 Chapter 5:
 Consciousness
Preview
 Understand different types of sleep and sleep disorders
 Discuss theories regarding dreaming and dream analysis
I.
Biology of Sleep
a. Consciousness - our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental
perspectives
b. Circadian rhythm - cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hr basis in many biological
processes (e.g., hormone release, body temperature)
c. Biological clock - the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) of the hypothalamus, triggers our sense
of fatigue (via increasing melatonin)
i. Disruptions:
a. Jet lag
b. Night shifts
d. True or False?
i. Extreme sleep deprivation can be fatal.
(For example, if you deprive yourself of sleep for two weeks, you’re risking your
life.)
FALSE. Although the lack of sleep could lead to brief hallucinations, depression,
difficulty concentrating, and other symptoms, the deprivation itself would not be fatal.
II.
Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
a. How do we measuring sleep? - EEG, EOG, EMG
III.
Stages (cycle through every 90 min.)
a. Non-REM (no eye movements, less dreaming)
i. Stage 1 - light sleep, may contain hypnagogic imagery, hypnic myoclonia-this
is when people think they are being abducted by aliens.
ii. Stage 2 - sleep spindles, K-complexes, theta waves
1. What kind of things happen during this stage? Think of things like
the alien abduction in stage 1.
2.
iii. Stages 3 and 4 - deeper sleep, delta waves
1. What types of things happen during stage 3?
2. What types of things happen during stage 4?
b. REM (paradoxical sleep) - stage 5, eye movements, vivid dreaming
i. REM rebound
ii. Muscle paralysis (lack of = REM behavior disorder)
c. EEG Waves During Different Sleep Stages
IV.
Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
a. REM dreams
i. More dreams occur during REM than non-REM
ii. Emotional, illogical, prone to plot shifts
b. Non-REM dreams
i. Shorter dreams
ii. More thought-like, repetitive, and concerned with daily tasks
V.
Disorders of Sleep
a. Insomnia - difficulty falling and staying asleep
i. Higher rates in those with depression, pain, medical conditions
ii. Restless leg syndrome - urge to move one’s legs or other body parts while
attempting to sleep
iii. Sleeping pills and rebound insomnia
b. Narcolepsy - rapid and unexpected onset of sleep
i. Cataplexy
ii. Role of orexin
c. Sleep apnea - blockage of airway during sleep
i. Fatigue next day
d. Night Terrors - during Stages 3 and 4, sudden waking episodes characterized by
screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep
i. Most common in children
e. Sleepwalking - usually occurs during non-REM sleep (not dreaming)
i. May include complex behaviors (e.g., climbing out windows, driving)
ii. Most common in children
VI.
Theory and Psychology of Dreams
a. Freud’s wish fulfillment and dream protection theory - dreams transform our
sexual and aggressive instincts into symbols that represent wish fulfillment and
require interpretation
b. Evidence against this:
i. most dreams have negative content (not wish fulfillment)
ii. sexual dreams are rare
iii. many are straightforward details of everyday activities (not disguised)
c. Activation-synthesis theory - dreams reflect brain activation originating in the
pons, followed by efforts of the forebrain to weave these inputs into a story
d. However, damage to the forebrain can eliminate dreaming, even when the pons is
intact
e. Dreams are fairly consistent over time (not random)
f.
ii.
So, what can we really say about dreaming?
i. Dreams are often concerned with everyday preoccupations, and they recur
Acetylcholine turns on REM sleep-what is acetylcholine?
iii. The forebrain plays an important role in dreaming
iv. And why do we dream? Although we still don’t know, there are many theories
concerning the establishment of memories
v. Apply Your Thinking
1. Thinking generally, what are some issues with the idea that
dreaming may be important for the establishment of memories?
2. Dreams are often filled with fantasy, not just daily occurrences.
3. When we are sleep- and/or dream-deprived we don’t become
amnesic.
4. Other Alterations of Consciousness and Unusual Experiences
VII.
Other Alterations of Consciousness and Unusual Experiences
a. Are there safe ways to alter our conscious experience?
Chapter 6: Learning
I.
Basic Terminology
a. Learning - change in an organism’s behavior or thought as a result of experience
b. Habituation - process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli
c. Sensitization - process by which we respond more strongly over time (especially for
dangerous, irritating stimuli)
i. Eric Kandel earned the Nobel prize for his studies of habituation and
sensitization in Aplysia (the sea slug)
II. Classical Conditioning
a. Ivan Pavlov - studied digestion in dogs, noted associative conditioning between neutral stimuli
and meat powder (Pavlovian conditioning)
b. Classical Conditioning-what is it?
c. Pavlov described classical conditioning, involving:
i.
UCS unconditioned stimulus - biologically significant stimulus that produces automatic
response
ii. UCR unconditioned response - automatic response to a UCS that occurs without
learning
iii. CS conditioned stimulus - initially neutral stimulus, becomes associated with the UCS
through conditioning
iv. CR conditioned response - learned response
d. By virtue of CS-UCS pairing, the CS comes to elicit the CR, a response closely related, but not
identical, to the UR
e. Where do we see classical conditioning used everyday?
f.
Can you see how classical conditioning can explain how we learn prejudice?
g. Aversive conditioning - classical conditioning to an unpleasant UCS
i.
Avoidance response
h. Classical conditioning is adaptive in preparing the organism for the impending US
i.
Psychopathic personalities - indifferent to signals of threat
i.
Acquisition - learning phase during which a CR is established
j.
Extinction - gradual decrease and elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly
without the UCS
k. Spontaneous recovery - sudden reemergence of an extinguished CR after a delay
l.
Renewal effect - tendency of an extinguished CR to return when revisiting the original
conditioning environment
m. Phobias - intense and irrational fears
i.
Some acquired via classical conditioning
ii. Subject to spontaneous recovery and renewal
n. Stimulus generalization - elicitation of a CR to stimuli that are highly similar to, but not identical
to, the CS
i.
Generalization gradient - the more similar to the original CS the new CS is, the stronger
will be the CR
o. Stimulus discrimination - opposite of stimulus generalization; occurs when we exhibit a CR to
certain CSs, but not others
p. Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Life
i.
Advertising - pairing positive USs with product CSs
ii. Latent inhibition - when we’ve experienced a CS alone many times, it’s difficult to
classically condition it to another stimulus (e.g., highly known vs. novel brands)
q.
i.
Acquisition of fears: Little Albert
Watson & Reyner (1920) sought to disprove the Freudian view of phobia, reflecting deep-seated
unconscious conflict
ii. They recruited an infant, Albert, and paired a white rat (CS) with a loud clanging metal noise
(UCS)
iii. Five days later, Albert exhibited fear of the rat, and similar stimuli, including a rabbit, dog, furry
coat, and Santa Claus mask (generalization of phobia)
iv. Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Life: Little Albert
v. Led to the conditioning model of phobias
vi. Classical conditioning also offers a way to get rid of phobia
 Mary Clover Jones (1924) successfully treated three-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of
rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with candies
 Similar exposure therapy is still
the main behavioral treatment
for irrational fears
vii. Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Life
1. Disgust reactions - in most cases, a product of classical conditioning
because CSs associated with disgusting UCSs come to elicit disgust
themselves
Rozin (1986) subjects show a great reluctance to eat a piece of fudge
shaped like dog feces
Subjects show a great reluctance to drink a sucrose solution labeled
poison, even when they put the meaningless label on there (“better safe
than sorry” heuristic)
III. Operant Conditioning Or instrumental conditioning - acquiring behaviors as a result of the
outcome or consequence of those behaviors
 The organism gets something out of the response or “operates” on its environment
(e.g., using biscuits as a treat, a trainer teaches a dog to sit)
IV. Differences Between Operant and Classical Conditioning
a. Skinner developed a highly efficient conditioning chamber (Skinner box) that allows for
conditioning and automated behavior measurement
 Typically contains bar that delivers food when pressed, food dispenser, and light that
signals when reward is forthcoming
b. Terminology in Operant Conditioning
i.
Positive reinforcement - pleasant stimulus is given to increase the probability of a
response
(e.g., cell phone for good grades)
ii. Negative reinforcement - unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase the probability of
a response (e.g., Aidan’s mother’s nagging stops when he picks up his room)
iii. Punishment - unpleasant stimulus is given, or pleasant stimulus is taken away, to
decrease the probability of a response (e.g., cell phone taken away for breaking curfew)
1. Punishment tends to be ineffective
2. It tells the organism what not to do, rather than what to do
3. Creates anxiety that can interfere with future learning
4. Encourages subversive behavior (sneakiness)
5. Provides a model for aggressive behavior
iv. Physical punishment is associated with aggression in adulthood: but what about the
role of genetics?
r.
Partial reinforcement - behaviors that we reinforce only occasionally are slower to extinguish
than those we reinforce continuously
s. Schedules of reinforcement - pattern of reinforcing a behavior
i.
Fixed Ratio - after regular number of responses
ii. Variable Ratio - after specific number of responses, on average
iii. Fixed Interval - after specific amount of time
iv. Variable Interval - after an average time interval
t.
Applications of Operant Conditioning
u. Shaping by successive reinforcement - reinforcing behaviors that aren’t quite the target
behavior but that are progressively closer versions of it
v. Chaining - linking a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series
w. Premack principle - a less frequently performed behavior can be increased by reinforcing it with
a more frequent behavior
i.
Grandma’s rule - vegetables before dessert
x. Applications of Operant Conditioning
y. Superstitious behavior - behavior linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence (e.g., lucky
charm effect)
z. Prejudice- how is it developed through operant conditioning?
aa. Token economies - mental hospital staff can reinforce patients who behave in a desired fashion
using tokens, chips, points, or other secondary reinforcers
i.
Secondary reinforcers - neutral objects that patients can later trade in for…
ii. Primary reinforcers - items or outcomes that are naturally pleasurable, such as a favorite
food or drink
bb. Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)
cc. ABA - a set of techniques, pioneered by Ivar Lovaas at UCLA, and based on operant conditioning
principles, that relies on the careful measurement of behavior before and after implementing
interventions
i.
Shaping techniques with primary reinforcers
dd. Children with autism treated with ABA show significant progress in language and intellectual
skills
ee. Before Lovaas, many of these children would have been institutionalized
ff. Two-Process Theory: Putting Classical and Operant Conditioning Together
gg. Classical and operant conditioning are distinct in many ways, including underlying brain systems,
but how they interact is called two-process theory
i.
People acquire phobias via classical conditioning, then avoid their feared stimulus
(e.g., avoiding dogs after dog bite)
ii. This avoidance produces negative reinforcement, via anxiety reduction, maintaining the
phobic response
iii. So phobias may involve classically conditioned fear AND operant avoidance
hh. Apply Your Thinking
i.
Sarah is afraid of flying. She prides herself on not taking any pills. What are some ways
she may be able to enjoy flying more?
ii. Exposure therapy and extinction
iii. Positive reinforcement
ii. Other Forms of Learning
i.
Latent learning - learning that isn’t directly observable; we learn many things without
showing them
1. Emphasizes the difference between competence (what we know) and
performance (showing what we know)
2. Challenge to radical behaviorism, implies reinforcement isn’t necessary
jj. Observational learning - learning by watching others (models), without instruction or
reinforcement
i.
Brain basis? Perhaps mirror neurons
ii. Aggressive behavior: Bandura (1963) had children watch an adult ignoring or punching
a Bobo doll and shouting things like “Kick him”
iii. Children who watched the aggressive adult model were aggressive to the Bobo doll later
kk. Media Violence Leads to
a. Real-World Aggression?
b. Scores of investigators have proposed that violent TV programs promote
aggressiveness in children
c. Correlation or causation?
d. Longitudinal designs
e. Laboratory experiments
f.
Field studies (e.g., examining aggression in a town with no TV)
1. From these studies - media violence contributes to aggression in
some circumstances
2. Longitudinal Study of Individuals Who Watched Violent TV as
Children
3. A school teacher is having trouble with Audrey hitting her
classmates. He notifies the father, who spanks Audrey. The next day
Audrey hits another classmate. When an adult angrily approaches
her, she cowers in fear. What happened and what should the
teacher do?
4. Audrey demonstrated observational learning/modeling.
5. Audrey shows classical conditioning of fear.
6. The father should be taught that modeling good behavior and using
reinforcement-based strategies will be more effective than
punishment.
g. Preparedness regarding phobias suggests that we’re evolutionarily predisposed to
fear certain stimuli more than others
Chapter 15: Mental Disorders
I.
What Defines a Mental Disorder?
a. Statistical rarity
b. Subjective distress
c. Impairment
d. Societal disapproval
e. Biological dysfunction
f.
Family resemblance view – mental disorders don’t all have
one thing in common, rather they share a loose set of
features
II. Mood Disorders
a.Major depressive episode – state in which a person
experiences a lingering depressed mood or diminished
interest in pleasurable activities
b. symptoms include weight loss, sleep difficulties, fatigue, lack of
concentration, and feelings of worthlessness
c. Manic episode, bipolar disorder, dysthymic disorder, hypomanic episode,
cyclothymia, postpartum depression, seasonal affective disorder
d. Explanations for Major Depressive Disorder
ii. Life events – stressful events that represent loss are closely tied to
depression
iii. Interpersonal model – depressed people seek excessive reassurance which
leads them to being disliked and rejected
iv. Behavioral model – depressed people have a lack of positive reinforcement
and this leads them to stop engaging in enjoyable behavior
v. Learned helplessness – tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we
can’t control
1. Depressed individuals attribute negative outcomes to internal
factors (i.e., ‘I failed because I am stupid’)
2. Attribute positive outcomes to external factors (i.e., ‘I did well
because the test was easy’)
III.
Bipolar Disorder
a. Manic episode – experience marked by dramatically elevated mood,
decreased need for sleep, increased energy, inflated self-esteem, increased
talkativeness, and irresponsible behavior
b. Bipolar disorder – condition marked by a history of at least one manic
episode
*More than half the time a major depressive episode precedes or
follows a manic episode
* Very heritable (perhaps around 85%)
* Increased activity in amygdala (associated with emotions),
decreased activity in prefrontal cortex (associated with planning)
* Increased risk of suicide (as with major depression)
IV.
Major Suicide Risk Factors
a. Depression
b. Hopelessness
c. Substance abuse
d. Schizophrenia
e. Homosexuality
f.
Unemployment
g. Chronic, painful, or disfiguring physical illness
h. Recent loss of a loved one; being divorced, separated or widowed
i.
Family history of suicide
j.
Personality disorder
k. Anxiety disorders (panic, social phobia)
l.
Old age (especially men)
m. Recent discharge from a hospital
V.
Dissociative Disorders:
The Divided Self
a. Dissociative identity disorder (DID) – the presence of two or more distinct
identities (called alters) that recurrently take control of the person’s
behavior
i. Up to 4,500 identities have been found in one person
ii. Can have differences in brain waves, eyeglass prescriptions,
handedness, voice patterns, handwriting
iii. However, information presented to one alter is generally available
to the others
b. Explanations for DID
i. Posttraumatic model – DID arises from a history of severe abuse
during childhood
ii. Up to 90% of patients with DID were abused as a child
iii. However, childhood abuse is not unique to DID
iv. Sociocognitive model – expectancies and beliefs from
psychotherapy and cultural influences shape and maintain the
disorder
v. Most DID patients show no signs of the disorder before
psychotherapy
vi. Dramatic increase in DID after the release of the best-selling book
Sybil, which showcased a woman with 16 personalities
VI.
Schizophrenia- Disturbances in thinking, language, emotion, and relationships,
often confused with DID
a. Psychotic symptoms – serious distortions of reality
b. Delusions – strongly held, fixed beliefs that have no basis in reality
c. Hallucinations – sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of an
external stimulus
i. Mostly auditory, but can also be gustatory, tactile, or visual
d. Disorganized speech – language jumps from topic to topic
e. Catatonia – motor problems
i. Resistance to comply with simple suggestions, holding the body in
rigid postures, curling up in the fetal position
VII.
Personality disorder – condition in which personality traits, appearing first in
adolescence, are inflexible, stable, expressed in a wide variety of situations, and
lead to distress or impairment
VIII.
Borderline personality disorder – extreme instability in mood, identity, and
impulse control
IX.
Psychopathic personality – condition marked by a distinctive set of personality
traits, including superficial charm, dishonesty, manipulativeness, selfcenteredness, and risk-taking
a. Possible deficit in fear: reduced classical conditioning
b. Possible deficit in arousal
X.
Antisocial personality disorder – condition marked by a lengthy history of
irresponsible and/or illegal actions
a. Often overlaps with psychopathic personality
b. Monkeys are predisposed to become afraid of things such as toy snakes and
alligators, but not toy flowers or rabbits
c. About half of dog phobics have never had direct negative experience with a
dog
d. Classical conditioning does not account for all phobias