Roles of Women in Ancient Egyptian Society
Mike Gilroy
HIS3118: Women in Africa
Final Project
The history of women in Ancient Egypt is an incomplete history at best.
Egyptian women played a large and integral role in the history of their civilization.
Great leaders such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra are ingrained in the minds of
millions as the first female leaders of great societies. Unfortunately, although
their role is hugely important, Cleopatra and Hatshepsut were the exception to
the rule. To fully understand the role of common women in Ancient Egyptian
society is difficult for a number of reasons. For the most part, women were
illiterate meaning that nearly all surviving Egyptian texts were written by men.
There’s an inherent bias in that the only view that exists of Egyptian of women is
from the perspective of man. It’s known that common women were traditionally
limited to roles inside the home. Unfortunately, there is little knowledge
concerning Ancient Egyptian housing. Another difficulty is the sheer span of time
that the Empire existed. The Ancient Egyptians existed for 3,000 years; it’s
difficult to produce a coherent image of a woman’s role in a society that
experienced three millennia of change and innovation1. However, it is possible to
piece together texts and archaeological evidence to provide a view of a woman’s
ideal place in the society, and glimpse into what life must have been like for fifty
percent of the population.
The study of women in ancient Egypt is a difficult topic. The artifacts left
behind by the Egyptians tell very little about the roles women played in society
and in everyday life. In art, women are all depicted as tall and slender, and in
1
Oxford, Vol. III, 510 – Women
supportive roles to the men2. This only reveals that women had a role as
homemakers, wives, and mothers but it says relatively little on how society
viewed these roles. It’s possible that women were completely subservient in
status, but it’s also possible that they were greatly respected for their
contributions. Evidence would suggest that Egyptian men were fond of the
women in their society by the number of freedoms women had when compared
to other cultures in the ancient world. Women enjoyed the right to own land, buy
and sell property (including slaves), and inheritance3. Wives were capable of
generating their own income, and received one-third of their husband’s
possessions in the event of death while his sons and daughters received the
remaining two-thirds4. Many of these rights would be eroded when the Greek
Ptolemaic line came to power after the conquest of Alexander5.
Despite their comparative freedoms, women in Ancient Egypt were
traditionally homemakers. Egyptian religion placed a heavy emphasis on the
cycle of life, death, and rebirth6. This placed a large importance on the woman’s
role as life-giver, and made marriage the most important aspiration a young
woman could have. Fertility played an essential role in life and religion.
According to Tyldesley’s Daughters of Isis, “A fertile woman was a successful
woman7.” Fertility was the most important asset a woman could have. By
bearing many children, she would gain social status, marital security, and would
Tyldesley, 20 – Women as depicted in Art
Tyldesley, 37 – Supposed equality before the law, women’s rights
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Oxford Vol. III, 511 – Women; legal rights
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Chaveau, 97 – Women’s rights in Greece VS Egypt
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Littleton, 22 – Egyptian Cyclical Beliefs
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Tyldesley 66
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be regarded as physically attractive to the males in the community. Childbirth
was completely up to the women in society, men (including male doctors) were
rarely involved in the delivery process8. High child mortality rates in society
meant that women had to have multiple children in order to ensure descendants.
Children were vital to the Egyptians. In addition to providing a free source of
labor, children were tasked with supporting their parents through old age 9 (which
for women was around 40 if they survived disease and childbirth10.) Women
often married in their teenage years to produce children before they hit ‘old age’.
While unmarried women were not discriminated under the law, they were at a
massive disadvantage. The entire Egyptian society was based around the
family’s role in continuing the cycle of life, death, and rebirth. Women without
husbands were likely to be exploited, and perhaps even shunned. They were
viewed as people who needed the protection of male figures but were not
required under Egyptian law to have male guardians2 (laws most other ancient
civilizations held dear4). It was common for these widows and divorced women
to live in their parents or siblings’ homes and carry out a traditional female role in
the household, there is little to nothing written about women who never married11.
Ancient Egyptian gender roles were well defined within society. It was
generally accepted that indoor work or housework was women’s work while men
had jobs outside of the home12. Women were the “mistresses of the house,13”
Tyldesley 72 – Details on childbirth
Oxford Vol. III, 512 – Women; importance of child bearing
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Tyldesly, 40 – Life expectancy
11
Robins, 73 – Unmarried, and widowed women
12
Tyldesley 82 – Women’ role inside the home, home life
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Mertz, 58 – Women in the home
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9
although within the house there was typically one wife or mother who ‘outranked’
the other household women. The woman’s role as mistress of the house was
undisputed in Egyptian culture.
“Do not control your wife in her house, when you know she is efficient;
Don’t say to her: ‘Where is it? Get it!’ when she has put it in the right
place.” – Instructions of Anii, 18th Dynasty14
Due to the lack of indoor plumbing and modern conveniences,
maintaining the household was a fulltime job for the women of Egypt. Women
were expected to cook, fetch water, and care for the children. Women could help
their husbands in the field and manage their affairs when they are away615.
Egyptian homes were composed of extended families of around six adults16.
Women seemingly accepted their roles as homemakers. Women of different
social statuses had varying responsibilities. Elite women merely oversaw the
work of slaves and servants, while more moderate and lower class women
oversaw the work of fewer servants and performed many duties themselves 17. It
was understood that men and women simply had different tasks they needed to
perform. Ancestry played a large role in this, as Egyptians were very keen to
respect the lives of their forbearers and continue the eternal cycle by assuming
Oxford Vol. III, 512 – Women Domestic roles
Mertz, 59
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Tyldesley, 83
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Oxford Vol. III, 512
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their roles. Women maintained the home, as was done for countless years prior
and would be done for generations to come. Their seemingly lower social
standing may have been easier to accept in Egypt than in other civilizations
because of the rights afforded to women, and the tradition of strict gender roles.
Although women had a social expectation to work inside the home, some
women needed to work outside the home for economic reasons. These women
had limited options, but were able to find work in a few different fields. Educated
women could find work in domestic supervision. They would oversee the work of
other female attendants to high-class women, or woman run workshops such as
wigmakers, or grinders. Skilled women could work as weavers, dancers, or
musicians. Women without skills or education could find jobs as attendants to
the wealthy or servant work18. Lower and moderate class women did not receive
a formal education. Boys typically went to school while the girls stayed home
with their mothers. The reason for this was economical. Daughters could aid
their mothers at home, and prepare for their traditional roles as future wives.
Since it was assumed girls would grow up to be homemakers, it wasn’t
considered a wise investment to educate them. Royal women and some highly
elite women were taught to read and write, but even then, literacy among
females wasn’t widespread. For a woman to be literate and attain a job using
those was truly a rarity19.
Upper-class women often found work outside the home as priestesses. It
was customary for Egyptian Goddesses to be attended by females, just as Gods
18
19
Tyldesley, 123-124 – Descriptions of jobs women could perform
Tyldesley, 114-121 - Education
were attended by men, and men and women had slaves and servants of the
same gender attend to them. Priestesses were highly regarded in Egyptian
society; their ranks were filled with only the upper echelon of society. The Cult of
Hathor was known to have queens serve as priestesses20. Other sources report
that outside the cult of Hathor, women were not widely used as priestesses but
rather as musicians and dancers who performed to please the temple deity21.
The highest role ever recorded for a woman was Lady Nebet of the Old Kingdom
who was granted the title “ ‘Sole Royal Ornament’ and ‘Hereditary Princess,
Daughter of Geb, Countess, Daughter of Merhu, She of the Curtain, Judge and
Vizier, Daughter of Thoth, Companion of the King of Lower Egypt, Daughter of
Horus’.”22 Lady Nebet’s position as Vizier is completely unheard of in Egyptian
society, which had a strong tradition of male rulers and male ministers. Although
her husband may have performed many of her duties, her mere appointment is
remarkable compared to the treatment of women in other societies.
For the most part, women did not work outside of the home. They gained
their social status from their husbands, and were entitled to joint property within
the marriage. In rare instances, wives could fill-in for their husbands at work,
illustrating that women were not necessarily viewed as inferior to men, but
typically had different jobs to perform23. Compared to both modern and ancient
governments, the Ancient Egyptian government had minimal involvement in the
affairs of marriage. There is very little written about Egyptian wedding
Tyldesley, 192 – Roles of the Queen
Mertz, 56 – Jobs of women
22
Tyldesley, 125 – Direct quote of Lady Nebet, Wife of Huy’s title.
23
Tyldesley, 121 – Male and Female job roles
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ceremonies, there is even debate as to whether or not they even existed. It’s
possible that a man and a woman simply agreed to live together for the economic
betterment of their families and held no formal ceremony24. Evidence suggests
that inside the marriage women were well respected by their sons and husbands.
Writings have been found on tomb walls citing that the deceased was “well loved
by his mother11.” Undoubtedly, a certain prestige came with bearing sons for
one’s husband. Husbands were known to spend the end of the day relaxing with
their wives, often playing board games such as “senet” and “twenty squares”
together25.
However, marriage was never a perfect institution in any society. Divorce
existed in Egyptian society, and occurred for any number of reasons including
infertility, infidelity, dislike, or the wish to marry another. By 500 B.C., women
were able to initiate the divorce26. Women were treated well by ancient
standards of divorce and were entitled to one-third of her husband’s assets27.
The wife typically left the house, as the husband usually owned it. However,
there were rare cases where the wife owned the family home and the husband
had to leave. In addition, the mother typically cared for the children following the
divorce28. Infidelity was a serious crime if it was committed by the wife.
Husbands were seemingly allowed to physically punish their wives, or perhaps
even kill them if they were unfaithful, however the most common course of action
Mertz, 58 – Women in Ancient Egypt
Tyldesley, 145 – Married Life
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Robins, 63 - Divorce
27
Mertz, 59
28
Tyldesley, 58-59 - Separation
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was divorce and public shame on the part of the wife29. In the late period, female
infidelity inside the marriage deprived the wife of her financial claim to her
husband’s property30. Men who had affairs with married women were also
subject to harsh punishments and disgrace31. It’s interesting to note that it was
perfectly legitimate for men to have multiple wives. However, this was
considered uncommon, especially among the lower classes where men could not
feasibly have supported multiple wives. Even among the rich, polygamy was not
widely practiced. This could be because of the sexual access husbands had to
servants, slaves and those of lower social status32. Evidence has been found in
tombs of illegitimate born of women other than the deceased’s wife. These
children suffered no social stigmata for their status, and were presumably raised
equally alongside the couple’s legitimate offspring. 33
Typical Ancient Egyptian women were confined to traditional roles as
wives and mothers. However, this was not necessarily subordinate so much as it
was their accepted role in society. While there is no question that men
dominated Ancient Egypt, it’d be incorrect to say that they looked down upon
women. Evidence shows that the woman’s role as mistress of the house and
life-giver were integral parts of society that were highly adored and respected by
the male half of the population. “The Egyptians were a very uxorious race.34”
29
Tyldesley, 60-62 - Adultery
Oxford Vol. III, 511 - Women; Divorce
31
Robins, 71-72 – Male adultery with a married woman
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Robins, 68 -70 - Infidelity
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Robins, 66-67 Illegitimate children
34
Tyldesley, 47 – Direct quote from introduction to chapter on marriage
30
The queens of Ancient Egypt had an influence over the empire. Although
they did not typically wield any known powers or authority, they did have a direct
connection with the pharaoh, which was invaluable in terms of political power.
The term ‘queen’ can refer to any number of females inhabiting the royal palace.
Queen can refer to any of the king’s wives, his mother, his daughters, and his
sisters, half-sisters and cousins. It is likely that Egypt had a matrilineal history,
which gave way to a broader definition of family relations especially regarding
females. Popular stories of Pharaohs marrying and reproducing with their sister
are often misinterpreted as a result. In African and Egyptian culture, ‘sister’ can
refer any member of the female line including cousins and half-sisters. However,
theories regarding the line of Pharaohs being matrilineal have been widely
accepted as false by a number of sources35. These sources claim that no such
line can be traced, since not all pharaohs married royal women36. The 18th
Dynasty was rife with incest among the royal family. The leading theory is
currently that the Pharaohs were attempting to assert their deity status by acting
like the gods and reproducing within the family. In addition to deifying
themselves, interbreeding kept foreign claims off the Egyptian throne, and gave
royal princess a suitable mate37.
The king of Egypt was polygamous, and took multiple wives. However,
one of his wives was considered superior to the rest and was given special
treatment. The alpha-queens were given their own estate, complete with an
Ray, 43 – Matrilineal Theory Debunked
Oxford Vol. III, 107 – Queens female line hypothesis; definition of ‘queen’
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Tyldesley, 199
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36
individual income, officers, and servants to suit their needs38. The sons of the
Queen-consort were the only ones eligible to succeed the throne39. The lesser
wives lived separately with the rest of the Pharaoh’s children; they still lived lives
of luxury but were not afforded the same treatment as the primary wife.
The dominant queen-wife and the queen-mother played important roles in
rituals. The Pharaoh was the divine incarnation of the sun god Amun-Re, his
wife and mother played the roles of the sky-goddess during rituals. The skygoddess gives birth to the sun-god after the sun-god impregnates her. For this
reason, the wife and mother could not play both roles individually. The queenmother also takes on a ritual role in the myth of the pharaoh’s godly birth. The
queen-mother was said to have been impregnated by Amun-Re, which gives the
Pharaoh a direct link to the Egyptian pantheon40. In many ways, the entire
Egyptian religion was the worship of the Pharaoh’s godly (and earthly) lineage 41.
Throughout the 3,000 Years of the Egyptian Empire, King after King ruled
over the populace. However, there were a number of women who rose to power
throughout the span of the empire. Although these women are the exception to a
long-standing rule, the truth is that these women ruled a male dominated society
in an age where most women were denied many liberties, and education. When
looking at the accomplishments of women in Ancient Egypt, it’s impossible to
overlook the reigns of Hatshepsut, Nefertiti, and Cleopatra VII.
Oxford Vol. III, 107 – Queens; Role of the principal wife
Tyldesley, 192 – Queen-Consort
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Oxford Vol. III, 106 - Queens
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Littleton, 11 – Egypt’s Divine Kingship
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Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I, and wife-consort of her halfbrother Thutmose II. When Thutmose II died, Hatshepsut became guardian of
the child pharaoh Thutmose III, effectively giving the teenage queen control of
the kingdom by getting herself officially declared the co-ruler of Egypt.
Hatshepsut claimed that her father, Thutmose I, named her his rightful successor
and she exerted her claim to the throne through her royal bloodline42. Eventually
she came to regard herself as a Pharaoh in her own right, and performed many
of the rituals traditionally carried out by kings, changing many of the texts and
rituals to reflect “a feminine version of the theology of kingship.43” Hatshepsut
went as far as to dress herself in traditional king’s clothing, including a false
beard44. Hatshepsut expanded the international trade of Egypt and
commissioned many temples, and monuments (many to herself). In addition,
Hatshepsut set out to rebuild and build-up parts of Egypt that had previously
been affected by war. Most notably, she spent a great deal of time and effort
renovating Karnak temple. She used Egypt and Nubia’s vast natural resources
to fund her building projects. Her most famous project is the temple at Deir elBahri, a monument to her reign as pharaoh45. As her nephew matured, she
settled into a role as co-regent, controlling the domestic and economic aspects of
the empire. Although Hatshepsut never technically ruled alone, she was
obviously the dominant of the two rulers, often performing the King’s roles in the
Shaw, 237-38 – Regency of Hatshepsut
Ray, 45 - Hatshepsut
44
Fletcher, 219 – Hatshepsut cross dressing
45
Shaw, 239-243 – Accomplishments of Hatshepsut
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rituals46. In his later years, Thutmose III tried to erase Hatshepsut’s monuments,
achievements, and reign from history in favor of his own47. Thutmose III and
future pharaohs felt that Hatshepsut’s reign went against the ma’at (natural
order).48
One of the most enigmatic women in Egyptian history is Queen Nefertiti,
primary wife of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV of the 18th dynasty. Her familial origins
remain unknown, although some historians believe that her name (meaning, “a
beautiful woman has come”) is a clue that she was a foreigner who arrived in
Egypt to marry the pharaoh49. Amenhotep IV, commonly known as Akhenaton,
was famous for converting the Egyptian polytheistic religion into a monotheistic
worship of the sun-god Aten, and to a lesser degree the worship of himself and
Nefertiti. Nefertiti became associated with the goddess Tefnut, and took an
active role in rituals traditionally meant only for the king. Nefertiti was always
seen at her husband’s side, and functioned as his co-ruler. The rule of
Akhenaton and Nefertiti was radical for the change in religion, rituals, and
garments worn by the royal court50. The art of the era was a complete departure
from traditional Egyptian works, as it attempted to show a sense of realism
instead of the ideal. Interestingly enough, Akhenaton is portrayed as
androgynous or feminine in many depictions. The most famous piece of art from
the reign of Akhenaten is the sculpted head of Queen Nefertiti51. For years,
Oxford Vol. III, 108 – Queens – Famous Egyptian Queens
Shaw, 243 – Thutmose III’s sole rule
48
Littleton, 61 – The mythology of Hatshepsut
49
Tyldsley (Nefertiti, 42) – different book from previous Tyldsley citations
50
Tyldesley, 231-237 – Queen Nefertiti
51
Littleton, 33 – Akhenaton’s Art
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47
Nefertiti’s fate remained a mystery. She seemingly disappeared after the death
of one of her daughters, while a young prince named Smenkhkara emerged onto
the scene to co-rule with Akhenaton 52. However, recent archeological studies
have seemingly confirmed the fate of the queen. After the death of her husband,
Nefertiti assumed the role of Pharaoh as Smenkhkara, with her eldest daughter
functioning as her primary wife53. Although her solo reign lasted under a year54,
Queen Nefertiti’s time in power is one of the most baffling eras in Egyptian
history. From all accounts, Nefertiti was manipulative and kept Akhenaten under
her control. For a woman to achieve such power over the pharaoh is nothing
short of remarkable, and serves as proof to the influence a crafty queen can
carry. Many future pharaohs would try to undo much of Akhenaton’s work and
try to erase Nefertiti from history, as they were considered heretical in their
monotheistic beliefs55.
Cleopatra VII is perhaps the most well known Egyptian of all time. The
lover of Mark Antony and Julius Caesar has appeared in plays, books, and
movies since she famously committed suicide following her defeat at the Battle of
Actium. Cleopatra ruled Egypt at the very end of its independence, following her
death Egypt became a province of the new Roman Empire. At the time of her
reign, women had lost much of their traditional Egyptian rights after centuries of
Greek hegemony under the Ptolemy dynasty. However, despite her Greek
origins, Cleopatra and the Ptolemies did adopt the Egyptian tradition of sibling
52
Tyldesly (Nefertiti), page I
Fletcher, 327 – After the death of Akhenaten
54
Fletcher, 327 – After the death of Akhenaten
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Fletcher, 333 – Powerful people wanted Nefertiti out of the way
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marriage. Cleopatra ruled alongside two of her brother/husbands (Ptolemy XIII
and XIV). However, although she officially ascended to the throne she was
forced into exile until the arrival of Julius Caesar56. Cleopatra allied herself with
Caesar, gained full control of her kingdom, and fathered Caesar’s only son –
Caesarion57. Following Caesar’s murder, she allied herself with Mark Antony in
the ensuing Roman civil war in the hopes of keeping Egypt’s independence. The
defeat at Actium occurred in 31 BCE; Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BCE
after failing to secure peace with Augustus58. This ended the reign of the
Pharaoh’s and the Egyptian empire. Aside from her historical actions, little is
known about Cleopatra herself. Caesar was supposedly attracted to her drive,
ambition, and pride as well as her cunning political skills 59. The majority of
sources regarding her are Greek and Roman, two cultures that greatly disliked
her60.
The role of women in Egyptian society was that of loving homemakers who did
their part to make their society legendary. Female rulers like Cleopatra,
Hatshepsut, and Nefertiti serve as examples of strong independent women who
knew what they wanted, and overcame great societal boundaries to achieve their
goals. While some may classify these women as manipulative, it’s important to
keep the perspective that men with strict gender definitions wrote the surviving
historical texts on these women who had to assert themselves to survive in their
position. Typical women of Egyptian society (before the Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Nardo, 36 – Caesar installs Cleopatra
Nardo, 38-40 – Alliance with Caesar
58
Discovery, 150-153 – The Last of the Pharaohs
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Nardo, 42 – Romance with Caesar
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Oxford Vol. III, 108-109 Queens; Cleopatra VII
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were granted more rights than the average woman of the ancient world. While
these wives and mothers still faced a rigid male-dominated social system, they
were masters of all things domestic and evidence supports that they were loved
and respected for their contributions. One of the most telling signs of Egyptians’
views towards women was their universal respect for Isis who was a sister, wife,
and mother to some of the most powerful deities in the Egyptian pantheon. The
idea of woman as integral to the universal cycle of life, death, and rebirth gave
mothers a great deal of status within society. Although there is a lack of details,
and a male-perspective bias, women in Egyptian society seemed to be revered
for their hard work that many other ancient cultures took for granted.