Running Head: FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION Factors that Influence Sexual Orientation in Men and Women Amanda Cunningham 2976918 PSYC 290 Assignment 3: Research Paper Linda Ableheart 1 FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION 2 Introduction In the song, Letter to a John, Ani Difranco proposes that “women learn to be women, and men learn to be men” (Difranco, 1994, track 3). But what does it mean to be a women or a man? What factors influence human beings to become like a women or a man; how do we decide who to love, to be attracted to, to feel passionate about, to desire? Through a series of five research articles the question, what factors influence sexual orientation in men and in women is considered. The research stems from research journal articles published in journals of psychology and sociology. The research question is dissected into subtopics including: a definition of sexual orientation; a definition of gender and sex; what it means to be homosexual; theories of socialization, genetics, hormones, and evolution; a look at where research falls short; and finally a link to motivation and emotion. Perhaps the question “can anyone tell me why I’m gay?” (Jenkins, 2010, p. 279) can be answered. By Definition What is sexual orientation anyways? It has been explained as the “the cumulative experience and interaction of erotic fantasy, romantic-emotional feelings, and sexual behavior directed toward one or both genders” (Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.66). This definition has been supported by the fact that “it recognizes the significance of affectionate relations in an individual’s sexual orientation…and considers the possibility that the components of sexual orientation can be independent, allowing an individual to express different and even contradictory qualities of behaviors, fantasies, and feelings simultaneously and across time” (Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.66). The definition allows each entity to portray a character of their choice on the stage of life and that character may change or adapt over time. If sexuality is based on sexual manners focussed on one or both genders, then the term gender must be classified before the nature of sexual orientation can be truly understood. Gender, by definition suggests “culturally constructed distinctions between femininity and FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION 3 masculinity…which according to this distinction, individuals are born female or male but they become feminine or masculine” (Weiten & McCann, 2007. p.481). Furthermore, sex is not the same as gender as it refers to the biological characteristics one is born with (Weiten & McCann, 2007. p.481). Sex refers to what we are born with; gender is who culture shapes us into, and orientation is who we connect too emotionally and through passion and fantasy. When one is attracted sexually and have passionate feelings towards those of the same sex as their own, they may be labelled as homosexual or from men, gay, and women, lesbian (Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.65). If one portrays opposite characteristics than what is considered to be the norm for their sex or even gender, then they may be described as being cross-gendered. In cases such as these, the individual is more likely to be thought of as being a gay man or a lesbian (Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.65). Theories Socialization Everything around us will in some way or another shape the person we are to become. Friends, family, parents, siblings, school, media, work, and all other domains in which we interact with others, has a vested interest in the moulding of our personality. Socialization varies from culture to culture, as does peoples’ perception of what it means to be gay. Peter Bearman and Hannah Brückner have summarised their theory of socialization in their March 2002 American Journal of Sociology article entitled Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction. They state that: Sexual preference is seen as the product of specific social and historical forces that link in different ways diverse social processes organizing gender identity, desire, scripted behaviours, and other cognitive and affective elements into a single framework. Because sexual expression varies so remarkably across cultures, it is obvious that what is considered erotic, the expression of erotic desires, and the organization of erotic practices, is the consequence of specific socialization experiences. It follows that variation within a society with respect to sexual FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION 4 preference is seen by social scientists as the consequence of different socialization experiences (p.1182). Another presumption of socialization is the way in which social figures, such as parents and peers, have diverse management of different individuals and any observed learning that comes about when interacting with others (Bailey, Bechtold & Berenbaum, 2002, p 334). Socialization has become a steadily increasing theory of interest for the determination of sexual orientation. Biological Influence Several disciplines have attempted to explain the origin of sexual orientation with biological evidence. One study conducted by Mustanski, Bailey, and Kaspar looked at dermatoglyphics, (fingerprints) and handedness in order to conclude the point at which sexual orientation is determined in utero (2002 p. 113). Their findings fell short as they failed to replicate the experiments and concluded “that it may be premature to accept dermatoglyphic asymmetry as a correlate of sexual orientation” (Mustankski et. al., 2002, p. 121). However, with handedness there was a correlation with female sexual orientation and left handedness which was in agreement with past research (Mustankski et. al., 2002, p. 121). Prenatal androgen levels have also been thought to cause different sexual orientation in utero (Bailey, 2002, p. 334). Women who are “exposed to high levels of prenatal androgens, suggest that a core component of tomboyism—sex-typed toy play—is influenced by early androgen exposure (Bailey, 2002, p. 334). This study did show that Tomboys, females who associate more with masculine characteristics and activities, do in fact have more similarities to their male counterparts then their sisters; however, biological evidence was not sufficiently explained (Bailey, 2002). Other studies consist of: prenatal development, brain morphology and function, behaviour genetics, and hormone levels at various stages of prenatal development (Jenkins, FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION 5 2010, 281). These studies are conducted by the following departments: behaviour and molecular genetics, neuroanatomy, neuropsychology, endocrinology, and anthropometry (Mustanski et. at. 2001, 113). The biological areas of sexual orientation are as vast as biology itself; however, the lack of replication of experiments causes biological theories to be weak and poorly explained. Evolution Two studies are conducted within an evolutionary construct. One, looking at birth-order, attempts to link birth-order and number of older siblings to sexual orientation; however, the findings from this study do not support the hypothesis (Bearman & Brückman, 2002, p.11861187). A second hypothesis “that homosexuality is a polygenetic trait” which means a gene that is influenced of other genes and becomes fit to survive amongst other less dominant genes. Again this hypothesis fails to be supported, as the testing of genes was not possible with the instrumentation available to the experimenters (Bearman & Brückman, 2002, p.1186-1187). Evolutionary theory, although weak, is still on the forefront of sexual orientation theories. Perhaps with further evolution, this theory could be investigated with greater depth. Failed Findings Much research has been conducted over many decades regarding sexual orientation. However, great amounts of hypotheses have not been proven and need to be revised and revisited. Within the research used in this paper, most of the experiments could not be replicated, thus hypotheses could not be proven. Relationships between genetics, hormones, socialization and evolution (among others) are present; yet the tools to study these links perhaps are not available at this point. “Human sexual behavior is extremely complex and variable; yet it is an issue that fascinates many and inspires quite a bit of scientific investigation” (Jenkins, 2010, p. 279). FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION 6 Motivation and Emotions Chapter ten of Psychology: Themes and Variations discusses motivation and emotion. In this section of the textbook, sexual orientation is identified and explored. On page 406 a chart is included to explain the differences between males and females with regards to biological reality, evolutionary significance, and behavioural outcomes. A summary of the chart suggests that males’ reproduction does not involve much investment when it comes to threat, time or energy. In order to increase their reproduction they have more sexual partners who also have great reproductive probability. This may lead to more uncommitted sex with a greater number of partners, with important qualities in partners being attractiveness and youthfulness (Weiten & McCann, 2007, p. 406). With women, their reproduction has a high investment in terms of time, threat and energy. They increase reproduction by taking partners that are interested in bringing materials to children; and they are less interested in uncommitted sex and they have a smaller number of partners. Important qualities include financial status and aspiration (Weiten & McCann, 2007, p.406). For heterosexual men and women these patterns are present consistently across many cultures and cohorts. What about homosexuals? To begin with is it that black and white? The short answer, no. Sexuality has been described as being a continuum from zero to six; zero being exclusively heterosexual, three being the same amount of homo and heterosexual interest, and six being only homosexual behaviour (Weiten & McCann, 2007, p.410). “Sex is essential for the survival of a species, but it’s not essential to an individual’s survival” (Weiten & McCann, 2007, p.403). The motivation to reproduce is evolutionary in nature; however, the emotional response towards one’s sexual orientation is individual. FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION 7 Conclusion After defining sexual orientation, looking at several theories, discussing the failings in the findings and the emotional link to sexuality, the factors that influence sexual orientation in men and women has not been clearly defined. By far, the hypothesis regarding socialization has the most reasonable explanation and most significant evidence to support the theory. Further research and instruments to conduct said research needs to be conducted in order to clearly define the factors of sexual orientation. In conclusion, “can anyone tell me why I’m gay...not yet” (Jenkins, 2010, p. 288). FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION 8 References Bailey, M., Bechtold, K., & Berenbaum, S. (2002). Who are tomboys and why should we study them? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31(4), 333-341. Bearman, P., & Brückner, H. (2002). Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction, The American Journal of Sociology. 107(5), 1179-1205. Difranco, A. (1994). Letter to a John. On Out of Range [CD]. Buffalo, NY: Righteous Babe Records. Jenkins, W. (2010). Can anyone tell me why I’m gay? What research suggests regarding the origins of sexual orientation. North American Journal of Psychology, 12(2), 279-296. Mustanski, B., Bailey, M., & Kasper, S. (2002). Dermatoglyphics, handedness, sex, and sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31(1), 113-122. Weiten, W., & McCann, D. 2007. Psychology: themes and variations. Toronto, ON. Thomson Nelson Canada. Wilkinson, W., & Roys, A. 2005.The components of sexual orientation, religiosity, and heterosexuals’ impressions of gay men and lesbians. The Journal of Social Psychology, 145(1), 65-83.