(version 030507)
Student will answer 2 questions: 1 st from group of questions 1 - 20, 2 nd from group 21 - 40.
1. The eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell
(Cell composition, structure and function; internal environment of cells - cytosol as an aqueous solution; methods of study of cells and tissues, characteristics of basic cell types; bacterial genetics.)
2. Chemical composition of the cell
(Review of chemical components of cells - their structure, properties and function; detection of inorganic and organic cellular components by cytochemical and histochemical methods.)
3. Catalysts of cellular reactions
(Principle and importance of catalysis; enzymes and coenzymes - classification, function, enzyme kinetics; the role of enzymes in cell signaling; catalytic histochemistry - principle and use; genetic disorders of metabolism - examples of AR heredity.)
4. Energy metabolism of the cell
(Modes of energy generation by various organisms; Gibb´s energy, endergonic and exergonic reactions, chemical equilibrium; energy-rich [macroergic] compounds, their formation, role in metabolism; formation of ATP in cells; structure of mitochondria, morphology of cells in relation to their energy requirements - basolateral labyrinth, cilia and flagella.)
5. Metabolism and function of saccharides in the cell
(Entrance of glucose into cells, glycolysis, metabolism of glycogen and its detection within cells, gluconeogenesis, pentose cycle; morphology of cells in relation to the metabolism and transport of saccharides; diabetes [type II] as an example of polygenic heredity.)
6. Metabolism and function of lipids in the cell
(Functions of lipids in the cell; beta oxidation, synthesis of fatty acids, synthesis and degradation of triacylglycerols, ketone bodies, synthesis of cholesterol; cells producing steroid hormones; white and brown adipose tissue; atherosclerosis as an example of polygenic heredity.)
7. Metabolism and function of proteins in the cell
(Functions of proteins - review; proteins in energy metabolism - degradation of proteins, structure and metabolism of amino acids, urea cycle; morphology of cells producing various types of proteins, types of secretion, glands; methods of detection and identification of proteins; mutations as a cause of genetic diseases and tumors; complement - components, modes of activation, function, regulation.)
8. Structure and function of DNA
(Structure of DNA, nucleotides, nucleosides, bases; DNA replication and reparation; DNA as a carrier of genetic information, structure of the gene; morphology of chromosomes, karyotype, numerical chromosomal abnormalities; DNA and chromatin in a microscopy - both LM and
EM.)
9. Structure and function of the cell nucleus
(Chromatin, chromosomes; the cell nucleus, nuclear compartments, nucleolus, nuclear envelope; structural chromosomal abnormalities, chromosomal abnormalities in tumors.)
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10. From DNA to proteins
(From DNA to RNA, from RNA to proteins: transcription, RNA splicing, alternative splicing, translation and ribosomes; consequences of mutations; structure of proteins, posttranslational modifications; morphology of cells in relation to synthesis of various types of proteins.)
11. Biological membranes
(Structure, properties and function of biological membranes, membrane modifications; structure of membrane lipids; membrane proteins – structure, functions; membrane receptors, signal transduction through the membrane; membrane in the picture of EM, myelin sheath, morphology of intercellular junctions; membrane molecules of cells of the immune system - Fc receptors, CD molecules)
12. Membrane transport of substances
(Transport proteins, ion channels and membrane potential; types of the transport, the relationship between chemical structure of compounds and their membrane transport; intercellular junctions; pinocytosis, brush border, cells transporting ions, synapsis; phagocytosis as a mechanism of immune reaction; genetic defects of membrane proteins.)
13. Intracellular compartments and transport between them
(Organelles, segregation, transport and secretion of proteins; the importance of compartmentalization of biochemical processes, subcellular localization of main metabolic pathways and their interconnections; cell organelles in LM and EM, inclusions; mitochondrial genome and mutations.)
14. Mitochondria
(The structure and types of mitochondria, mitochondrial compartments, aging of the organism; review of metabolic pathways localized in the mitochondrion – importance, regulation; interconnection of catabolic pathways with an aerobic phosphorylation; mitochondrial heredity and mitochondrial disorders.)
15. The cytoskeleton
(Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules and their function; molecular motors; abnormalities of mitotic and meiotic division, abnormal fertilization.)
16. Cell cycle and resting cells
(Phases of the cell cycle; synthesis of nucleotides for replication of nucleic acids; resting and proliferating cells in EM, duration of the cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis, gametogenesis; changes of chromosomes during the cell cycle.)
17. Mechanisms of regulation of the cell cycle
( Activation and progression; phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins in relation to their regulation; genetic aspects of carcinogenesis, the tumor cell.)
18. Signal transmission within the cell
(Kinases, second messengers, ion concentration; regulation of metabolism on the cell level – activation and inhibition of regulatory enzymes of main metabolic pathways.)
19. Apoptosis
(Fundamentals and meaning, mechanisms of induction and realization; hydrolytic enzymes; apoptosis as one of the basic morphogenetic processes; the role of apoptosis in immune system.)
20. Cell to cell communication
(Principles of cell signalization, signal molecules; cell contacts; the structure of cells emitting signals, neurocrine, paracrine, autocrine, and endocrine secretion; cytokines and adhesive molecules and their role in immune reaction.)
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21. Mechanisms of immune reaction
(Structure and function of cells of immune system; nonspecific and specific immunity - characteristics of their components, function and mutual cooperation; antigens; immunogenetics, transplantation in humans.)
22. Nerve tissue
(Characteristics of the tissue, neurons, glial cells, synapsis; structure of membrane lipids; metabolism of the nerve tissue, signal transmission, neurotransmitters; genetically determined disorders of the nerve tissue [dynamic mutations: fragile X, Huntington disease].)
23. Muscle tissue
(Characteristics of individual types of the muscle tissue; the principle of muscle contraction; metabolism of the muscle cell; genetically determined disorders of the muscle tissue
[examples of X-linked recessive heredity].)
24. Blood
(Characteristics of the tissue, blood elements, their visualization, origin, structure, and function; regulation of hematopoiesis; heme metabolism; blood group heredity, genetically determined blood disorders; T-lymphocytes and their subpopulations)
25. Connective tissues
(Characteristics of the tissues, cellular components of the connectives, extracellular matrix and fibres, their origin, function, and regeneration; ossification; cell to cell contacts and adhesion; genetic disorders of the connective tissue [examples of AD heredity].)
26. Epithelial tissues
(Characteristics of the tissues, arrangement, and function; structure and function of the basal membrane; intercellular junctions; diffusion and osmosis, transport of ions across the membrane; mutagenity of UV radiation, reparation of mutation and its disorders [xeroderma pigmentosum].)
27. Genetic variability and its resources
(Sources of genetic changes, sexual reproduction and reorganization of genes, meiosis, gametogenesis and fertilization; genetic determination of sex; impact of the primary structure of proteins on their properties and functions; isoenzymes; immunoglobulins - structure, classification, and function.)
28. Mechanisms of gene regulation in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
(A comparison of the eukaryotic and prokaryotic genome, gene and regulation of its expression; gene expression during early development, notogenesis and segmentation; regulation in the process of formation of immunoglobulins and receptors of T lymphocytes.)
29. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression, determination and differentiation
(The picture of the non-differentiated and differentiated cell; gene expression in ontogenesis; induction as a mechanism influencing gene expression, embryonal segmentation; position effect, X-inactivation, gene imprinting, disorders related to an imprinting failure.)
30. Cellular proliferation during ontogenesis, tissue restitution and functioning of the organism
(Stem cells; cleavage, cell renewal systems, repair of tissue damage; synthesis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides; activation of B and T lymphocytes by antigen)
31. Basic morphogenetic processes
(The principles of morphogenesis; proliferation, apoptosis, migration and association - the importance for embryonal development, implantation and its disturbances; differentiation and aging; abnormalities of fertilization, assisted reproduction; factors that influence adversely morphogenesis – teratogens.)
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32. Mutagenesis and its consequences
(Types of mutagens; types of mutations; mutagenesis and reparation; activation of mutagens - biotransformation of xenobiotics, reactive oxygen species.)
33. Mechanisms of cell transformation
(Oncogenes and antioncogenes [tumor suppressor genes], their activation and inactivation; immunohistochemical detection of tumor cells; chemical cancerogens - mechanisms of their action, examples; degradation of nucleic acids, uric acid.)
34. Detoxification, principles of genotoxicology
(Detoxification apparatus of the cell; biotransformation of xenobiotics - overview of reactions, methods used in genotoxicology.)
35. Ecology
(Global ecological problems, human ecology, xenobiotics, general toxicology.)
36. Mendelian inheritance
(Hybridological analysis, Mend el´s laws, gene linkage, gene interactions; HLA molecules – polymorfism and their role in antigen presentation.)
37. Population genetics
(Population genetics.
)
38. DNA diagnostics and technology
(Analysis of DNA, PCR, RFLP, hybridization, cloning of DNA, prenatal and postnatal diagnostics of monogenic diseases.)
39. Methods detecting hereditary diseases
(DNA methods, screening of genetic diseases and inborn defects, diagnostics of chromosomal aberrations.)
40. Biology of viruses
(Structure of viruses and their genome, differences in structure of DNA and RNA; interaction with the host cell, genetics of viruses, role of viruses in tumorigenesis; visualization with EM - method of negative staining; prions.)
3.5. 2007
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