Mapping the literature: Social justice and education
Prepared for the Social Justice Research Collective
by Peter McInerney
20 August 2004
Communication
Dr Peter McInerney
School of Education
Flinders University
GPO Box 2100
Adelaide
South Australia 5001
Email: peter.mcinerney@flinders.edu.au
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Mapping the literature: Social justice and education
Introduction
So many books and articles address the issue of social justice and schooling that it is virtually
impossible to map the field. What follows is an outline of references that I have found useful in
pursuing my own research interests in the field of public education and school reform for social
justice. Like any map, certain features are given prominence and others do not appear on the
landscape.
I have divided the references into six sections: firstly, those which are concerned with the broad
philosophical and political orientations to social justice; secondly, those which look more specifically
at social justice within an educational context; thirdly, which those which focus on policy frameworks
and discourses; fourthly, those which address particular forms of social injustice, oppression and
educational disadvantage associated with class, ethnicity, gender etc; fifthly; those which offer
resources, ideas and strategies for transforming unjust practices at the system, school and classroom
level; and, sixthly, writings of particular relevance to teacher education programs.
A detailed list of references accompanies this overview.
Philosophical and political orientations
The idea (or ideal) of social justice does not have a single or universally accepted meaning. Diverse
views and orientations are embedded in discourses which are historically and culturally constituted
and which reflect competing political endeavours. Not only is the very notion of social justice a
contested one but it seems to coexist with a range of ideas and expressions about equality, fairness and
human rights. Ryan (1993) provides a good overview of the various interpretations ranging from Plato
and Aristotle to libertarians, such as Mill, Bentham and Hume and 20th century theorists such as
Rawls and Nozic, all of whom sought to establish some universal principles of justice. Starr’s (1991)
critique of the political orientations to social justice informed by conservative, liberal and socialist
positions is another good starting point. See also Wren (1977), Sturman (1997), Warnke (1993), Rizvi
(1998), MacIntyre (1985 & 1988) and Beilharz (1989) for a review of major traditions of social
justice.
Other texts focus on specific interpretations and principles of social justice, e.g. Rawls (1973) ‘justice
as fairness’, Nozic’s (1976) ‘justice as deserts’ and the utilitarian approaches to justice (Riddel, Baron
and Wilkinson, 1998). See Howe (1997) for a comprehensive outline of libertarian traditions and
Troyna and Vincent (1995) for a critique of liberal approaches. For a Marxist reading refer to West
(1990). Walzer’s (1996) notion of ‘spheres of justice’ offers a pluralist approach. More recent
interpretations have been influenced by postmodernist, poststructuralist, feminist understandings, e.g.
‘justice as recognition’ (Fraser, 1995; Gale & Densmore, 2000) and ‘justice as mutuality’ (Gewirtz,
1995). The current emphasis on cultural aspects has led to a major debate about the relative merits of
recognitive and redistributive approaches to social justices. Refer to Tully (2000) and writings by the
major protagonists Nancy Fraser (1995) and Iris Marion Young (1997). Concerns about the
displacement of social class have been expressed by Mac an Ghaill (1997) and Phillips (1997).
Education and social justice
These philosophical and political orientations are especially relevant to schooling because a particular
stance on social justice can have profound implications for resourcing, curriculum content and
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perspectives and educational decision-making processes. Sturman (1997) provides a good overview of
social justice theories and issues in the context of Australian education. However, the best starting
point is Connell’s (1993) ‘Schools and Social Justice’ which explores the notion of a hegemony and
makes a case for curriculum reform based on redistributive justice. For a discussion of theories of
reproduction and resistance see Giroux (1983 & 1985). Mills and Gale (2002) provide an Australian
example of the ways in which schools contribute to social inequalities and Rist (2000) discusses the
relationship between social class, teacher expectations and school failure.
These themes are picked up in Smyth, Hattam, Edwards et al (2000) ‘Listening To Me I’m Leaving’
that tells the stories of early school leavers in South Australia. Troyna and Vincent (1995) and
Griffiths (1998a & 1998b) examine the way the social justice discourse is being conceptualised in the
UK. Griffiths outlines a set of principles to guide socially just curriculum. Refer to Walker (2003) for
a discussion of a ‘capabilities’ approach to social justice in education. Followers of Freire will be
drawn to ‘Pedagogy of the Oppressed’ (1996) and a range of writings which elaborate on liberation
theology, cultural action for freedom and critical pedagogy. Gale and Densmore’s (2000) book on the
cultural politics of schooling addresses the notion of ‘recognitive justice’ and offers practical strategies
for schools and teacher educators.
Policy frameworks and discourses (Australia, US, UK)
Educators have to engage with officially sanctioned responses to social justice reflected in the policies
of State and Federal governments and, increasingly, global policies. Several writers specialise in the
field of policy sociology. For an excellent account of the ways in which educational policies in
Australia have been developed by the state in response to broader economic, political and cultural
changes refer to Taylor, Rizvi, Lingard and Henry (1997). Chapter 7, which focuses on difference,
social justice and educational policy, is especially relevant. ‘School Reform in Hard Times’ by Knight,
Lingard and Porter (1993) examines the impact of economic rationalist thinking on social justice
policies in the 1990s.
Australian and UK writers who have explored the problematic coalition of social justice and the
market include Connell (1998), Lingard (1997) Gewirtz, Ball and Bowe (1995), Sikes and Vincent
(1998) and Marginson (1997). For an analysis of social justice policies in South Australia refer to
Moore (1995) and McInerney (2000); for Queensland see Lingard and Garrick (1997).
Oppression, injustice and educational disadvantage
Many writers are concerned with specific forms of injustice and oppression; e.g. those arising from the
classed, gendered and racialised experiences of individuals and groups and those related to disability.
What follows is a very short list of texts on (a) poverty, welfare, social class and socioeconomic
disadvantage (b) gender and patriarchy (c) racism, ethnicity and cultural difference (d) students with
disabilities. (More recently, attention has been given to homophobia and issues pertaining to gay
rights. This is a neglected research area in Australia.)
Poverty, welfare, social class and socioeconomic disadvantage
Historically, the causes of social injustices and educational disadvantage have been attributed to
material inequalities arising from the political economy—hence the emphasis on social class and the
capitalist system. For an excellent analysis of the poverty and the growing gap between the ‘haves’
and ‘have-nots’ in Australia refer to Fincher and Nieuwenhuysen (1998) and Borland (1998). If you
still believe that Australia is an egalitarian society read McGregor (1997) ‘Class in Australia’. Birrell
et al (1997) describe the extent of welfare dependency and poverty.
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Mark Peel’s latest book, ‘The lowest rung’ (2003), is a compelling, if somewhat disturbing account, of
the impact of unemployment and welfare dependency on ‘rust belt communities’ in Melbourne,
Brisbane and Sydney. Pat Thomson’s ‘Schooling the rust belt kids’ (2002) describes the scene in
Adelaide’s northern and western suburbs. Connell (1994, 2003) has explored the relationship between
poverty and schooling and Comber (2000) has focused on the links between literacy achievement and
socioeconomic disadvantage. For a disturbing account of the American scene read Kozol’s (1991)
book, ‘Savage inequalities’. There are some good ethnographies in this field—none better than
McLaren’s (1995) ‘Life in Schools’, Weis’s (1990) ‘Working class without work’ and the Willis
(1977) classic Learning to Labour’.
Gender and patriarchy
Again the literature field is extensive. Matters pertaining to patriarchy and inequalities for girls have
been abiding concerns for Australian writers such as Kenway and Willis (1990), Yates (1993), Henry
and Taylor (1993) and Gilbert (1996) and for American writers such as Fraser (1996) and Young
(1997). For an analysis of gender agendas in Australia refer to Hayes and Lingard (2003) and for a
description of a whole school approach to gender reform see Blackmore, Kenway et al (1996). Read
Whitehead (2000) for an analysis of gender representation in the Junior Secondary Review in South
Australia. Fine and Weis (1995) and Obrien (1984) address the intersecting nature of oppression
(class, race and gender). In more recent times the reframing of gender equity policy has led to new
studies about the supposed educational disadvantage for boys. See Yates (1997) for a critique.
Racism ethnicity and cultural oppression
Injustices confronting indigenous Australians are well documented in recent reports, e.g. the national
inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children (Commonwealth of
Australia, 1997a). The impact of racism on educational achievement and life chances of minorities is
well documented. McConnochie, Hollinsworth and Petmann (1998) and Moore (1993a, 1993b) have
shown how a culture of racism has excluded indigenous Australians from the benefits of ‘white’
society and effectively denied them any real measure of equality of opportunity. Vast et al (1996)
analyse factors behind the persistence of racism in Australia.
For accounts of racism and race theories from US writers see McCarthy (1990), McLaren (1995) and
Taylor (2000); for the UK refer to Troyna (1997), Troyna and Carrington (1990) and Gilborn and
Kirton (2000). The latter offers an interesting account of the relationship between racism,
underachievement and white working class boys. Issues concerning ethnicity, educational
disadvantage and multicultural education have been raised by Kalantzis and Cope (1984), Rizvi (1991,
1993), Singh (1998) and Sleeter and McLaren (1995).
Students with disabilities
Again the field is extensive. Equity issues concerning students with special needs have been analysed
by Carpenter (1993), Johnstone and Perry (1993) and Rizvi and Lingard (1996).
Resources and strategies for transforming unjust practices
The literature here covers whole school reform, broader systemic changes and curriculum change to
promote socially just schooling. This topic is addressed in some detail ‘Schooling For a Fair Go’ by
Smyth, Hattam and Lawson (Eds.) (1998).
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Whole school reform
The literature in this field includes some good ethnographic studies. See in particular Goodman’s
(1992) study of Harmony School in the US and May’s (1994) account of Richmond Road School in
New Zealand. The whole school approach in Australia has been strongly influenced by the
philosophies and practices of the Disadvantaged School Program (DSP) and the National Schools
Network (NSN). Refer to Connell, Johnston and White (1991), Johnston (1993) and Lingard (1998)
for an evaluation of the DSP and its changing focus. See Harradine (1996) for an overview of the
NSN model of school change. For a whole school reform approach to social justice in action in South
Australia refer to Kay and McSherry (1991) and McInerney (2001). Apple and Beane (1995) present a
model of a democratic school and Smyth (1996) describes a socially just alternative to the selfmanaging school.
Curriculum and pedagogy
Alternatives to current arrangements are encompassed in such notions as (a) critical pedagogy, e.g.
Bigelow (1992), Freire (1993a & 1995a), Carlson and Apple (1998), Shor (1992) (b) critical literacies,
e.g. Brady (1994), Giroux (2002) and Johnson and Reid (1999) (c) democratic curriculum, e.g. Carr
(1998), Kaplan (2000) Goodman and Kuzmic (1997) (d) critical multiculturalism, e.g. May (1994) and
McLaren (1995). Curriculum responses to poverty are addressed by Hatton (1996) Kavanagh (1994),
Levin (1995), Brotherhood of St Laurence (1990), Hattam et al (1996). For strategies to increase
parent decision making and draw on funds of knowledge in communities see Hanafin and Lynch
(2001) and Moll et al (1992).
System/government responses
For an insight into system initiatives and legislative procedures refer to policy documents of State and
Federal education departments—child protection, sexual harassment and discrimination, antiracism,
students with disabilities, social justice action plans—largely a thing of the past—Aboriginal
education, multiculturalism, education of girls, curriculum frameworks etc.
Teacher education
Several writers challenge prevailing technical conceptions of teachers’ work and urge for reform in
teacher education. Giroux (1985b) makes a case for teachers as transformative intellectuals and Freire
1998) speaks of teachers as cultural workers. Cochran-Smith (1991) asserts that teaching for social
justice should be the core of teachers’ work, even if it means teaching ‘against the grain’. She also
claims that the most important goals of teacher education programs are social responsibility, social
change and social justice (1994). In a similar vein Nieto (2000) argues that equity needs to be placed
to the forefront and centre of teacher education and Zeichner (1993) writes of connecting teacher
development to the struggle for social justice.
Mahony and Hextall (1997 & 1998) critique the reconstruction of teacher training agencies in the UK
from a social justice perspective and Lingard and Mills (2003) point to the potential of productive
pedagogies to further social justice goals of teaching. The Education for Social Justice Project (1994)
provides a South Australian example of how teachers can engage students in the struggle for social
justice. See also O’Donoghue et al (1993) on teaching for social justice and Mills (1997) on creating
spaces for student and teacher resistance to social injustice. Griffiths (1998c) makes a case for
educational research for social justice. Anyon (1996) points to the need for educators to form alliances
with progressive community groups in their efforts to create more just schooling arrangements.
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