WOMEN IN CHINA IN 19TH & 20TH CENTURIES
I.BACKGROUND TO WOMEN IN CHINA IN MODERN CENTURIES
1.GENERAL REMARKS
A.MUCH OF STUDIES DONE ON WOMEN DOVETAIL WITH FAMILY
STUDIES
B.THESE AREAS HISTORICAL RESEARCH ONLY IN INFANCY
C.SCHOLARS DID THINK CHINESE EXPERIENCE UNIQUE COMPARED TO
REST OF EUROPE
D.NOW SAY EUROPE IS EXCEPTION TO REST OF WORLD
E.DIFFERENCES a.AFTER FALL OF ROME b.EUROPE DEVELOPED FAMILY & MARRIAGE SYSTEM UNLIKE
OTHERS c.CATHOLIC CHURCH OUTLAWED ROMAN PRACTICES OF
(1)CONCUBINAGE
(2)ADOPTION OF HEIRS
G.LATER PROTESTANT REFORMATION, MODERN STATE &
INDUSTRIALIZATION a.HAD MAJOR CONSEQUENCES ON FAMILY
H.WHEREAS IN ASIA CONTINUITY OF CUSTOMS STATIC UNTIL RECENT
TIMES
2.WOMEN IN EMPOWERING & DENIGRATING ROLES
(3)MARRIAGE OF COUSINS
(4)ALL TO CONTINUING FAMILY LINE
(a)& PRESERVING ITS PROPERTY
F.AFTER SEVERAL CENTURIES OF STRUGGLE a.CHURCH SUCCESSFUL IN FORGING NEW SYSTEM OF MARRIAGE
& FAMILY CUSTOMS
A.FEMALE SHAMANS IMPORTANT PART OF EARLY SOCIETY a.BUT FEMALE SHAMANS NOT AS IMPORTANT AS IN KOREA &
JAPAN
B.FEMALE SHAMANS ALONE COULD PREDICT, PROPHESY & MEDIATE a.BETWEEN THIS WORLD & OTHERS
C.BECAUSE OF CHINESE STRONG ANCESTOR WORSHIP SHAMANS
PLAYED MAJOR ROLE IN ANCESTOR WORSHIP
D.FOLK TRADITION STIGMATIZED WOMEN FOR THEIR ASSOCIATION
WITH VARIOUS POLLUTING ELEMENTS a.MENSTRUAL BLOOD b.POSTPARTUM DISCHARGE c.SEXUAL ACTIVITY d.ALL 3 SEEN AS EVIDENCE OF POWER OF WOMEN FOR GOOD OR
EVIL
3.INFLUENCE OF CONFUCIUS
A.FEW INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS IN WORLD HISTORY MORE
INFLUENTIAL ON WOMEN THAN CONFUCIUISM
B.WOMEN LACKED RATIONALITY & INTELLECTUAL ABILITY
C.PROVERB IF YOUR OLD COAT WEARS OUT DON'T YOU GET A NEW
ONE - ALLUSION TO NEEDING NEW WIFE
D.CONSTRUCT OF CONFUCIAN FAMILY SYSTEM GUARANTEED
CONFLICT AMONG WOMEN AS CONSTANT

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E.GAINS OF EACH WOMAN ALWAYS CAME AT EXPENSE OF ANOTHER
4.INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM & TAOISM ON WOMEN
A.CHINESE TAOISM SAW WOMEN PLAY CENTRAL & HONORED ROLES
B.HSI HUANG MU = QUEEN MOTHER OF THE WEST
C.MEDIEVAL TAOISTS CONSIDERED QUEEN MOTHER EMBODIMENT OF
ULTIMATE YIN a.DARK FEMALE FORCE
D.TAOISTS BELIEVED THAT ALONG WITH HIGH DEITIES OF TAOISM SHE
CREATED WORLD a.CONTINUED TO MAINTAIN C OSMIC HARMONY
E.AS RULER QUEEN MOTHER OF WEST CONTROLLED a.CREATION b.TRANSCENDENCE c.DIVINE PASSION
F.AS MOTHER SHE MOTHER, TEACHER & LOVER
G.QUEEN MOTHER'S FOLLOWERS PASS OVER HER ROLE IN CREATION a.THEY SEE IT AS AUTOMATIC & INEVITABLE
H.SO THEY EMPHASIZE TRANSCENDENCE & DIVINE PASSION a.DIVINE PASSION IS DESIRE OF DEITIES & HUMANS FOR MUTUAL
UNION & COMMUNICATION b.1 MEANS TO TRANSCENDENCE WAS MARRIAGE WITH DEITY OF
OPPOSITE SEX
I.QUEEN MOTHER OF WEST'S NURTURING SIDE PROTECTS WOMEN a.ESPECIALLY ONES WHO DO NOT FIT INTO TRADITIONAL FAMILY
PATTERNS
J.DANCERS, PROSTITUTES, TAOIST NUNS
K.QUEEN MOTHER NOT ADVOCATE OF CONFUCIAN FAMILY ROLES FOR
CHINESE WOMEN
L.SHE IS NEVER MENTIONED AS GRANTER OF CHILDREN
M.HSI WANG MU LEGITIMIZES ALTERATIVE PATHS
N.SHE EMBODIES MODEL OF WOMEN AS DYNAMIC & CREATIVE,
INDEPENDENT FORCES
O.BODHISATTVA - KUAN YIN a.PROBABLY MOST BELOVED GODDESS OF CHINA & JAPAN b.COMPASSIONATE SAVIOURESS OF EAST c.THROUGHOUT ORIENT ALTARS DEDICATED TO MOTHER OF
MERCY
(1)FOUND IN TEMPLES, HOMES, WAYSIDE GROTTOES
(2)EVEN IN SHOPS, RESTAURANTS,
P.PRAYERS TO HER PRESENCE & HER FLAME INCESSANTLY ON
LIPS OF DEVOTEES
(1)AS THEY SEEK HER GUIDANCE & SUCCOR IN EVERY
AREA OF LIFE b.HER BEAUTY, GRACE & COMPASSION HAVE COME TO
REPRESENT IDEAL OF WOMANHOOD IN EAST c.TODAY SHE IS WORSHIPPED BY TAOISTS AS WELL AS
MAHAYAN BUDDHISTS
(1)ESPECIALLY IN
(a)TAIWAN
(b)JAPAN

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(c)KOREA
(d)CHINA
Q.BUDDHISM BROUGHT MIXED RESULTS TO WOMEN a.PARTLY BECAUSE NO SINGLE BUDDHIST IDEOLOGY RELATES
TO WOMEN b.PARTLY BECAUSE BUDDHISM INFLUENCED & INFLUENCED BY
NATIVE TRADITIONS
R.BUT IN MANY BUDDHIST TEXTS & TEACHINGS WOMEN CAME TO
SYMBOLIZE ALL THAT MUT BE TRANSCENDED IN ODER TO
ACHIEVE ENLIGHTENMENT
S.IT IS OFTEN NOT SIMPLY CASE OF TRAGEDY OF BEING BORN WOMAN a.ALMOST ALWAYS RESULT OF BAD KARMA
T.IN JAPAN PURE LAND BUDDHISM HAS POWERFUL MEDIEVAL STUDY
SHOWING THIS MISOGYNY
U.IN BOTH CONFUCIAN AND BUDDHIST IDEALOGIES CONTRIBUTED
INSTRUMENTALLY TO EXCLUSION OF WOMEN FROM PUBLIC
ROLES
V.FOR WOMEN TO ASSUME AFFAIRS OF STATE CONFUCIUS SAID LIKE A
HEN CROWING c.ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
F.ALL THIS ESPECIALLY TRUE IN RURAL AREAS a.WHERE MORE THAN 80% LIVE b.VILLAGE EXOGAMY USUAL PRACTICE
II.IMPERIALISM, REFORM & REVOLUTIONARY PERIODS 1850-1911 IN CHINA, JAPAN,
KOREA
1.INTRODUCTION
A.IMPERIALISM - SPECIAL CHALLENGES TO WOMEN
5.MARRIAGES REGARDING WOMEN THROUGHOUT PAST IN CHINA
A.TRADITIONALLY CHINESE MARRIED YOUNG
B.MARRIED COUPLE USUALLY STAYED IN HIS PARENTS' HOME
C.WIVES UNDER AUTHORITY OF MOTHER-IN-LAWS
D.SO HUSBAND'S FAMILY SIGNIFICANT
E.SENIOR GENERATION SET TONE IN a.CHILD-REARING PRACTICES b.RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES
B.CHANGED NATURE OF PRODUCTIVE WORK WOMEN DID
C.OFTEN IMMEASURABLY WORSENED WORKING CONDITIONS
D.ASIAN WOMEN SINGLED OUT AS SYMBOLS OF ASIAN
BACKWARDNESS & BARBARITY a.BY WESTERN DIPLOMATS, TRADERS & MISSIONARIES
(1)THEN LATER TRIED TO TAKE CREDIT FOR CREATION OF
FEMINIST TRADITIONS IN THESE COUNTRIES
E.MISSION SCHOOLS OFFERED CHALLENGING CURRICULA TO SOME
URBAN WOMEN a.BUT DEMANDED LOYALTY TO BRAND X OF CHRISTIANITY AS
PRICE OF ADMISSION
F.AS MUCH REFORM FOCUSED ON FAMILY a.WOMEN CAUGHT IN MIDDLE BETWEEN ADVANCES FOR WOMEN
AND WOMEN'S TRADITIONAL VIEWS OF WOMEN'S ROLES
G.SOME NATIONALISM, WOMEN'S LIBERATION (TERM USED MUCH IN SE
ASIA) & REVOLUTION ALL CAME TOGETHER

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H.SO JUST LIKE IN EUROPE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH C TIME FOR CHANGE
FOR WOMEN ALSO TRUE OF SE ASIA a.BUT WITH ADDED IMPEDIMENT OF IMPERIALISM
2.CHINA
A.ATTEMPTED CONFUCIAN REVIVAL IN LATE 19TH C. a.SAW CHINESE MALE REFORMERS LIKE K'ANG YU-WEI WANT
FOR WOMEN
(1)END TO FOOTBINDING
(2)REVIVED CONFUCIANISM TO EDUCATE WOMEN
LARGELY BECAUSE WOULD BE MOTHERS OF
FUTURE GENERATIONS
(a)SHADES OF REPUBLICAN WOMANHOOD
B.BUT EDUCATED CHINESE WOMEN a.FROM UNPOPULAR MISSIONS SCHOOLS b.OR NEWLY FOUNDED GENTRY & STATE SCHOOLS c.EMERGED AS OPPONENTS OF CONFUCIAN REFORMISM
C.EDUCATED WOMEN CHANGED THEIR ANGER AT FAMILY SYSTEM a.& DESIRE FOR VISIBLE FUTURE ROLES IN ANTI-MANCHU
MOVEMENT b.WOMEN'S SCHOOLS BECOMING CENTERS OF REPUBLICAN
REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
3.FEMINISM & NATIONALISM IN CHINA
1.1.1CONNECTION BETWEEN FEMINISM & NATIONALISM DEVELOPED
NATURALLY
1.1.1.1PERHAPS BECAUSE IMPOSSIBLE TO THINK ABOUT NEW
SOCIETY
1.1.1.1.1IN WHICH WOMEN COULD PLAY EXPANDED ROLES
1.1.1.1.2W/O FIRST RESCUING NATION FROM IMPERIALISM &
FUTILITY OF MANCHU RULE
1.2WOMEN OF TAIPING REBELLION 1859-64
1.2.1YOUR TEXT HUGHES COVERS
1.2.2DISCUSS TAPING REBELLION
1.2.3WOMEN FIGHTING AS SOLDIERS IN BATTLE
1.2.4WOMEN WORKED IN FIELDS AS TOO POOR SO MEN WORKED IN
CITIES
1.2.5SO COULD NOT BIND FEET AS COULD NOT AFFORD DOWRY
1.2.6SO MARRIED FOR LOVE
1.2.7TALKS OF PSEUDO CHRISTIAN & TRADITIONAL CHINESE RELIGIOUS
1.2.8EMPHASIZED EQUALITY OF MEN & WOMEN
1.2.9WHOLE FAMILIES SOLD THEIR FARMS PUT MONEY INTO
REBELLION'S COMMON TREASURY
1.3LATER WOMEN IN REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
1.3.1WILLING TO GIVE THEIR LIVES TO SAVE CHINA
1.3.1.1AT SAME TIME SAVING THEMSELVES & OTHER WOMEN
1.4CH'IU CHIN
FROM OLD FATE
1.3.2ONE OF BEST EXAMPLES OF THIS TENDENCY CH'IU CHIN (1875-1907)
1.4.1BROUGHT UP IN GENTRY FAMILY BY MOTHER
1.4.1.1WHO ALLOWED HER TO BECOME STRONG & INDEPENDENT
ENOUGH TO DEFY CONVENTION
1.4.2CH'IU DID NOT MARRY UNTIL RELATIVELY LATE

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1.4.3ULTIMATELY LEFT HER HUSBAND & 2 CHILDREN
1.4.3.1TO JOIN CHINESE STUDENTS IN JAPAN IN 1904
1.4.4WITH CONTINUING SUPPORT MONETARILY & EMOTIONALLY OF
HER MOTHER
1.4.5SHE CONTINUED ON AN IDEOLOGICAL ODYSSEY
1.4.5.1THAT LED BACK TO CHINA & REPUBLICAN MOVEMENT
1.4.6SHE ARRESTED AS PART OF ARMED ANTI-MANCHU STRUGGLE IN
1907
1.4.6.1TORTURED BUT REFUSED TO TALK
1.4.6.2EXECUTED BY REGIONAL AUTHORITIES 1907
1.4.7MODEL OF SELF-SACRIFICING HERO SHE SO MUCH ADMIRED IN
CHINESE HISTORY
1.4.8MYTHIC CHARACTER OF HER LIFE HAS MUCH TO DO WITH HER
UNUSUAL BEHAVIOR
1.4.9AFTER RETURNING FROM JAPAN
1.4.10CHIU RECRUITED STUDENTS TO ANTI-MANCHU CAUSE
1.4.11SHE BEHAVED WITH DELIBERATE ICONOCLASM
1.4.12A ONE-TIME STUDENT AT SCHOOL REMEMBERS SHE OFTEN WORE
MAN'S LONG GOWN & BLACK LEATHER SHOES
1.4.13SHE COMBED HER HAIR BACK INTO QUEUE
1.4.14EVEN MORE SCANDALOUS SHE RODE HORSEBACK ASTRIDE
1.4.15SHE ORDERED GIRLS TO PRACTICE MILITARY DRILLS
1.4.16WHEN ASKED WHY SHE DRESSED LIKE A MAN SHE REPLIED
1.4.16.1MY AIM IS TO DRESS LIKE A MAN. AS YOUR HUSBAND
WELL KNOWS, IN CHINA MEN ARE STRONG, AND WOMEN
ARE OPPRESSED BECAUSE THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO BE
WEAK
1.4.17LATER COMMENTATORS WANTED TO PLACE HER IN A NICHE
1.4.17.1WAS SHE A NATIONALIST OR FEMINIST?
1.4.18BUT PROBABLY SALIENT FACT OF HER LIFE SHE MAY HAVE BEEN
UNLIKE OTHER WOMEN
1.4.19SHE LIVED AT MOMENT IN TIME THAT ALLOWED HER TO
COMBINE
1.4.19.1ANTI-IMPERIALIST
1.4.19.2ANTI-MANCHU
1.4.19.3ANTI-CONFUCIAN
1.4.19.4FEMINIST CONVICTIONS
1.5OTHER CHINESE WOMEN REVOLUTIONARIES
1.5.1MANY WOMEN TOOK ON DANGEROUS ASSIGNMENTS ON BEHALF
OF REPUBLICAN REVOLUTION
1.5.2SOPHIA CHANG
1.5.2.1STUDENT IN JAPAN BORROWED NAME SOPHIA FROM
CELEBRATED RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONARY SOPHIA
PEROVSKAYA (WHO ASSASSINATED TSAR)
1.5.3SOUMAY CHENG
1.5.3.1MEMBER OF "DARE TO DIE" CORPS
1.5.3.1.1WHO TRANSPORTED EXPLOSIVE DEVICES IN
SUITCASE & LINING OF HER COAT
1.5.4COUNTLESS OTHER WOMEN ORGANIZED THEMSELVES INTO
BATTALIONS WITH NAMES SUCH AS
1.5.4.1THE WOMEN'S SUICIDE BRIGADE

1.5.4.2WOMEN'S NATIONAL ARMY
1.5.4.3ZHEJIANG WOMEN'S ARMY
2LAST OF MANCHUS RULING OF CHINA
A.BACKGROUND TO TZU HSI
1.IN 1860 200 YR OLD QING OR MANCHU DYNASTY IN CHINA a.APPEARED ON VERGE OF COLLAPSE
2.EFFORTS TO REPEL FOREIGNERS HAD FAILED
3.REBELLION & CHAOS WHACKED COUNTRY
4.PARALLEL MOVEMENT TOWARD DOMESTIC REFORM & LIMITED
COOPERATION WITH WEST a.COLLAPSED UNDER BLOWS OF JAPANESE IMPERIALISM b.SINO-JAPANESE WAR OF 1894-1895 c.SOME MODERNIZERS SAW SALVATION IN WESTERN
INSTITUTIONS
5.IN 1898 GOVT LAUNCHED DESPERATE 100 DAYS OF REFORM a.IN ATTEMPT TO MEET FOREIGN CHALLENGE
6.RADICAL REFORMERS SUCH AS SUN YAT-SEN a.WHO CAME FROM PEASANTRY b.EDUCATED IN HAWAII BY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES c.SOUGHT TO OVERTHROW QING DYNASTY ALTOGETHER &
ESTABLISH REPUBLIC
7.ON OTHER SIDE SOME TRADITIONALISTS TURNED BACK TOWARD a.ANCIENT PRACTICES b.POLITICAL CONSERVATISM c.FANATICAL HATRED OF FOREIGN DEVILS
B.EMPRESS TZU HSI OR TSH HSI (1835-1908)
1.CONSERVATIVE LEADER OF TRADITIONAL CHINA
2.1 OF MOST FORMIDABLE WOMEN IN MODERN HISTORY
3.FAMED FOR HER BEAUTY & CHARM
4.SHE EITHER GREAT FRIEND OR TERRIBLE ENEMY
5.ROSE FROM MIDDLE CLASS FAMILY TO DOWAGER EMPRESS
6.AFFECTING CHINESE LIFE FOREVER
7.ROSE FROM LOW-RANKING CONCUBINE OF EMPEROR HS'EN FENG AT
AGE 17 TO HIGH STATUS WHEN SHE BORE HIS ONLY SON
8.GIVEN NAME TSU HSI a.MEANS KINDLY & VIRTUOUS b.HER COURT NAME
9.WHEN HE DIED HER SON SUCCEEDED a.EVERY DECREE HAD TO BE APPROVED BY HER b.SHE REALLY RULED CHINA
10.CALLED DOWAGER EMPRESS
11.COMBINED SHREWD INSIGHT WITH VIGOROUS ACTION TO
REVITALIZE BUREAUCRACY
12.SHE EXERTED HERSELF INTO STATE AFFAIRS
13.SHE REFUSED TO GIVE UP HER REGENCY EVEN WHEN HER SON
CAME OF AGE
14.SHE USED STATE FUNDS TO BUILD HERSELF PALACE
15.SOLD POSTS & PROMOTIONS
16.SUCH ACTS RESENTED BY SOME
17.PARTICULARLY AFTER CHINESE DEFEATED BY JAPANESE IN 1890'S
18.UNDER HER REIGN WESTERN POWERS FORCEFULLY INCREASED
6

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THEIR PRESENCE IN CHINA
19.AFTER SUPPRESSION OF ANTI-WEST BOXER REBELLION, SHE BEGAN
POLICY OF APPEASEMENT
20.ALLOWING REFORMS & MODERNIZATION OF GOVERNMENT a.EXAMPLE OF REFORMS
(1)OUTLAWS SLICING
(2)PRACTICE OF KILLING PEOPLE WITH THOUSANDS OF
SMALL CUTS b.SHE EVEN PROMISED CONSTITUTION & REPRESENTATIVE GOVT c.BUT TOO LITTLE TOO LATE
21.REALLY LAST OF MANCHU RULERS AS BOY SHE PICKED NEVER GOT
TO ACTUALLY RULE LIKE SHE DID a.3 YEAR OLD NEPHEW PU YI b.SOURCE OF HOLLYWOOD MOVIE THE LAST EMPEROR
22.WHEN SHE DIED AT AGE 72 a.SHE BURIED IN SPLENDOR COVERED IN DIAMONDS
II.MARRIAGE & FAMILY CUSTOMS AFFECTING WOMEN
A.PEASANTS VIEWS OF DAUGHTERS
1.EXCESS BAGGAGE
2.HISTORICALLY TRUE THEN & NOW
3.RECENT YEARS PATRILOCAL RESIDENCE a.SINGLED OUT AS MAJOR REASON FOR WOMEN'S CONTINUING
OPPRESSION
4.SINCE MAO (1949) a.COMMUNISTS VOWED TO END MISTREATMENT OF WOMEN
5.BUT DEEPLY ROOTED CUSTOMS OF FOLLOWING LONG DURATION a.FOOD BINDING b.FEMALE INFANTICIDE c.SELLING OF GIRLS FOR
(1)SERVANTS
(2)PROSTITUTION
6.THESE HAVE PROVED RESISTANT TO CHANGE a.EVEN WHEN NEW LAWS STATE OTHERWISE
7.WOMEN NOW FREE TO ENTER LABOR FORCE
8.MANY TALENTED & COURAGEOUS WOMEN CONTRIBUTED TO
SUCCESS OF COMMUNIST REVOLUTION
9.BUT MOST LEADERSHIP SLOTS STILL RESERVED FOR MEN
10.SON IS STILL GENERALLY MORE DESIRED THAN DAUGHTERS
11.PREFERENCE FOR SONS EXPRESSED MANY WAYS a.BOYS BETTER EDUCATED THAN GIRLS
(1)ESPECIALLY IN RURAL AREAS TODAY b.AS DAUGHTER'S MARRIAGE WILL NOT CONTRIBUTE TO HER
NATAL FAMILY
(1)SONS OFTEN GIVEN
(a)BETTER FOOD
(b)CLOTHING
(c)HEALTH CARE
12.CONTINUING PRACTICE OF FEMALE INFANTICIDE
13.& MARKETS IN WOMEN PROSTITUTES TESTIFYING TO
EXPENDABILITY OF DAUGHTERS
14.MARRIED WOMAN COULD BE

8 a.TRICKED b.PAWNED c.KIDNAPPED d.BY HER HUSBAND INTO PROSTITUTION
B.MARRIAGES
1.LEGISLATIVE ENACTMENTS HAVE FAILED TO STAMP OUT PRACTICES
OF a.WIFE BEATING b.FORCED MARRIAGE c.SALE OF BRIDES
2.MUCH HERALDED MARRIAGE LAW OF 1950 a.GAVE WIVES AS WELL AS HUSBANDS RIGHT TO DIVORCE b.WITHIN YEAR NEARLY 1 MILLION WOMEN GOT DIVORCE
(1)IMPRESSIVE EVIDENCE OF LACK OF DOMESTIC
TRANQUILITY
3.TRADITIONALLY CHINESE MARRIED YOUNG
4.MARRIED COUPLE USUALLY STAYED IN HIS PARENTS' HOME
5.WIVES UNDER AUTHORITY OF MOTHER-IN-LAWS
6.SO HUSBAND'S FAMILY SIGNIFICANT
7.SENIOR GENERATION SET TONE IN a.CHILD-REARING PRACTICES b.RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES c.ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
8.ALL THIS ESPECIALLY TRUE IN RURAL AREAS a.WHERE MORE THAN 80% LIVE b.VILLAGE EXOGAMY USUAL PRACTICE