals, diaries, letters
Projective tests (Rorschach tests, TAT)
c) Behavioral measures (self-report about laboratory or life
experiences) can still be distorted by subjects.
Correlational methods examine 2 or more variables to see how they
relate. What cannot be determined is causation.
Experimental research is the only format that can determine cause
and effect.
Independent variable is the suspected cause, manipulated by
the researcher.
Control group is similar to the experimental group, but not
exposed to the independent variable.
Experimental group is exposed to the independent variable.
Dependent variable is the suspected effect, measured at the
end of the study by the researcher, and statistically analyzed for significance.
Other variables – other variables can confound the results if
not anticipated and controlled for.
Studying individuals- Case studies/ psychobiography
Case study is an in-depth study of an individual
psychologically.
Psychobiography is the study of a person from a theoretical
standpoint, using archival information, not just self-report. Letters, books,
interviews, assessments of other people in the person’s life. May be
retrospective, and so flawed or shaped by the researcher’s thesis. (Viewers
attributing feminist issues to Georgia O’Keefe’s works, when she said that
was not her intention at all.)
Eclecticism is combining insights and references from several
theories. No one theory explains everything satisfactorily.
Paradigm is a basic theoretical model, shared by various theorists.
When the preponderance of new research flies in the face of the traditional
paradigm, the paradigm will shift, having become obsolete. Because we
have various theoretical orientations, they test concepts in varying ways to
find the truth within the concept.
Two disciplines of psychology:
Scientific culture vs. Humanistic culture
Scientific culture emphasizes experimentation, groups of
people.
Humanistic culture emphasizes individuals, aspects of
personhood that is not subject to experimental rigor.
Some theories have different usefulness in different areas of study.
Some are better at explaining mental illness, or creativity, adjustment, or
learning. Some apply better to males than females, or vice versa.