THE UNEME NOUN PHRASE
BY
ADEDEJI Joshua Adetayo
MATRIC NO.
07/15CB013
A Long Essay submitted to the Department of Linguistics and
Nigerian Languages, Faculty of Arts, University of Ilorin, Kwara
State Nigeria in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of the Degree of Bachelor of Arts (Hons.) in Linguistics.
JUNE, 2011
CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the
requirements of the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin Kwara State.
-----------------------DR. SANUSI, I.O.
(Project Supervisor)
________________
----------------------------PROF. A.S. ABDUSSALAM
(Head of Department)
________________
------------------------
________________
Date
Date
External Examiner
Date
ii
DEDICATION
This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God, the one who
gave me life and to my dear parent Elder and Deaconess Adedeji.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All glory, honor and adoration are unto the highest God, for no one
can receive anything except he is being given from heaven. God is the
one behind the success of this work, glory be to His holy name.
A special appreciation goes to my parents from the genesis of my
studies to the point where I am. I salute you for your love moral and
financial support and your advice which guides me through my studies
on campus, I pray you will live to eat the fruit of your labour.
My sincere gratitude also goes to my supervisor Dr. Sanusi I.O
who has taken time, from his tight schedule to go through this project to
be well certified. Thank you sir and God in His mercy will bless you in
return.
I will also like to appreciate my lecturers, whom I may refer to as a
parent when parent is absent. Permit me to mention few, out of many,
Prof. Abdulsalam (H.O.D), Dr. Sanusi, Dr. Oyebola, Dr. Adeyemi, Dr.
Arokoyo, Mrs. Abubakre, Mr. Friday Otun, Mr. Aje, Mr. Wale Rafiu,
Mr. Adeosun and others. I salute the Dean of the faculty, Prof. Z.I. Oseni
for a job well done. May God endow you all with more knowledge.
iv
My appreciation also goes to my boss, a brother, father and a
mentor, Brother Dare Asonibare of Sound on Vision Frames (S.O.V.F.)
for the knowledge you have impacted in me which always keep me
focused and help me to survive during hardship, thank you Sir.
I will also like to acknowledge my brother and sisters, Yemi,
Dayo, Toyin and Tunrayo, all of Adedeji’s family for your brotherly love
and kindness.
A special appreciation goes to my fellow classmate for being a
good friend through our staying on campus. Dada Oluwaseyi, Gbenga
Adefabi, Fatoki Olusola, Oyinloye Mayowa, Olaoye Tosin, Olorunoje
Kazeem, Emmanuel Ejigboye, Adeleye Ridwan, Olumide Oriowo, Funke
Adebayo, Adesina Bukunmi, Adeyanju Jenifer, Alabi Ibidun, Kolawole
Dare,Tomilayo, fisayo, Ife, Bimbo, Ayo and others, may we succeed in
life.
And
friends
in
other
departments;
Taye
Moronfoye,Mubarak,Adedamola,Segun and Yinka.
I also appreciation my brothers and friends in the church; Ogo
Oluwa
(Samson),
Gbenga
(Apostle),
Gbenga
ibietan,
Tope
Oluwafemi,Fisayo Adesina, Tolu Afolayan and all the sound and
v
multimedia Unit members. Also to my spiritual fathers; Evang. M.O.
Adio, Pastor Oluwafemi, Pastor Ayo, Pastor Ephraim, Pastor P.K.
Ayodele and others. Also, I appreciate the entire family of Mr. Ajiboye
for their support.
Here, I will like to have a minute silence for my beloved friend in
the class of many, Sowo Ifeoluwa, whom we started this race together but
left us behind to a glorious home. May his gentle soul rest in perfect
peace.
Finally, I return all the glory to God the author and the finisher of
this project. Glory is unto your holy name.
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LIST SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
N
Noun
N1
N-bar
V
Verb
V1
Verb-bar
VP
Verb Phrase
NP
Noun Phrase
PP
Prepositional Phrase
AP
Adjective Phrase
IP
Inflectional Phrase
FP
Focus Phrase
FOC
Focus
SPEC
Specifier
DET
Determiner
ADJ
Adjective
C
Complement
CP
Complimentizer Phrase
I
Inflection
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PREP
Preposition
PL
Plural
PSR
Phrase Structure Rule
CONJ
Conjunction
PRES
Present Tense
PAST
Past Tense
TNS
Tense
TG
Transformational Generative Grammar
SAI
Subject Auxiliary Inversion
H
High tone
L
Low tone
M
Mid – tone
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ………………………………………………………
i
Certification………………………………………………………
ii
Dedication... ……………………………………………………..
iii
Acknowledgements ……………………………………………..
iv-vi
List of abbreviations and symbols ………………………………
vii-
viii
Table of contents ………………………………..……………..
ix- xiii
CHAPTER ONE:
1.0
General Introduction ………………………………………
1
1.1
Historical Background ….……………….………………..
3
1.2
Sociocultural Profile ………………….………………….
6
1.2.1 Sociolinguistic background..…………………………… 6
1.2.2. Culture ……………………………………………..….
7
1.2.3 Festival ………………………………………………… 8
1.2.4 Religion ……………………………………………….. 9
1.2.4.1 Christianity ……………………………………. 9
1.2.4.2 Islam …………………………………………... 10
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1.2.4.3 Traditional Religion …………………………… 11
1.2.5 Marriage ……………………………………………….. 12
1.2.6 Occupation ………………………………………………….. 12
1.3
Genetic Classification of Uneme Language ………………… 13
1.4
Scope and Organization of the Study ……………………….. 15
1.5
Theoretical Framework …………………………………….. 16
1.5.1 X-bar Theory ………………………………………... 21
1.5.2 Theta Theory ………………………………………… 27
1.5.3 Case Theory ………………………………………… 29
1.5.4 Bounding Theory …………………………………… 33
1.5.5 Binding Theory ……………………………………… 35
1.5.6 Control Theory ……………………………………… 38
1.5.7 Government Theory ………………………………… 38
1.6
Data Collection ……………………………………………. 40
1.7
Data Analysis ……………………………………………… 41
CHAPTER TWO: Basic Phonological and syntactic concepts…42
2.0
Introduction ……………………………………………….. 42
2.1
Aspects of Phonology of Uneme Language ………………. 42
x
2.1.1 Sound Inventory of Uneme Language ……………..
43
2.1.1.1
Consonant of Uneme Language……….. 43
2.1.1.2
Vowel of Uneme Language ……………….45
2.1.2 Description of Uneme Language Sounds …...…………. 47
2.1.2.1
Consonant………………………………….47
2.1.2.2
Distribution of vowels in Uneme Language..58
2.1.3 Tone Inventory in Uneme Language ……………………62
2.1.4 Syllable Structure of Uneme Language …………………66
2.2
Syntax of Uneme Language ………………………………….. 70
2.2.1 Phrase Structure Rule (PSR) ………………………….. 70
2.2.2 Phrase Marker ………………………………………… 73
2.2.3 Lexical Categories in Uneme Language ……………… 74
2.2.3.1
Nouns ……………………………………. 75
2.2.3.2
Pronouns …………………………………. 80
2.2.3.3
Verbs …………………………………….. 82
2.2.3.4
Adverbs ………………………………….. 83
2.2.3.5
Adjectives ……………………………….. 83
2.2.3.6
Prepositions ……………………………... 84
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2.2.3.7
Conjunctions ……………………………. 85
2.2.4 Phrasal Categories ……………………………………. 85
2.2.4.1
Noun Phrase ……………………………. 86
2.2.4.2
Verb Phrase …………………………….
2.2.4.3
Adjectives Phrase ……………………….. 93
2.2.4.4
Prepositional Phrase ……………………... 96
90
2.2.5 Basic Word Order ………. ……………………………. 98
2.2.6 Sentence Types ………………………………………… 101
2.2.5.1
Simple Sentence ………………………… 102
2.2.6.2
Compound Sentence …………………..
2.2.6.3
Complex Sentence ………………………. 107
CHAPTER THREE The Noun Phrase …………………………
105
110
3.0
Introduction ………………………………………………….. 110
3.1
Noun Phrase………………………………..………………… 110
3.2
Forms of Noun Phrase (NP) …………….…………………… 111
3.2.1 Determiners …..……………………………………….. 112
3.2.2 Adjectives …………………………………………… 113
3.3
The Head Noun ……………………………………………… 114
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3.4
Position of Noun within NP …………………………………. 114
3.4.1 Modification of NP by Adjective …………………….. 115
3.4.2 Modification of NP by Determiners …………………..117
3.4.3 Modification of NP by Preposition ……………………120
3.5 Function of NP ……………………………………………….. 123
3.5.1 NP as Subject of the Sentence ……………………….. 124
3.5.2 NP as Object of the Sentence ……………………….. 126
3.5.3. NP as Indirect Object of the Sentence ………………. 130
3.5.4 NP as a Compliment of Preposition ………………….. 133
CHAPTER FOUR: Transformational Processes
4.0
Introduction …………………………………………………. 136
4.1
Transformational Rule ………………………………………. 136
4.2
Transformation Processes in Uneme Language …………….. 142
4.2.1 Focus Construction …………………………………... 143
4.2.2 Relativization ………………………………………… 154
4.2.3 Reflexivization ……………………………………… 160
4.2.4 Question Formation ………………………………… 164
CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
xiii
5.0
Introduction ………………………………………………… 178
5.1
Summary …………………………………………………… 178
5.2
Conclusion …………………………………………………. 180
5.3
Recommendation …………………………………………… 181
REFERENCES …………………………………………………… 182
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 General Background of the Study
This research work is based on the language called Uneme
language spoken in Edo State. This work will focus on the aspects of
Uneme Noun Phrase. The term Noun Phrase forms an important aspect of
syntax.
Syntax is a branch of linguistics, derived from ancient Greek
‘SYN’ and ‘TAX’. SYN mean ‘Together’ while TAX means
‘Arrangement’. Syntax is the study of the arrangement of words to form
sentences. Different linguist has defined syntax in different ways:
xiv
Talleman (2005) Defines syntax as the study of syntactic property
of language. He sees syntax as sentence construction, that is, how words
are put together to make phrases or sentences.
Akmajian (2004) sees syntax as a sub-field of linguistics that
studies the internal structure of sentences and the relationship among the
internal parts.
Ladeforged (1997) says that syntax is concerned with the way
words are combined to form sentences.
Syntax can be hierarchically structured from the larger to the
smallest (Sentence------Clause-----Phrase -----Word). Sanusi (1996) says,
in the systemic analysis, a sentence is ranked the highest, consisting of
one or more clauses.
The focus of this research will be on the aspects of Noun Phrase
of Uneme language. A phrase is a sequence of words that can function as
a constituent in the structure of sentences. There are different types of
phrasal categories, these are; Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, Prepositional
Phrase, Adjective Phrase and Adverbial Phrase. A Noun Phrase is headed
xv
by a noun and so applicable to others which are named after the lexical
categories.
This project work will serve as a priority and a means of
developing Uneme language and to save guard it from going into
extinction. It will suit the desires of those that want the language as a
means of communication even in schools and in the community.
1.1 Historical Background
According to oral tradition, the Uneme language speakers are
found in the northern part of Edo State. An informant claimed that
speakers of the language can be found in two areas in Edo State, these
areas are Akoko-Edo and Etsako North. Edo state is found in the south
eastern part of Nigeria.
Hakeem (2003:4) says that the history of Uneme people can be
traced to the core area of the Nok cultural zone located in the North
eastern part of Niger-Benue confluence. The area represents the ancestral
home land of not only Uneme people but also of related sub-ethnic
groups which have come to be described as the Edoid.
xvi
Uneme people are migrants from Benin. They arrived Benin area
during king Ogiso Ere’s era and their first settlement was on the outskirt
of Benin City. The Uneme people moved to Benin in the tenth century
and later left because of a problem that arises as a result of Oba shift
between two brothers in the royal house or palace of Benin kingdom.
The crises were so tense that everybody from Uneme community had to
leave. Their mode of migration from Benin in 1370 AD was in two
phases; The first major phase of the migrant moved northwards from
Benin, settling in different territories between 1370 and late 1370. Some
of the notable places they headed to are Obadan in the present Edo state
and Agbede in the Etsako west area of the present northern Edo state,
others are Ogbomeze (Imiava) in the Etsako central area of the present
northern Edo state and Okene in Ebira community of the present Kogi
State.
The migration of Uneme people experience a split which makes
them to move in two different direction, one to Akoko-Edo (the present
northern Edo-state) and other to Oghomeze in Etsako. At the time of
their staying in Akoko-Edo, they established three other Uneme
xvii
communities in different location within Akoko-Edo namely Uneme AkiOsu in the early 1400s, Uneme Erhurm and Uneme Ekped.
According to the language informant, he claims that, people who
speak Uneme are Uzanu, Anegbete, Udochi and Ologua who are the
latter of Uneme community in the 1830s.
From history, we are aware that the listed Uneme community are
named after children of the same father and mother which latter
developed to different community. Each of them developed to a large
community that now lives as a town on their own. There was a conflict
that broke out between Uzanu and Anegbete which led to a war and
brought about parting between Uzanu and Anegbete whereby we have
Uzanu in Etsako East and Anegbete in Etsako central. During this war,
Uzanu was having upper hand, and this makes the Anegbete to seek the
assistance of Nupe people in Bida. The Nupe people (warriors) came but
asking the Oriola who is the prime minister of Anegbete to divide the
kingdom of Anegbete into two and give them. Oriole made them to
understand that they are only here for war and not to share kingdom so,
they should mind their business and face the Uzanu’s. The Uzanu’s were
xviii
captured by the Nupe warriors and later came to invade the Anegbete and
the whole of Etsako.
Further more, Hakeem (2003:7) pointed out that the second major
phase of the Uneme’s migration from Benin in 1370 AD witnessed the
movement of the affected people eastwards in Niger-river, unlike the first
group that moved northwards. Members of the second group were few in
number, and they passed through fewer territories where they settle down
briefly before they finally established their permanent home in the Awka
area of Igboland in the present Anambra State in 1380’s and 1370’s.
The total population of the Uneme language speakers is estimated
to be 19800 (year 2000 estimation of internet) and the alternative names
with which the language is called are Ileme, Ineme and Uleme but the
standard version is Uneme as been called by the speakers.
1.2 Socio Cultural Profile
The Uneme people are distinguished from others in their own way
of life. Their culture is very rich and they believe so much in it. The
language serves as a means of communication in the society, in the
xix
market and even in the religious system and it is aimed at being a
medium of expression and instruction in schools.
1.2.1 Sociolinguistic Background
The Uneme language is used in trading with the neighboring
communities. For example, the Uzanu’s share the same boundary with
Edo and Igbirra, so, the language serves as a means of trading between
them.
1.2.2 Culture
The Uneme’s dressing is some how different. They use Tusks,
Beads (for women, the tusks for the legs and for bangles on hands). In
those days, they believed that a girl must be a virgin before she got
married, as a result, when a lady is ready to get married she will not wear
any cloth but will use a lot of beads to cover her private parts and almost
naked round the town. They also use “Ashid” gotten from the bush to
decorate the girl and a lot of beads on the hand, just as the Benin dresses.
Also the Olofu who is the Prime minister has a drum called
“Ukpaagba”. This Ukpaagba is beaten when there is an emergency or a
conflict in the king’s family so as to draw the attention of the people.
xx
The drum is being beaten four times representing the four pillars of
Uneme that is, it represents Uzanu, Anegbete, Udochi and Ologua.
1.2.3 Festival
Some of the festivals of Uneme community are connected with
their religious believes while others are linked to their socio-economic
activities.
There is a festival named “Ukpe” which means end of the year
celebration. It is celebrated between August and September of every
year.
The people of Uneme are virtually known to be farmers; so
therefore, this celebration precedes the coming of new yam. The festival
serves as a major communication channel to bid good bye to the outgoing
year and to welcome the coming year whereby every family have to
participate in one way or the other.
Another festival in the Uneme community is named Ogun festival.
Ogun festival is associated with, and devoted to the propitiation and
veneration of god of iron. This festival is usually organized only by iron
xxi
melting societies. The festival is organized by allocation certain spots in
the community to the propitiation of Ogun. They make use of certain
animal named ‘dog’ and the whole of the community takes part in
singing, dancing and drumming to appease Ogun ‘the god of iron’.
Another festival of Uneme people is known as ‘Second Burial
Ceremony’ which can only be done for a dead father. It is still valid to
be done after several years of the father’s demise. Any one that has not
done the second burial is not entitled to the title “Orinitome” in the
Uneme community.
1.2.4 Religion
As we have it in the Nigeria system, the Uneme people are also
recognized with three (3) main religions these are Christianity, Islam and
Traditional Religion.
1.2.4.1
Christianity
Christianity was not the indigenous religion in Nigeria but was
introduced to Nigeria by the Missionaries.
This begin to spread in
Nigeria to different community. Hakeem asserted that Christianity was
introduced to the Uneme communities in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s
xxii
respectively by Christian missionaries like Ogidan of the Anglican
Community. The introduction of Christianity religion was done by some
Yoruba missionaries who visited Akoko-Edo frequently and it gradually
extend to the Etsako local government Area. The first church of the
missionaries in Uneme Akpama was named St’ Luke Anglican church
and it was built in 1922.
Chief Ezekiel Adeleye Igenuma Uduak Peghemehe from the
Enivbosu area of Uneme Erhurun was the one that build the first church
in Uneme Erhurun in 1923. This is also an Anglican church.
Another missionary behind the spread of Christianity in Uneme
community was Rev. Oyebode, a Yoruba Christian priest who was based
in Auchi. He was the first Anglican Missionary to influence the spread
of the religion in Uneme Aki-Osu in Akoko-Edo Area in the 1920s. He
found the St. Johns Church which was the first of its kind in that
environment.
1.2.4.2.
Islam
The Islamic religion was introduced during the time when the
Nupes were involved in the Uneme activities. This was in the time of
xxiii
military and colonizing activities in Akoko-Edo in the 19th century. The
Islamic religion has been in existence before the Christian religion was
introduced. It was only few of Uneme people that are been converted
because they sees the Nupes as invaders and people were not encouraged
to accept their offer.
1.2.4.3 Traditional Religion
Ever before the introduction of Islam and Christianity, the people
of Uneme so much belief in the Traditional Religion.The people of
Uneme believes in Osanobula, Ogbene and Osi which are Supreme
Beings. Osanobula is believed to have had heavenly aids who were
appointed by him. Among such aids were the local divinities or deities,
Ilisa which is referred to as the gods and goddesses, and the spirits
(especially Esi). The people of Uneme young and old usually call on him
through his various aides for protection and extrication from the hands of
perpetrators of evil.
According to Pastor Patrick who is the language informant, he says
the religion is still very prominent in the Uneme community due to their
cultural and festival activities.
xxiv
1.2.5 Marriage
Pastor Patrick who is the language informant says that the people
of Uneme believe so much in traditional marriage. Uneme people do not
buy the habit of marrying just only one wife but believes solely in a
polygamous marriage. It is like a compulsory fact that if someone has
not married two wives, is like the person is a lazy man.
1.2.6 Occupation
The major occupation of the Uneme people is smelting of iron
(blacksmith). The blacksmiths smelt the iron-ore mostly at night because
of the high temperature generated in the process of smelting.
Another occupation of the Uneme people is farming.
They
practice commercial farming in the Uneme community. Some of their
farm products are; coca, rice, yam, maize, cassava and banana e.t.c. The
people of Uneme also practice trading. They trade with their smelt
product such as Anklets, bracelets, local necklace, cutlasses, iron
weapons, knives, plates, hoes and pot. They trade with the neigbouring
community and all their products are involved in their trading.
1.3
Genetic Classification of Uneme Language
xxv
This is a systematic way of grouping languages that share
something in common into the same family.
According to Ruhlen
(1991:-5), a genetic classification is a sub-grouping of all relevant
language into genetic nodes. However, a genetic node is a group of
languages each of which is more closely related to others in that group
than to any language outside the group.
African languages like other languages of the world have been
classified by taxonomical linguistics. The Uneme language is grouped
with the languages in the Benue congo where we later end up having Edo
and Ghotuo. The Genetic classification tree below will summarize the
sub-grouping of Uneme language.
xxvi
1.4
Scope and Organization of the Study
It has been discovered that the minority languages in Nigeria are
not being paid much attention to. Therefore, this long essay will describe
xxvii
and present the structure of Noun Phrase in Uneme language and the
transformational processes involving such noun phrases. The processes
and the examples are presented and analyzed using Government and
Binding theory.
This research work is organized in such away that it will comprise
five (5) chapters.
The first chapter presents the introductory part of the long essay,
dealing mainly with the historical background and the socio cultural
profile of the speakers of Uneme language.
Also, the genetic
classification of the language, scope and organization of the study,
method of data collection and analysis, and a brief review of the chosen
frame work are presented in this chapter.
Chapter two presents a brief review of the sounds, tone and
syllable patterns of Uneme language. It will introduce and explicitly
explain with examples in Uneme language the basic syntactic concepts
such as, Phrase Structure Rule, Lexical Categories, Basic Word Order
and Sentence Types found in the language under study.
xxviii
Chapter three (3) focuses on the Uneme Noun Phrase which is
actually the main focus of this research work. We will have the structure
of Noun Phrase and transformational processes involved in this chapter.
Chapter four will focus on the levels of linguistic analysis in the
language. It will examine the transformational processes in Uneme
language.
Lastly, chapter five will contain the summary, recommendation
and conclusion of this research work.
1.5
Theoretical Framework
Many theories have been propounded for analyzing language data
in order to present a systematic description of the linguistic knowledge or
competence a native speaker possesses (Sanusi 1996). Such theories are
used as theoretical framework or methodological tools for analyzing
language data.
They include; Traditional or Classical Grammar,
structural
Taxonomic
or
Grammar,
Systematic
Grammar,
Transformational Generative Grammar, Government and Binding theory
and Minimalist programme. The theoretical framework adopted for this
research work is Government and Binding (GB) theory which is also
xxix
known as principles and parameters theory (PPT). This is a theory that
captures the similarities which exist between different categories of
lexical phrases by assigning the same structure to them rather than having
different phrase structure rules for NPs, VPs e.t.c.
Government and Binding theory is propounded by Noam
Chomsky.
Government
The theory is named after Chomsky’s book; lectures on
and
Binding
(1981).
Sanusi
(1996:21)
describes
Government and Binding (GB) as a modular deductive theory of
universal Grammar (UG) which posits multiple levels of representation
related by the transformational rule (move-alpha). The application of
move-alpha is constrained by the interaction of various Principles which
act as conditions on possible representation. Government and Binding
theory is a modular deductive theory of grammar. Proponents of GB
often maintained that there is no such thing as roles of language. But
only the principles and parameters whose values can vary from one
language to the other do exist with specified units.
According to cook (1988:86), the theory of Government and
Binding is described as an interlocking arrangement of principles and
xxx
sub-theories which interact in many ways in the analysis of human
language. Also, Radford (1988:419) defines transformation as the rule
that deals with the act of changing the structure of one sentence to
another structure through the concept of movement known as move-alpha
(move α). This theory (Government and Binding) was developed to
correct the lapses in transformational generative grammar (T.G.).
Nevertheless, Government and Binding is misleading because it
gives prominence to the two elements of Government and binding whose
status was not fundamentally superior to the other sub-theories like
X-bar, theta, case and bounding theory.
Government and Binding proposes seven sub-theories of grammar.
The structures generated at various levels are constrained by a set of
theories, which define the kind of relationship possible within a grammar.
The following are the sub-theories of Government and Binding;
(i)
X-Bar Theory (XI theory)
(ii)
Theta theory (θ theory)
(iii)
Case theory
(iv)
Bounding Theory
xxxi
(v)
Binding Theory
(vi)
Control theory
(vii) Government theory.
The above listed sub-theories of Government and Binding theory are
closely related in their operation as a theoretical framework. Each of
these transformations operates on the D-Structure and maps the D Structure into the S-structure. This can be illustrated by the diagram
below:
Syntactic Components
The base: *Phrase structure rules
* Lexicon
Transformation
Rules
Deep structure
Surface structure
Semantic Component
Phonological Component
xxxii
Phonetic –
Semantic Interpretation
Interpretation
Fig 1.2
(Adapted from Horrocks 1987:27)
The transformational rules operate in-between the Deep Structure and
the surface structure. It should be noted that within the movement
theory, we have three major concept involved;
(i)
Extraction site
(ii)
Landing site
(iii)
Intervening gap.
Horrocks (1987:29) says that “the core grammar of a given
language is derived automatically from the interaction of the sub-theories
of universal grammar?
Each of the sub-theories accounts for
grammaticality or ungrammaticality of any sentence. All these subtheories of G.B theory operates in a modular form, and this theory itself
is referred to as to as a modular form, and this theory itself is referred to
xxxiii
as a modular deductive theory of grammar.
Each of these sub-theories
will be analyzed one after the other.
1.5.1 X-Bar Theory (XI Theory)
X-bar theory is the theory used in this research work. The X-bar
theory “provides principles for the projection of phrasal categories from
lexical categories and imposes conditions on the hierarchical organization
of categories in the form of general schemata” (Horrocks 987:101). Xbar theory is designed to formalize the traditional notion called ‘head’ of
a construction and to constrain the system in the recognition that the
lexical categories; Noun, verb, adjectives, preposition are the heads and
project to their phrasal nodes NP, VP, AP, PP, respectively.
For
example, Noun phrase is headed by a Noun. It comes after possible
constituents in the example below.
The Man
NP
Spec
N1
Det
N
The
man
xxxiv
Crucially, X-bar theory makes explicit the notion ‘head of a
phrase’. It may be that grammars vary according to the extent to which
they utilize the resources made available by X-bar theory.
Chomsky Noam himself has entertained the idea that there are
languages in which sentences is simply of a string of words without any
higher level organization. Culicover (1997:134) states that,
“Phrase structure concerns the hierarchical and left-right relationship
between syntactic categories.
In describing the X-bar theory, Chomsky (1986) says, X-bar
convention states that “every maximal projection has a specifier of XP
position with the intermediate bar projection serving as XP’s core.” In
other words, the X-bar theory brings out what is common in the structure
of phrases and projects the characteristics of lexical entries into the
syntax which links the D-structure to S-structure and logical form
component to the lexicon by specifying the possible context in which a
particular item can occur. The projection from the head to the maximal
level is shown below:
XP
-
Maximal Projection
xxxv
X1
-
Intermediate
X
-
The head
Lexical Category
Intermediate Category
Phrasal Category
N
X1
XP
N
N1
NP
V
V1
VP
A
A1
AP
P
P1
PP
I
I1
1P
C
C1
CP
Fig 1.3
xxxvi
Source: Ndimele (1992:17)
The proponents of X-bar theory argue that “there must be certain
intermediate categories between the lexical head and the maximal
categories (Ndimele, 1992:12). This intermediate category is normally
represented as “X” which is given the name X-bar theory. “X” is a
category variable which stands for any lexical head such as noun, verb
e.t.c. It can also stand for non-lexical head such as inflections (I) and
complementizer (C). These elements could head maximal projections.
The maximal projection (XII) stands for any phrase e.g. noun phrase
(NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), inflectional phrase (IP)
and compementizer phrase (CP).
The internal structure of X-bar describing a phrase is presented
below:
X11
Specifier
(spec)
X
X1
Complement
xxxvii
The head ‘X’ takes a complement to form a high X1. The X-bar
takes a specifier and projects maximally into a full phrase i.e X-double
bar. X is an obligatory element in the phrase. The specifier and the
complement are the optional elements.
The head ‘X’ alone can project into;
XP
I
X1
I
X
Ndimele (1992:17)
In the X-bar theory we also have what we call adjunct. Adjuncts
are sub-classes of X-bar. A phrase containing a specifier, an adjunct and
a complement would have the schematic structure as below;
X11
xxxviii
X1
Specifier
X1
Adjunct
X
Complement
One of the primary aims of X-bar theory is to make provisions for
the intermediate categories.
X-bar was adopted in order to address
inadequacies of the phrase structure grammar.
1.5.2. Theta Theory (θ-Theory)
Theta Theory is concerned with the assignment of what Chomsky
calls “thematic” roles to sentential constituents. The Greek letter theta
(θ) is a form of shorthand for thematic. By thematic roles Chomsky
means what have been called semantics roles in preceding sections, roles
such as agent, patient (or theme), beneficiary e.t.c. It is assumed that
these are assigned to the complements of lexical items as a lexical
property (Horrocks 1987:101).
The function of theta theory is to explain the syntax of theta roles
to particular constituents of the sentence. Roles such as the one that is
xxxix
called ARRESTEE are theta roles; more familiar and general terms are
PATIENT (the one affected by the action), AGENT (the individual
initiating the action). For instance, theta theory sees to how the object
theta role of a verb is assigned to the direct object without accounting for
the fact that the object θ role of one verb is different from that of another
verb.
Henk Van Riemsdijk and Edwin Williams (1986) say “Theta
theory concerns the fundamental logical notion “argument” of a notion
(like case) that any theory of grammar must account for within
Government and Binding Theory. Theta theory takes a specific form that
could not be anticipated on the basis of the logical notion “argument of”
alone; it has specific empirical content and in it’s interaction with case
theory and NP-movement it provides considerable deductive explanation.
According to Horrocks (1987:21), He claims that “the principle of
θ -theory is the θ– criterion, which requires each thematic role to be
uniquely assigned; i.e each constituent denoting an argument is assigned
just a theta (θ) role and each θ role is assigned to just one argument
xl
denoting constituent”. No sentence, for example can have two (noncoordinate) agents or themes.
Therefore, Culicover (1997:21) states that, the theta role assigned
to constituents within the VP are called internal theta role; these
constituents are called internal arguments. The theta role assigned to the
subject is called external to VP. For instance in the below sentence;
The Cat caught the mouse
The verb ‘catch’ assigns the grammatical function subject to cat,
and grammatical function object to the mouse.
It should be noted that the thematic argument of verb need not
necessarily correspond to subject and object: suppose for example, that
we derive the passive sentence from the one used as example above
The mouse was caught by the cat.
Theta theory will ensure that the predicate ‘caught’ assigned an agent role
to the subject in spite of being in the logical object position, and object
‘mouse’ theme or patient role despite occupying of the subject position.
1.5.3. Case Theory
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Case theory deals with the principles of case assignment to
constituent (Horrocks 1987:103).
It deals with the assignment of
particular ‘cases’ to Noun phrases in the sentences according to their
position in the D-structure or S-structure (Cook, 1988:33). Although,
case is an overt property only of pronominal NPs in English (I/me,
She/her, he/him, we/us, they/them/their), Chomsky assumes that all NPs
with lexical content are assigned abstract case. Abstract case is usually
distinguished from case as an overt inflectional category by the use of an
initial capital and this convention will continue in case assignment.
Kirsten (1991:496) explained that case theory regulates the
distribution of phonetically realized NPs by assigning abstract case to
them. Horrocks is of the opinion that the choice of case is determined by
the governor in any given sentence. Horrocks further his analysis by
saying; Government is a traditional notion involving the limitation of the
sphere of influence of a particular category with respect to adjacent
categories. For example, familiar statements from grammars of Latin or
Russian that “some verb or preposition governs the accusative” may be
xlii
interpreted in GB terms as saying that certain lexical heads have the
power to determine the case of NPs that are their complements.
We can say that a lexical head X may be said to govern its sisters,
in XI (X-bar), and certain lexical heads also have the power to case mark
certain of their complements. For example.
xliii
Ade slaughtered the cow on a table
1P
11
Spec
NP
N1
N
1
Tns
VP
Agr
V1
Spec
V
NP
Det
PP
N1
N P
P1
NP
Det
N1
N
Ade
past
slaughter the cow on the table
In the above example the INFL assigned normative case to Ade
which it governs. Verb slaughter assigned accusative case to the direct
object NP ‘cow’ that it governs; (Tense) assigned normative case to the
subject NP Ade which it governs; and the preposition ‘on’ assigned
xliv
oblique case to indirect object NP ‘table’ which it governs. An important
principle of case theory is case filter. Case filter states that S-structure
that contains an NP with lexical context but no case is ungrammatical.
The structure of case theory is represents as
‫٭‬
NP
+ LEXICAL
- CASE
Case theory generally deals with the assignment of abstract case and its
morphology realizations. Nominative case is assigned by the tense part of
inflection in S-structure to the subject.
1.5.4. Bounding Theory
Bounding theory is concerned with the limitation to be placed on
the displacement of constituents by the transformational rule (schema
move α), and its Chief principle is subjacency. Subjacency may be best
thought of as a criteria property of move α (Horrocks 1987:128).
It is also the relationship of movement between S-structure and Dstructure which restricted words that can be moved, where it can be
xlv
moved from and where it can be moved to. This means that movement
rule with Government and Binding theory is assumed to involve three
major things as said;
(i)
Extraction Site
(ii)
Landing Site
(iii)
Intervening gap.
This three major aspect can be described diagrammatically as:
Landing
Site
Intervening
Gap
Extraction
Site
For instance in the sentence below:
D-structure – “I have two pens”
S-structure (i) How many pen have you?
(ii) How many have you pen?
We can see that the NP pen has crossed more than one boundary
node, that is, ‘have’ and ‘you’ which makes the second sentence in the
xlvi
S - Structure ungrammatical. Horrocks further says that any rule that
relates two position at S- structure such that one C-commands the other
and the C-command position is empty is transformational provided that
amongst other conditions, the C-command position is subjacent to the
C-commanded position. The relationship between the empty position
called “Trace” and it binder is deemed to be transformational.
1.5.5. Binding Theory
Binding theory is one of the most important constructs in the
system (Horrocks 1987:108).
It is concerned primarily with the
conditions under which NPs are interpreted as co-referential with other
NPs in the same sentence. For the purposes of the binding theory, NPs
that are arguments are assumed to fall into one of the three categories
listed;
(i)
Anaphors
(ii)
Pronominal
(iii)
Referential expressions
xlvii
Anaphors are NPs whose reference is necessarily determined
sentence internally and which can not have independent reference. For
example, In English, reflexive and reciprocal pronoun fall to the class of
anaphors. We can have it as “Olu and himself or Bola and herself”,
himself and herself must be taken as referring back to the individual
denoted by men and women which symbolizes ‘I’. Pronominals are NPs
that either refer to individuals independently or co-refer to individuals
already named in a given sentence (Culicover 1997:35).
Horrocks
(1987:108) describes pronominals as NPs that lack specific lexical
content and have only the features person, numbers, Gender, and case,
unlike anaphors; they may either refer to individuals independently or corefer to individuals already named in a given sentence.
Referential – expressions are NPs with lexical heads which potentially
refer to something (Culicover 1997:35). The binding theory has certain
principles which count for the theory. The principles include;
Principle A: Anaphors (reflexive and reciprocals) must be bound with
their binding domain (usually the sentence immediately around an item).
xlviii
Principle B: A non-anaphoric pronoun (pronominals) must not be bound
in its governing category.
Principle C: A referential expression (a non-pronominal) must not be
bound at all. That is, it must be free everywhere.
The term bound on principle ‘A’ simply refers to the conjunction
of C-command and co-indexing. Thus,
α binds β; if only
α C – commands β
α and β are co referential (Horrocks 1987:107)
In principle B, the term bound simply means free. Principle C
refers to elements such as names and other referential noun phrases.
Since syntactic co-indexing is not equivalent to co-reference, what is
crucial to the theory of Binding are the syntactic conditions on the coindexing relationship.
1.5.6. Control Theory
Control theory deals with the way in which subject less infinitive
are construed. It focuses on an element called PRO, sometimes called
“big pro” to contrast it with PRO. PRO is restricted to the subject
xlix
position in non-finite clause. PRO is used to indicate deletion. It is used
to represent ‘that’ in the sentence where it is been deleted. For example.
I want [that I go to Lagos]
I want [PRO go to Lagos]
In the above sentence, the original subject of the verb ‘I’ has been
deleted; therefore the use of PRO in the sentence is reminding us that the
subject has been deleted.
1.5.7. Government Theory
Government theory is the relationship between two elements
defined by mutual commands within a ceiling and floor of maximal
projections, provided one element is a governor. According to Malmjaer
(1991:495), Government theory deals with the relationship between a
head and its complement and defines relationships in other sub-theories.
It is a syntactic relationship between a governor and the element that it
governs (Horrocks, 1987:104). Thus; verb like see, kill, draw, explain,
write e.t.c govern their NP objects. Also, where a preposition is found
often, an NP follows, giving rise to the statement that a preposition
l
governs its NP object. Only lexical categories can be governors
(Chomsky 1981:162).
The configuration for government is as below:
XP
α
β
X
Y
In the above schemata, α C- command β and other nodes
dominated by XP. The list of governors includes the lexical categories
noun, verb, adjective and preposition that is, everything that can be the
head of a phrase (cook, 1998:36). However, there must be a relationship
between the governed and the governor that is, government ensures that
the word gets an appropriate case.
1.6
Data Collection
The method adopted in collecting data for this research work is the
contact method. Samarin (1967:43) says, “The kind of corpus a field
researcher obtain is determined by the purpose and techniques he adopts
li
in his collection”. A native speaker of Uneme Language was contacted
and he serves as a source of information.
The Ibadan Wordlist of 400 basic items was used to collect some
words in the language for verification and analysis in this project.
The frame technique is used in collecting linguistic data and it forms a
crucial part of this research work since it is in the domain of syntax.
The information and the details of my informant are as follows:
Name – Pastor Patrick Asekhame
Age – 54 years
Pastor Patrick who is my language helper speaks Uneme Language
fluently and has lived in the community for 23 years. He is bilingual
because he also speaks English language.
1.7
Data Analysis
This research work is methodological because it has a particular
system we follow. I have the data written and recorded in an audio
cassette and audio CD for verification and documentation. The work will
follow the theory propounded by Chomsky (1981) which is known as
lii
Government and binding theory. This will be used in the analysis of this
data and will be restricted to the Uneme noun phrase.
CHAPTER TWO
Basic Phonological and syntactic concepts
2.0
Introduction
This chapter will deal with two different levels of linguistics and
these levels are phonological and syntactic analysis of Uneme language.
Under the phonological concept, we shall take care of the tonal patterns,
sound inventory and syllable structure. On the other hand, some basic
syntactic concepts like phrase structure rules, lexical categories, phrasal
liii
categories, basic word order as well as sentence types will also be
discussed.
2.1 Aspects of Phonology of Uneme Language
Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sound
system of languages. William (2007:45) claims that phonology
investigates the sound differences that are linguistically relevant in a
language.
Oyebade (2008:2) stated that, “phonology is the scientific study of the
arbitrary vocal symbols used in human speech and the patterns into
which these symbols enter to produce intelligent, meaningful utterances”.
Therefore, phonology deals with the sound system of a language. In this
section we shall deal with the sound inventory of Uneme language (i.e
consonant and vowel), Tonal and Syllable structure respectively.
2.1.1 Sound Inventory of Uneme Language
Every human natural language has its own set of sounds. Sound
inventory describes the number of sounds or segment that is present in a
particular language. Specifically, this section will introduce us to the
liv
sounds attested in Uneme language. They are divided into consonants
and vowels.
2.1.1.1
Consonants of Uneme Language
Consonants are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the
vocal tract so that the airflow is either completely blocked or so restricted
that audible friction is produced.
Consonants can be described in relation to the point where the
airstreams is impeded, and how it is impeded. These two properties are
called the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.
Following the international phonetic Association (IPA) chart, the
Uneme consonant chart is arranged as shown below. The places of
articulation are shown in the cross top of the chart and the manner of
Nasal
Fricative
m
n
f v
ð
S z S З
lv
Labiali
zedvelar
Glottal
palatal
Labiovelar
t d
Palatoalveolar
alveolar
dental
P b
velar
Stop/plosive
Labiodental
Bilabial
articulation on the vertical axis of the chart.
k g
kp gb Kw gw
xγ
h
Affricate
ts
Trill
r
tЗ d З
Approximant
j
Lateral
w
l
Fig 2:1 A chart showing the consonants of Uneme language.
Aspirated Segments
gbh
mh
2.1.1.2
Vowels of Uneme Language
Vowels are sounds produced with little or no obstruction of the air
flow in the mouth.
Vowels are described phonetically as sounds
articulated without a complete closure in the mouth or a degree of
narrowing which would produce audible frication and the air escapes
evenly over the centre of the tongue.
lvi
Using the data from Ibadan 400 word list we realized that Uneme
language attested seven vowels. It also has some long vowels and nasal
vowels. Below are the charts showing the oral and Nasal vowels of
Uneme language.
Front
Central
Back
High
i
i:
u:
u
Mid-high
e
e:
o:
o
‫כ‬:
‫כ‬
Mid-low
ε
Low
a a:
Fig 2.2 A chart showing the oral vowels of Uneme language
Front
Central
lvii
Back
High
ũ
ĩ
ẽ
Mid high
ε
Mid-low
‫כ‬
ã
Low
Fig 2.3 A chart showing the nasal vowels of Uneme language
Long vowels in the orthography of Uneme language are written or
described with a sequence of vowels.
2.1.2 Description of Uneme Sounds
2.1.2.1.
(A)
Consonants
Stop/Plosive
Stops are consonant sounds made by a complete obstruction of the
air flow and a sudden release of the relevant articulation (Yusuf
1992:18). The sound includes the class of plosives
[p] – Voiceless bilabial plosive. It occur word medially as in:
Opia
[‫כ‬pia]
‘matchet’
Apèpè
[apεpε]
‘hand fan’
lviii
ópipì
[opipi]
‘pepper fruit’
[b] – Voiced bilabial plosive. It occurs at the word medial position as in.
‘wall’
Obeh
[‫כ‬be]
ómòbétsùdé
m‫כ‬betsude] ‘heart’
ábifò
[abif‫]כ‬
‘wing’
Igwijabe
[igwidЗab‫]כ‬
‘arm’
[t]- Voiceless alveolar plosive. It occurs at the word medial position as
in:
ítùààgbà
[itua:gba]
‘board’
ítóòmì
[itotomi]
‘strong’
ítímì
[itimi]
‘fly’
[d] – Voiced alveolar plosive. It occurs at the word initial and medial
position
Initial position
Dìgwá [digwa] ‘knee’
Medial position
ódìò
Iduevoi
[‫כ‬di‫]כ‬
[iduevoi]
‘old’
‘chief’
lix
ídéЗè
[ideЗe]
‘fall’
[k] – Voiceless velar plosive. It occurs word initial and word medial
position.
Initial position
Kunifame
[kunifamε] ‘urinate’
Medial position
Okakai
[‫כ‬kakai]
‘hard’
Okoi
[okoi]
‘fight’
Ikomhi
[ikomhi]
‘sow’
[g] – Voiced velar plosive. It occurs at the word medial position as in;
Ukpagu
[ukpagu]
‘tail’
Idagu
[idagu]
‘duck’
Agiode
[agi‫כ‬dε]
‘hunter’
Ogie
[ogiε]
‘king’
[kp]- Voiceless labio-velar stop. It occur at the word medial position as
in
Ukpevei
‘penis’
[ukpevei]
lx
Ukpomo
[ukp‫כ‬m‫]כ‬
‘seed’
Ukpai
[ukpai]
‘basket’
[gb]- Voiced labio-velar stop. It occurs at the initial and medial position.
Initial position
gbikhilo [gbixil‫‘ ]כ‬dance’
Ugbo [ugb ‫‘] כ‬thorn’
Ogbede [ogbede]‘dawn’
Medial position
egboro [εgb‫כ‬r‫‘ ]כ‬mud’
[kw] – Voiceless labialized velar. It occurs at the word medial position.
Okwamhi
[‫כ‬kwamhi]
‘heavy’
Ikwilimhi
[ikwilimhi]
‘bite’
Ikwea
[ikwea]
‘open’
[gw] – Voiced labialized velar stop. It occurs at the word medial and
initial position
Medial position
egwe
[egwε]
‘hoe’
digwa
[digwa]
‘kneel’
lxi
Initial position
gwesi
(B)
[gwεsi]
‘lie (down)’
Nasal
This refers to sounds produced while the soft palate is lowered to
allow an audible escape of air through the nose. We both have consonant
and vowel nasals.
[m] - Biblabial nasal. It occurs at the word medial position and initial
position.
Medial position
emale
[emale]
‘food’
ame
[amε]
‘watch’
ishomi
[iS‫כ‬mi]
‘charcoal’
Initial position
muza [muza]
‘stand’
lxii
[n] – Aveolar nasal. It occurs in both initial and medial position
[nogwesue]
‘sleep’
unumi
[unumhi]
‘grass’
udonahehemi
[udonahehemi]
‘grinding stone’
nogwesue
ene
(C)
‘four’
[ene]
Fricatives
It refers to sounds made when two organs come so close together
that the air moving between them produces audible friction and frication.
There is no complete closure between the organs.
[f] – Voiceless labio-dental fricative: It occurs both initially and
medially. Examples of it are:
Initial Position
Fikhili
[fixili] ‘turn round’
Medial Position
ifinua [ifinua] ‘extinguish’
Ifimhi
[ifimhi] ‘throws’
Ifomhi [ifomhi] ‘finish’
[v] – Voiced labio-dental fricative: It occur at the word medial position.
lxiii
Ivumi
[ivumi]
‘full’
eviemi
[eviemi]
‘weep’
iviagba
[iviagba]
‘jaw’
[ð] – Voiced dental fricative – It occur medially as in
ethai
[eðai]
‘fire’
Athakhetse [aðaxetse]
‘cooking’
athu
‘hat/cap’
[aðu]
And initially as in;
thekhaloi [ðexaloi]
‘follow’
[S] – Voiceless alveolar fricative: It occurs in both initial and final
position.
Initial Position
Seloi
[seloi]
‘climb’
Suiyolo
[suijolo]
‘sing’
Medial Position
Isomi
[isomi]
‘hear’
Akhuso
[axus‫]כ‬
‘abuse’
Isolamhi
[isolomhi]
‘split’
lxiv
[Z] – Voiced alveolar fricative: It occurs only at the word medial
position. Example of such are
Ideze
[ideze]
‘fall’
Ihoroze
[ihoroze]
‘descend’
[ Ѕ]- Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative: It occurs at the world initial
and word final.
Initially as in
[Sioluru]
‘spin (thread)’
Ishomi
[iS‫כ‬mi]
‘charcoal’
Ishiokhoi
[iSiox‫כ‬i]
‘buttocks’
Ishemhi
[iSεmhi]
Shioluru
Medially as in
[З]- Voiced palato-alveolar fricative.
It occur at the word media position. Example of such are
KheЗ a
[XeЗ a] ‘pass (by)’
Yereze
[jereze] ‘remember’
lxv
‘give’
[iðemhize]
Ithemhize
[X] – Voiceless velar fricatives: It occurs at the word medial position.
Example of such are:
Ukhpo
[ux‫]כ‬
‘navel’
Okhoi
[oxoi]
‘virginal’
Ikhuegbe
[ixuegbe]
‘put on’
[ γ ] – voiced velar fricatives: It also occur at the word medial position.
Examples are
alighe
[aliγe]
‘buffalo’
oghena
[‫כ‬γena]
‘God’
[h] - Voiceless glottal fricatives
It occur only at the word medial position
Example of such are:
ahili
[ahili]
‘oil’
ehi
[ehi]
‘charcoal’
uvehee
[uvεhe:]
‘knife’
lxvi
[D]
Affricates
[tS] – Voiceless palato- Alveolar Affricate – It occurs at the word medial
position. Examples are
‘pepper’
achie
[atSie]
ithochemi
[iðotSemi] ‘burn’
[dЗ] – Voiced palato- Alveolar Affricate – It also occurs at the word
media position. Examples are:
Igwijabo
[igwidzab‫]כ‬
‘arm’
ijimhi
[idzimhi]
‘build’
[ts] – Voiceless Alveolar Affricate. It occurs at the word medial position.
Example of such are;
(E)
etso
[ets‫]כ‬
‘ear’
omotse
[‫כ‬m‫כ‬tse]
‘man’
atsu
[atsu]
‘night’
Trill
It can be defined as any sound made by the rapid tapping of one
organ of articulation against another.
[r] – Alveolar trill. It occur word medially. Example of such are:
lxvii
(F)
ekoroe
[ekoroε]
‘thigh’
ihoroze
[ihoroze]
‘descend’
Approximant
Trask (1996:30) described approximant as a segment usually a
consonant, articulated with a constriction which is typically greater than
that required for a vowel but not radical enough to produce turbulent air
flow and hence form noise when voiced.
[j]
Palatal Approximant: It occurs at the medial position
akanya
[akãja]
‘work’
enyei
[ẽjei]
‘breast’
omhayama [omhajama] ‘refuse’
[w]
(G)
Labio-velar Approximant. It occurs at the word medial position.
Ikhawoo
[ixaw‫כ‬:]
‘okra’
nwe
[nwe]
‘twenty’
Lateral
lxviii
The most familiar, lateral is [l]. It is produced with the tongue
placed in such a way as to prevent the airstream from flaring outward
through the centre of the mouth.
ukpeloi
[ukpεloi]
‘eye’
ugwuela
[ugwuεla]
‘kneel’
emale
[emale]
‘food’
It is observed that consonants occur at the initial position in few of
the entries.
2.1.2.2
[l]
Distribution of Vowels in Uneme Language
Front high unrounded Vowel
Initial Position
Medial Position
Final Position
[itsue]
‘Nose’
[ofiegbe]
‘skin’
[okpaði]
‘leg’
[iviagba]
‘Jaw’
[ahili]
‘oil’
[εtsεi]
‘saliva’
[iðai]
‘blood’
[ovia]
‘yam’
[emhi]
‘thing’
[is‫]כ‬
‘feaces’
[atSie]
‘pepper’
[imiemi]
‘see’
[u]
Back high rounded vowel
Initial Position
[utsomhi]
‘head’
Medial Position
Final Position
[unumi] ‘grass’
[aδu] ‘hat/cap’
lxix
‘back’
[uke]
[e]
[ufufoða] ‘bark’
Front mid-high unrounded vowel
Initial Position
Medial Position
[etu] ‘hair’
[ejei]
‘breast’
[ets‫‘ ]כ‬ear’
[ofiegbe]
‘skin’
[o]
[sioluru] ‘spin’
Final Position
[atSie]
[aðaxetse]
Medial Position
[otsamh]
‘soup’
[ufufoða]
‘bark’
[ovia]
‘yam’
[ijolo]
‘song’
Final Position
‘seven’
[itsilo]
[ibeto] ‘plait(hair)’
Front mid-low Unrounded Vowel
Initial Position
Medial Position
[εkpa]
‘bag’
[εh‫]כ‬
‘smoke’ [ok‫כ‬εd‫‘ ]כ‬boat’
[‫]כ‬
‘cooking’
Back mid-high rounded vowel
Initial Position
[ε]
‘pepper’
[uvεhε]
‘knife’
Final Position
[‫כ‬bε]
‘wall’
[ohafε]
‘compound’
Back mid-low rounded vowel
Initial Position
Medial Position
[‫כ‬m‫כ‬betsude] ‘heart’
[ukp‫כ‬m‫]כ‬
[‫כ‬kaze]
‘guineacorn’ [‫כ‬b‫כ‬kia]
lxx
Final Position
‘seed’
[ok‫‘ ]כ‬mortar’
‘maize’
[εh‫‘ ]כ‬smoke’
[a]
Central low unrounded vowe
Initial Position
Medial Position
Final Position
[agwa] ‘dog’
[idagu]
‘duck’
[agwa]
‘dog’
[abif‫‘ ]כ‬wing’
[a atsi]
‘horse’
[akaja]
‘work’
Long oral vowels
It is observed that, long oral vowels in Uneme language occur at
word medial and final position
Nasal Vowels
[ĩ]
-
High front unrounded nasal vowel
Initial Position
[ĩjo] ‘Mother’
[ĩjelemi]
[ũ]
‘dwell’
High back rounded nasal vowel
Final Position
[igbehu]
[ẽ] – Mid-high front unrounded nasal vowel
Initial Position
lxxi
[ẽjei] ‘breast’
[ε]-
Mid-low front unrounded nasal vowel
Initial Position
[εjε] ‘snake’
[‫ – ]כ‬Mid-low back rounded nasal vowel
Initial Position
[‫כ‬jε] ‘crocodile’
[ã] – Low back unrounded nasal vowel
Initial Position
Medial Position
[ãjo] ‘wine’
[akãja]
‘work’
[ãjodi] ‘palm wine’
2.1.3.
Tone Inventory In Uneme Language
(Tone System)
Tone is the use of suprasegmental parameters to differentiate
lexical items. Pike (1948:3) defined tone language as “a language that
has lexically significant, contrastive but relative pitch on each syllable”.
The meaning of a word depends on its tone in the majority of the
lxxii
languages in the world.
However, all languages also use intonation
which is the use of pitch variation to convey syntactic information but the
pattern are super imposed on the tones. Clark and Yallop (1990:28) state
that “Tone is a feature of the lexicon being described in terms of
prescribed pitches, for syllables or sequences of pitches for morphemes
or words. It is on this basis that we shall regard Uneme language as a
tonal language.
According to Pike, we have two (2) main type of tone, one of
which is called Register Tone:
Register Tone
Register tone are those ones that maintains level pitch. There are
three types of register tones namely:
High,mid and low. They are graphically represented thus;
High tone [/]
Mid tone [-] – mid tone is always left unmarked
Low tone [\]
Like Yoruba language, Uneme language uses register tone and the
three levels of tone in the register tone are used.
lxxiii
Contrastive tones are usually marked over the vowels in a tone
language. But they are often properties of the syllables as a whole, they
can also occur on consonants that can be regarded as syllabic consonants.
Generally, tone performs two main functions, and the functions are
lexical and grammatical function.
The distribution and occurrence of tone in Uneme language can be
illustrated as shown below.
(A)
H+L
(1)
Uli
(2)
Ok‫‘ כ‬mortar’
(3)
Uru
(4)
Uze ‘axe’
(5)
Ob‫‘ כ‬hand’
(6)
agwa ‘dog’
(B)
M + H
(1)
etu
‘hair’
(2)
uki
‘moon’
(C)
M + M
‘rope’
‘water pot’
lxxiv
(1)
Iso ‘feaces’
(2)
Ame ‘water’
(3)
Afe
(4)
Emho ‘ashes’
(5)
Aki
(6)
Ovha ‘house’
(7)
Ofe
(D)
H + L + L
(1)
emale
‘food’
(2)
enyei
‘breast’
(3)
ehai
‘neck’
(4)
ithai
‘blood’
(5)
idomi
‘jump’
(6)
inomi
‘run’
(7)
okoi
‘fight’
‘rope’
‘market’
‘fear’
lxxv
(E)
M + M + L
(1)
Iyemhi
‘cook’
(2)
Ifimhi
‘throw’
(3)
Itomhi
‘roast’
(4)
Idemhi
‘buy’
(5)
Inemhi
‘surpass’
2.1.4. Syllable Structure of Uneme Language
Syllable can be defined as the smallest unit of word that can be
articulated once.
Ladeforged (1975:248) says that syllable may be considered to be
abstract unit that exist at some higher level in the mental activity of a
speaker. He also says that a syllable can also be divided for descriptive
purpose into its onset and rhyme. The rhyming part of syllable consists
of the vowels and any consonant that cone after it. Any consonant before
rhyme form the onset of the syllable. The rhyme of a syllable can also be
lxxvi
the nucleus, which is the vocalic part, and the coda, which consist of any
final consonant.
A syllable can be open or close. Open syllable is a syllable that
ends with a vowel while a close syllable ends with a consonant. Syllable
has its own internal structure; it has an onset, peak or nucleus and coda.
Onset is the beginning of a syllable, peak is the central and coda is the
end of a syllable. Consonant usually make up the onset and coda of a
syllable while vowels and syllabic consonants serve as the syllable peak.
This is illustrated diagrammatically as shown below;
Syllable
Onset
Core
Peak
Coda
Syllable
Onset
C
Peak Coda
V
C
lxxvii
According to Hyman, the first ‘C’ in a CVC structure stands for
the onset, the ‘V’ stands for the peak while the last ‘C’ is the coda. It is
not all syllables that have the onset and the coda but every syllable has a
peak or nucleus.
Uneme language operates both the open and close syllable system.
Syllable can either be mono syllabic, disyllabic or trisyllabic.
Monosyllabic Words
These are words that have only one syllable. Example of such
words in Uneme language is:
Gbé ‘kill’
Rό
‘eat’
Rù
‘use’
Ré
‘give’
Dissyllabic words
lxxviii
These are words that have two syllables. Examples are:
ú/gwò
‘bone’
VCCV
i/so
‘feaces’
VCV
é/gbè
‘body’
VCV
e/nah
‘cow’
VCVC
Tri syllabic words
This can also be regarded generally as poly syllabic words. That
is, words that has more than two syllables. Examples of such syllables
are:
ólulu
‘thread’
VCVCV
éfìà
‘shoe’
VCVV
Ubene
‘calabash’
VCVCV
ísàgwùè
‘groundnut’
VCVCCVV
údègéì
‘mountain’
VCVCVV
lxxix
ódòdè
‘road’
òkòkòròò
‘kite’
2.2
VCVCV
VCVCVCVV
Syntax of Uneme Language
Syntax is the study of the arrangement of words to form sentences.
In speech, the native speaker of a language puts to bear on the discourse
his total knowledge of the language, Ore Yusuf (1999:109).
Radford (1997:1) submits that, syntax is concerned with the ways in
which words can be combined together to form phrases and sentences.
This aspect will study the phrasal and lexical categories of Uneme
language including the ordering of words to make phrases and sentences
in Uneme language.
2.2.1 Phrase Structure Rule (PSR)
lxxx
It is clear that words in a sentence are not arranged like beads on a
string. Certain group of words coheres and form building blocks within
sentences, and native speakers usually have little difficulty in identifying
these.
Horrocks (1987:31) declares that phrase structure rule is a basic
component of syntax, which are simply a formal device for representing
the distribution of phrase within sentences. Phrase structure rule of the
sentence is a hierarchy that proceeds from the largest constituent in the
sentence down to the smallest constituents.
Phrase structure rules are the re-write rules, that is, the constituents
introduced at the right-hand side must occur in a specific order to
conform to the phrase structure of the language. This can be illustrated
as shown below:
lxxxi
CP
Spec, C1
C1
C,
IP
Spec, I1
I1
I, VP
I
Tns(pst/Prest), Agr
VP
Spec, V1
V1
V(NP) (PP) (ADVP)
NP
Spec N1
N1
Det, N (ADJP), (PP) (S1)
IP
ADJP
Spec, A1
A1
DEG A
PP
Spec, P1
lxxxii
P1
P, NP
Horrocks cited his own example of the phrase structure Rule (PSR)
as:
S
NP VP
VP
V (NP)
NP
(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (RC)
NP
N (PN)
All of these analyses simply explain that the element at the lefthand side consists of those elements at the right-hand side of the arrow.
2.2.2 Phrase marker
Phrase markers are also called “tree diagrams”. Lamidi (2000:33).
The tree diagrams helps in breaking down larger constituents until it gets
to the terminal nodes or strings. This can be exemplified as shown
below:
lxxxiii
S
NP
VP
In both cases S directly dominates NP and VP and NP precedes
VP.
2.2.3. Lexical Categories in Uneme Language
Lexical category’ as used by modern linguists is also known as
part of speech.
Yusuf (1997:5) affirm that ‘lexical categories are
traditionally known as the existing part of speech’. Yusuf (1995:115) also
state that:
“The words in natural speech situation are said to belong to
different part of speech, in part because of their functions, and in part
because of their distribution. Their meanings may be part of the criteria
that gave rise to their categorization.”
lxxxiv
Carnie (2007:45) says, “Lexical parts of speech provide the
“content” of the sentences”. Traditionally, a word such as a Noun, Verb,
Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, preposition, and Conjunction is a lexical
category in structural terms and they are called heads.
All of the above lexical categories will be discussed in reference to
Uneme language.
2.2.3.1.
Noun
A Noun or ‘Substantive’ is a word used as the name of a living
being or lifeless thing. Examples of some items in Uneme language are:
évè
‘goat’
wènà ‘school’
ame ‘water’
Ali
‘name of a person’
égbè ‘book’.
A Noun can function as the subject of a verb or as object of a verb.
Awobuluyi (1978:7) submit that ‘any word functioning as the subject of a
lxxxv
verb or the object of a verb or preposition in grammatical sentence is a
Noun’.
Noun can perform the following functions:
(I) They function as head in the structure of Noun Phrases e.g.
Ayo
óyè funmi
Ayo
love funmi
Ayo
loves funmi
Ayo in the above NP, functions as the head of the phrase.
(II)
As heads of NPs, they take a different range of dependants from
the other parts of speech.
Most distinctively they take
determiner like: the, which, a, every, my, e.t.c.
(III) They enter into inflectional contrasts of number i.e. singular vs.
plural.
e.g
Dog
Vs
Dogs
Man Vs
Men
Lorry Vs
Lorries
lxxxvi
Nouns are classified into different sub-groups according to form
and composition. The classes of Nouns that we may have are proper,
common, concrete, abstract, countable and uncountable nouns.
Proper Noun: This is a kind of noun that includes names of people,
countries, continents, institution, months and day of the year e.t.c.
Examples of proper nouns are:
Ali
‘name of a person’
Nigeria
‘name of a country’
Common Noun: Common noun is a name given to items or people of
the same kind. It does not refer to a specific thing or person. Examples
of common noun are
Ikpigho
‘Money’
Unumhi
‘bush’
Inyo
‘mother’
Concrete Noun: Concrete nouns are a kind of noun expressing tangible
entities that can be seen or touched. Example of concrete Nouns are:
Obo
‘hand’
lxxxvii
Ugwogwotha ‘stick’
Udo
‘stone’
Abstract Nouns: These are the kind of noun that can not be seen
physically. They express feelings, idea or concept. Examples of abstract
nouns are:
Oye
‘love’
Iyemi
‘like’
Omhayama ‘refuse’
Ofe
‘fear’
Countable Nouns: This is a class of a common noun which refers to a
kind of noun that can be counted. Countable nouns have two forms,
singular and plural (student-students; girl-girls). Also, a countable noun
must always be preceded by a determiner. For Example; because the
word horse is countable you cannot start a sentence like this:
‘Horse is coming’
You have to start with A/The/One horse….
Instance of countable nouns in Uneme language are:
Ikho
‘mat’
lxxxviii
Ikpigho
‘money’
Agbofi
‘orange’
Uncountable Nouns:
Uncountable noun is the opposite of countable
noun. They are kinds of nouns that refer to object that can not be
counted. Uncountable nouns can have the following characteristics:
(a)
Uncountable nouns are normally used only in the singular.
‘The milk is sour’; ‘The luggage is lost’. (Milks or luggages
will be wrong).
(b)
Uncountable nouns cannot be preceded by a or an.
Thus ‘an information’ is wrong.
(c)
Uncountable nouns are often not preceded by any determiner.
For examples: patience is a virtue.
Uncountable nouns are preceded by a determiner when a specific
shown is commendable. Examples of uncountable, nouns are:
Ithai
‘blood’
Ifame
‘urine’
Umei
‘salt’
lxxxix
Afefe
‘wind’
2.2.3.2. Pronouns
This is a part of speech that can be used in place of a noun.
Pronouns can be describes as words used instead of a noun. We have
different kind of pronoun, those that are subjective, objective and
possessive. And also those that are independent.
The table below
illustrates the pronouns of Uneme language.
Independent
Singular
1st
Subject
Object
Possessive
I
I
Me
My/mine
Me
me
me
Ikemee/ikemee
xc
2nd
3rd
Plural 1st
2nd
3rd
You
You
You
Your/Yours
ole
ole
ole
Kolee/kolee
He/She/It
He/She/It
Him/Her/It
His/Hers/Its
o/o/lo
o/o/lo
o/o/lo
o/o/lo
We
We
Us
Our/ours
Ma
ma
ma
Ikemaa/ikemaa
You
You
You
Your/Yours
Ole
ole
ole
Kolee/kolee
They
They
Them
Their/Theirs
Ele
ele
ale
ikale/ikale
Fig 2.4. A table showing personal pronouns of Uneme language.
It is to be noted in the above table that Uneme language does not
distinguish between genders.
2.2.3.3.
Verbs
Verbs can be defined as an action word or doing words. The verb
is that part of speech that predicates, assist in predications, asks a
question, or express a command. Awobuluyi (1978:45) says, “Any word
xci
functioning as predicator in a grammatical or acceptable sentence is a
verb”. The verb plays an important role in a sentence by linking the
action that has taken place between subject and object. Verbs can have
the following properties.
(a)
Verbs are tensed; they have one or other of the inflectional
properties ‘past tense’ and ‘present tense’.
(b)
They function as ultimate head of the clause.
A verb could be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive Verbs: This is a kind of verb that takes an object. Simply
explained, transitive verb means transferring an action to the object.
Examples of transitive verbs in Uneme language are:
Yon
‘cook’
gbo
‘kill’
kuro
‘bite’
Intransitive Verbs: These are kinds of verbs that do not have objects in
sentences in which they occur. Examples of intransitive verbs in Uneme
language are
ekpami
‘vomit’
xcii
kunifame
‘urinate’
niso
‘defecate’
ihumi
‘die’
2.2.3.4.
Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb as its major grammatical assignment.
Awobuluyi (1978:66) describes adverb as ‘a word which in its full form
modifies a verb’. Examples of adverbs in Uneme language include;
Ochabo
‘slowly’
Quickly
‘yanya’
Carefully
‘ofie’
2.2.3.5.
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that name a quality or attribute, defines,
limits, or modifies a noun. Lamidi (2000:73) describes adjective as
‘a category that can tell more about the noun and can be premodified by
adverbials’. Adjectives are sometimes used in the comparative or in the
superlative. Examples of Adjectives in Uneme language are:
nogboro
‘long’
in
o ha nogboro
‘long story’
khua
‘heavy’
in
ise ne khua
‘heavy load’
xciii
2.2.3.6
Preposition
A preposition is a word that indicates a relation between the nouns
or pronoun it governs and another word, which may be a verb, an
adjective or another noun or pronoun. Prepositions are usually placed
before a noun or a pronoun to indicate direction, place, source or method.
Examples of preposition in Uneme language are
Usomi
‘on’
ni
‘to’
ekekhi
‘in’
as in;
on egbe usomi tebuu
the book on
table
‘the book is on the table’
o shi ekekhi Lagos
she live in
Lagos
‘she lives in Lagos’
2.2.3.7.
Conjunction
A conjunction is frequently needed in writing because it joins
words or groups of word. Therefore, conjunction is a word or group of
xciv
words that joins word or group of words together in a grammatical
sentence.
yi
‘and’
Either or
‘omoki, okii’
Bade yi
Bola
Bade and
Bola
As in
Omoki Joe okii Tunde
Either Joe or Tunde
2.2.4. Phrasal Categories
Phrase refers to a sequence of words that can function as a
constituent in the structure of sentences.
A phrase cannot make a
complete sense on its own, except other elements are conjoined together
with it.
There are four main categories used in X-bar syntax, and these
categories are: Noun Phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), Adjective phrase
(AP), and prepositional phrase (PP). For all the major categories, they
are named after the central categories. That is, phrases are usually named
after their main words, referred to as head words.
xcv
2.2.4.1
Noun Phrase
Yusuf (1992:197) explained that, noun and its satellites form a
noun phrase (NP). Yusuf (1997:8) also said that, “the noun phrase is the
category that codes the participants in the event or state described by the
verb in a sentence or clause”.
Collins (1990:215) described noun phrase as one of the important
constituents of grammatical structure based on their multiple functions.
Basically noun phrase is headed by a Noun. And it could make up of just
a word or often co-occur with a class of words such as ‘determiners’ as
well as ‘adjectives’. That is, a Noun phrase can be described as indicated
in the phrase structure rules below:
(i)
NP
N(PN)
(ii)
NP
Det, N
(iii)
NP
Adj. N
(iv)
NP
Det. Adj. N
The following are examples of noun phrase in Uneme language.
(1)
ókó
nò
wai
xcvi
Car
(2)
(3)
that
red
‘That red
car’
ómòtsè
nò
du
Man
that
tall
‘The tall
man’
Mariam
yí
Ade
Mariam
and
Ade
‘Mariam and Ade’
(4)
(5)
ón ómòtsè
the
man
‘the
man’
ómòtsè
nò
totoi
man
that
strong
‘that strong man’
(6)
Ayo
óyè
Funmi
Ayo
love Funmi
‘Ayo loves Funmi’
(7)
óvhá
nòkwa
xcvii
house
big
‘The big house’
NP
N1
Spec
N
Adj.
Ovha
nokwa
House
big
‘Big house’
NP
N1
Spec
N
AP
Det
Adj1
Adj
Omotso no du
Man that tall
‘The tall man’
xcviii
NP
N1
Spec
N
AP
Det
A1
A
Omotse
no
totoi
Man
that strong
‘The strong man’
2.2.4.2.
Verb Phrase
Yusuf (1997:21) Explained that, verb phrase is traditionally called
‘the predicate’ because it contains the sentence predicator namely ‘verb’.
Stockwell (1977:40) stated that ‘verb is a Chester of words in surface
strings of which the node are verbs. The verb is the head of a phrasal
category verb phrase. However, noun phrase can also be embedded
within verb phrase. Therefore, verb phrase can open up schematically as:
VP
V
xcix
VP
V NP
VP
V NP PP
Generally, verb phrase can be said to make up of the verb and its
complement and other satellites. The following are example of verb
phrase (VP) in Uneme language:
(I)
Kúíró
nómòtsè
bite
man
‘bite the man’
(II)
ró
émàrè
eat
food
‘ate the food’
(III) gbó
kill
évè
goat
‘killed the goat’
(IV) guogi ékwì
break pot
‘broke the pot’
c
VP
V1
Spec
V
NP
N1
N
ro
eat
‘ate the food’
emare
food
ci
VP
V1
Spec
V
NP
N1
N
guogi
ekwi
break
pot
‘broke the pot’
2.2.4.3.
Adjective Phrase
cii
Adjective phrase is a kind of phrase that is headed by an adjective.
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. Greenberg
(1966:115) states that, an adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as
its head, and it functions syntactically as an adjective phrase. Lamidi
(2000:73) says, it is a phrase having an adjective as its head and can be
premodified by adverbials.
Adjective phrase can occur within the NP as an optional
‘premodifier’ of the head noun. However, adjective phrase can be open
up to Adj N, Adv Adj N, and this shown below:
Adj. P
Adj. N
Adj. P
Adv. Adj. N
Examples of Adjective phrases in Uneme language are as follow:
(I)
óhá
nògbòrò
story
long
‘A long story’
(II)
ísé
nò
load that
okwa
heavy
‘An heavy load’
ciii
(III) ótsàmì
nò
female
mòsè
that beautiful
‘A beautiful girl’
(IV) eyeh
itse
snake
five
‘five snakes’
Adj P
Adj1
Spec
NP
Adj
N1
N
Oha
nogboro
story
long
‘A long story’
civ
Adj P
Adj1
Spec
NP
Adj
N1
N
Det
Adj
Ise
no
Load
that
‘An heavy load’
2.2.4.4.
okwa
heavy
Prepositional Phrase
Radford (1997:268) says that a prepositional phrase is a phrase
whose head is a preposition. A prepositional Phrase is frequently used to
form idiomatic phrases which functions as adverbial of time, place,
cv
manner, by a preposition. Carnie (2007:71) states that “most preposition
phrases take the form of a preposition (the head) followed by an NP.
Instances of preposition in Uneme language are:
(I)
úsòmì
on
teebù
table
‘on the table’
(II)
ékèkhì
Lagos
in
Lagos
‘In Lagos’
PP
PP
P1
Spec
P
Usomi
On
P1
Spec
NP
P
NP
N1
N1
N
N
teebu
table
ekkhi
in
cvi
Lagos
Lagos
‘On the table’
‘In Lagos’
2.2.5 Basic Word Order
Hudson (2000) describes word order as the temporal on linear
sequence of words of the sentence. Word order is used to discuss the
order in which the three main parts of a sentence occur in a language.
Greenberg (1966) explains that word order is the manner, in which
subject (s), verb (v) and object (o) co-occur in any simple declarative
sentence.
Sanusi (1996:34) states that, “the basic word order shows how the
subject, verb and object co-occur in any basic grammatical sentence.
According to Tomlin (1986:102), the basic word order that may be
operated by language has been grouped into percentage. 45 percent of
language SOV, 42 percent is SVO, 3 percent are VOS, a percent VSO
and less than 1 percent are OVS and OSV. Therefore, most of the
logically possible variations of the word order that is being operated
among the world languages are;
cvii
(a)
Subject
Verb
Object
(SVO)
(b)
Subject
Object
Verb
(SOV)
(c)
Verb
Subject
Object
(VSO)
(d)
Verb
Object
Subject
(VOS)
(e)
Object
Verb
Subject
(OVS)
(f)
Object
Subject
Verb
(OSV)
From the above listed variations, Uneme language words are
arranged in the order of Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO). Therefore in a
basis sentence of Uneme language, we can have subject occurring first
and followed by verb and object which serve as the predicate. Examples
of basic word order in Uneme language are as follows:
(a)
S
V
O
Ali
gbé
évè
Ali
kill
goat
‘Ali killed a goat’
cviii
(b)
S
V
Ayo oyè
O
funmi
Ayo love funmi
‘Ayo loves funmi’
(c)
S
V
O
Olu
ró
émàlè
Olu
eat
food
‘Olu ate the food’
(d)
S
V
O
Ade ányòn emale
Ade cook
food
‘Ade is cooking the food’
(e)
S
V
O
Joe
yó
aki
Joe
go
market
cix
‘Joe went to the market’
IP
I1
Spec
NP
I
N1 Tns
VP
Agr
Spec
V1
(+ past)
N
V
NP
N1
N
Ali
Ali
‘Ali killed the goat’
gbe
kill
eve
goat
2.2.6 Sentence Types
A sentence may be defined as the relationship between a subject
and its predicate. Yusuf (1998:101) described sentence as a group of
words, which makes a statement a command, expresses a wish, asks a
cx
question or makes an exclamation. Sentence is generally regarded as a
group of words that makes a complete sense with at least a finite verb or
main verb. Sentence types can be analyzed in two main ways: Firstly,
through the structure of the sentence and secondly, through the function
performed by the sentence.
Winterowd and Murray (1985:512) say that traditional grammarian
classified sentence into three different type’s namely simple, compound
and complex sentences.
2.2.6.1.
Simple Sentence
This is the most basic type of sentence structure.
It has one
independent main clause and no subordinate or dependent clauses.
Tallerman (2005:65) states that, “simple sentence is a sentence consisting
of just one clause”. A simple sentence will contain a subject and it’s
predicate. Examples of simple sentences in Uneme language are:
(a)
Ali
óyè
Mariam
Ali
love Mariam
‘Ali loves Mariam’
(b)
Adim
gbé
évè
cxi
Adim
kill
goat
‘Adim killed a goat’
(c)
Bade
oha
vadé ásunà
Bade
will
come tonight
‘Bade
will
come tonight’
IP
cxii
I1
Spec
NP
I
VP
Tns
Agr
Spec
V1
(+ past)
N
V
NP
N
Adim
Adim
gbe
kill
‘Adim killed a goat’
IP
Spec
I1
cxiii
eve
goat
NP
I
Tns
VP
Agr
V1
Spec
(+ past)
N
V
NP
N
Ali
Ali
2.2.6.2
oye
love
‘Ali loves Mariam’
Mariam
Mariam
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is a kind of sentence recursion. The same
clausal category recurs over and over, all linked by conjunction items like
‘and’, ‘but’. It comprises two or more independent or main clauses and
no subordinate or dependent clauses. Where the two main clauses have
the some subject, and the subject need not be repeated. The compound
cxiv
sentence will have more than one verb. Examples of compound sentence
in Uneme language are as follow:
(a)
Ogbhena mò òtsà
God
òtsà
mo ewe
made person person made town
‘God made man and man made the town’
(b)
Olu ró ovia ókwè ró óghédénìkethè
Olu eat yam before eat banana
‘Olu ate yam before he ate banana’
(c)
Ige o yí ìgwè ókwè ayi óvhà ówenà
Ige he go farm before go house learning
‘Ige went to the farm before going to school’
It is to be noted that a compound sentence does not always come
with conjunction in Uneme language. An example of this is what we
have in (a)
IP
IP
IP
cxv
Conj.
1
Spec
NP
I
I
Tns
VP
NP
I
Agr
Tns
N1 [+ past]
V1
V
N
I1
Spec
N1
Agr V1
[+ past]
NP N
V
NP
N1
N1
N
N
Ogbhena
mo
otsa otsa
God
made person person
‘God made man and man made the town’
2.2.6.3.
VP
mo
made
ewe
town
Complex Sentence
This consists of one independent or main clause and one or more
subordinate or dependent clauses.
Yusuf (1999:29) affirm that, the
complex sentence has a main clause and a number of subordinate clauses.
The subordinate clause may be embedded in an NP as we find in relative
clauses, or it may be included in the VP with or without modifying any
cxvi
NP.
This later action is known as complementation. Examples of
complex sentences in Uneme language are given below
(i)
ónómòtsè
ónò
gbé
Man
who kill
éyè
ónòdú
snake brave
‘The man who killed the snake is brave’
CP
C1
Spec
C
IP
NP
Spec
cxvii
I1
N
rel.
N1
I
VP
V1
N Tns Agr Spec
[+ past]
V
NP
N1
N
VP
V1
V
Onomotse
ono
Ø
The man
who
'The man who kill the snake is brave’
gbe
kill
eye
snake
onodu
brave
CHAPTER THREE
The Noun Phrase
3.0
Introduction
This chapter will examine the form of noun phrase and the position
of the noun phrase in relation to its satellites in Uneme language. the
cxviii
function of noun phrase will also be examine together with the
modification of noun by some of noun classes such as determiners and
preposition as available in the language under study.
3.1
Noun Phrase
In grammatical theory, a noun phrase is abbreviated as (NP). A
noun phrase (NP) is a phrase whose head is a noun or a pronoun
optionally accompanied by a modifier set (wikipedia).
The dictionary of linguistics and phonetics explained that, the
construction into which nouns most commonly enter, and of which they
are the Head word are generally called Noun Phrases (NP) or Nominal
Groups. The structure of a noun phrase consists minimally of the noun
(or noun substitute, such as a pronoun).
Yusuf (1997:8) defines noun phrase (NP) as the category that
codes the participant in the event or state described by the verb. The NP
is headed by the noun or state described by the verb. The NP is headed by
the noun or pronoun. It is by virtue of this headedness that the phrase is
called the Noun phrase. Yusuf (1998:24) also states that noun phrase can
contain indefinitely any number of satellites; whatever it may contain, it
cxix
has to have a noun head, noted technically as N0 but which may be coded
as plain N.
According to stock well (1977:55), noun phrase is a cluster of
words in the surface strings of which the nucleus is noun.
Collins (1990:215) also states that “noun phrase is one of the
important constituents of grammatical structure based on the multiple
functions”.
3:2
Forms of Noun Phrase (NP)
Noun phrases normally consist of head noun, which is optionally
modified (“premodified” if the modifier is placed before the noun, “post
modified” if the modifier is placed after the noun). Possible modifiers
included:
(a) Determiners (Articles, Demonstrative, Numerals, Possessive,
Quantifiers)
(b) Adjectives
(c) Complements (in the form of a prepositional phrase)
(d) Modifiers
3.2.1. Determiners
cxx
Determiners are function words within noun phrases, like ‘a’ (n),
the or this. The job of determiner is related to the details of how a noun
phrase is used to refer to something. There are so many component parts
of determiners, they include: Article, demonstrative, numerals,
possessive, quantifiers. Examples of such in Uneme Language include:
óvhá
kèméè
ón
ómòtsè
house
my
the
man
‘my house’
‘the man’
NP
N, Det.
NP
Det, N
ónó
sáwòhì
ébè
éétsà
that
boy
book
six
‘that boy’
‘six books’
NP
NP
Det, N
N, Det.
3.2.2 Adjective
The noun can also be premodified by an adjective. Lamidi (2000:73)
describe adjective as words that can modify a noun and can also be
modified by adverbials.
Examples of such are;
cxxi
ómàmí
nó
mòsè
girl
that
beautiful
‘the beautiful girl’
ísé
nè
load that
khua
heavy
‘An heavy load’
3.3
The Head Noun
The head noun is the obligatory part of the noun phrase around
which the other constituents are attached. If a noun phrase contains just
one noun, then that must be the head. Head in a noun phrase can be
single word as we have in Uneme language.
[évè]
‘goat’
[óvhá]
‘house’
[ame]
‘water’
[ómòtsè]
‘man’
[émàrè]
‘food’
cxxii
3.4
Position of Noun within NP
Structurally, nouns may come first or after it’s satellites in Uneme
language. As earlier said, the satellite could be determiners, prepositions
and adjectives. Also we have conjurial noun phrase which join together
with conjunction element such as ‘and’, ‘but’, e.t.c. The following are
examples of such in Uneme language.
Mariam
yí
Ade
Mariam
and
Ade
‘Mariam and Ade’
Saliu yí
Kudi
Saliu and
Kudi
‘Saliu and Kudi’
3.4.1 Modification Of NP by Adjective
óvhá
nó
ódìò
house
that
old
‘The old house’
cxxiii
oha
nò
gbòrò
story that
long
‘A long story’
ómàmí
nó
mòsè
girl
that
beautiful
‘A beautiful girl’
NP
N1
Spec
NP
N
AP
Det
A1
Ovha
house
no
odio
that
old
‘The old house’
NP
N1
Spec
NP
ADJ.P
cxxiv
N
Det
ADJ.1
Oha
no
gboro
story
that long
‘A long story’
NP
N1
Spec
NP
N
ADJ.P
Det
ADJ.1
Omami no
mose
girl
that beautiful
‘A beautiful girl’
3.4.2 Modification of NP By Determiner
bàbá kèméè
father my
‘my father’
cxxv
óvhá ìkèmáà
house our
‘our house’
óvhá kèméè
house my
‘my house’
ébè
éétsà
book six
‘six books’
NP
N1
Spec
N
Baba
Father
Det
kemee
my
cxxvi
‘My father’
NP
N1
Spec
N
Det
Ovha
ikemaa
house
our
‘our house’
NP
N1
Spec
N
egbe
book
Det
eetsa
six
cxxvii
‘Six books’
3.4.3 Modification of NP by Preposition
úsòmì
teebù
on
table
‘on the table’
ékèkhè
Lagos
In
Lagos (a town)
‘In Lagos’
uke
wènà
back
school
‘behind the school’
cxxviii
PP
Spec
P
P1
NP
N
Usomi
teebu
On
table
‘On the table’
PP
cxxix
P1
Spec
P
NP
N
ekekhi
Lagos
In
Lagos
‘In Lagos’
PP
P1
Spec
P
NP
N
Uke
wena
Back
school
‘Behind the school’
The position of NP and its satellites can be illustrated by a box
diagram below using English language as example
Noun Phrase
cxxx
Article
Noun
Prepositional Phrase
Preposition
The
People
in
Noun Phrase
Article
Noun
the
room
Constituent structure of NP represented by box diagram
3.5
Function of NP
In Uneme language, NP can perform different function in the
sentence formation. The functions that NP performs in Uneme language
include;
(1)
Subject of the sentence
(2)
Direct object of the sentence
(3)
Indirect object of the sentence
(4)
Compliment of the sentence
3.5.1. Noun Phrase as subject of the sentence
Ojo
kí
ómòtsè
nòdu
Ojo
is
man
that tall
‘Ojo is a tall man’
Ogbhena
mò
òtsà
cxxxi
God
made person
‘God made man’
Ali
oye
boolu
Ali
love ball
‘Ali loves ball’
Olu
ró
émàlè
Olu
eat
food
‘Olu ate the food’
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
N1
VP
V1
Tns Agr Spec
[+ past]
V
cxxxii
NP
N1
N
N
Det.P
Spec
Det.1
Det
Spec
AP
A1
A
Ojo
Ojo
‘Ojo is a tall man’
ki
is
omotse no
man
that
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
N1
VP
V1
Tns Agr Spec
[+ past]
V
NP
N1
N
cxxxiii
du
tall
N
Ogbhene
God
‘God made man’
mo
made
3.5.2. Noun Phrase as Object of the Sentence
Ali
gbé
évè
Ali
kill
goat
‘Ali killed a goat’
Ade á
yàn
émàrè
Ade is
cook food
‘Ade is coking the food’
ón ómòtsè
kí
bàbá kèméè
the man
is
father my
‘The man is my father’
ómòtsè
fà
ónósà
man
pay
debt
cxxxiv
otsa
person
‘The man pays the debt’
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
VP
Tns Agr
[+ past]
Spec
V1
N1
N
V
NP
N1
cxxxv
Ali
Ali
‘Ali killed a Goat’
gbe
kill
eve
goat
IP
Spec
I1
Aux
I
NP
Tns
[+ past]
VP
Agr Spec
N1
V
V1
NP
N1
cxxxvi
N
N
Ade
a
Ade
is
‘Ade is cooking the food’
yon
emare
cook
food
3.5.3. Noun Phrase as Indirect Object of the Sentence
Músá ré
èbè
ni
Gadé
Musa give book to
Gade
‘Musa give Gade a book’
Kúdí rú
úkhùèrè
gbé
évè
Kudi use
knife
kill
goat
‘Kudi killed the goat with a knife’
cxxxvii
Bola kéké èbè
ré
Saudat
Bola write book to
Saudat
‘Bola wrote a letter to Saudat’
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
VP
V1
Tns Agr Spec
[+ past]
V
N1
NP
Spec
N
N1
PP
Spec
N
cxxxviii
P1
P
NP
N1
N
Musa
re
ebe
ni
Musa
give
book
to
Gade
Gade
‘Musa give Gade a book’
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
N1
VP
V1
Tns Agr Spec
[+ past]
V
cxxxix
NP
N
N1
Spec
N
VP
Spec
V
V1
NP
N1
N
Kudi
ru
ukhuere
gbe
kill
goat
eve
Kudi
use
knife
‘Kudi killed the goat with a knife’
3.5.4 Noun Phrase as a Compliment of Preposition
Ade rotó úsòmì
iwó
Ade sit
mat
on
‘Ade sat on mat’
Suleman
rú
kòdè ré
màrè
Suleman
use
spoon to
eat
‘Suleman
ate
with spoon’
Ade
émàrè úsòmì teebù
du
Ade carry food on
table
cxl
‘Ade put food on the table’
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
VP
Agr Spec
V1
[+ past]
N1
V
N
NP
Spec
cxli
N1
N
PP
P1
P
Suleman
V
ru
kode re
use
spoon
to
‘Suleman ate with spoon’
mare
eat
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
V1
NP Tns Agr Spec
[+ past]
N1
V
N
NP
N1
Spec
N
PP
P1
cxlii
P
NP
N1
N
Ade
carry
du
emare usomi
teebu
food
on
table
‘Ade put the food on the
table’
CHAPTER FOUR
Transformational Processes
4.0 Introduction
This chapter will examine some basic transformational processes
in Uneme language and such processes include:
i
Focus Construction
ii
Relativisation
iii Question Formation
iv
4.1
Reflexivisation
Transformational Rule
cxliii
Transformation refers to a formal linguistic operation which
enables two levels of structural representation to be placed in
correspondence.
A Transformational rule consists of a sequence of symbols which
is
re-written as another sequence according to certain conventions. It refers
to the rule that takes an input typically called Deep structure (in standard
theory) or D-structure (in the extended standard theory or government
and binding theory) and changes it in some restricted way to result in a
surface structure (or S-structure).
In 1957, Noam Chomsky published ‘Syntactic structures’ in which
he developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of
representation, a deep structure and a surface structure.
The deep
structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence and was
mapped on to the surface structure (which followed the phonological
form of the sentence very closely) via transformations.
Chomsky
believed there are considerable similarities between languages ‘deep
cxliv
structure’ and that these structure reveal properties common to all
languages that surface structure conceal.
Transformation has been proposed prior to the development of
deep structure as a means of increasing the mathematical and descriptive
power of context free grammar. For example a typical transformation in
TG is the operation of subject auxiliary inversion (SAI). This rule takes
as its input a declarative sentence with an auxiliary: ‘John has eaten the
heirloom tomatoes’ and transforms it into ‘Has John eaten all the
heirloom tomatoes’?
In their original formulation, Chomsky (1957),
these rules were stated as rules that held over strings of either terminals
or constituent symbols or both.
X NP AUX Y
X AUX NP Y
Yusuf (1992:138) defines transformation as the way we relate
some sentences to some other basic sentences. He claimed that some
sentences types are derived from the basics. An active sentence can be
changed to passive one or a simple declarative sentence to interrogative
through the transformation that has taken place.
cxlv
Sells (1988:15) says a transformational grammar takes a lexicon
and PS-rules and arguments; the sentence with transformations which
takes the structures created by PS-rules and transform them into new
structures.
Radford (1988:401) describes transformations as the process where
deep structure and surface structure are interrelated by a set of movement
rules.
The process of transformation is restricted to a particular rule
known as movement rule. Movement rule technically known as move
Alpha (move α) is a rule that operates on the D-structure to map it into
the surface structure (S-structure). A particular constituent is moved
from its initial position to another syntactic position whereby, the
meaning of the sentence does not change.
Cook (1988:21) described the principle of movement as a
transformation that has subsumed many separate rules previously known
as transformations. Movement is a major syntactic process whereby an
item is move from its original site to another site.
cxlvi
Radford (1989:419) state that ‘surface structure is generated from
the deep structure by the application of movement transformation called
alpha (move α )’.
The transformations that involve movement transformation include:
(1)
Focus construction
(2)
Relativisation
(3)
Passivization
(4)
Reflexivization
(5)
Question formation
(6)
Prominalization
(7)
Affix hopping
According to cook (1988:31) transformational process is
represented in a diagram know as T-model as shown below:
D – Structure
Transformation (Move α)
cxlvii
S – Structure
PF Component
LF Component
Adapted from Cook (1988:31)
Horrocks (1987:98) also describes the case of movement
transformation by a diagram as shown below.
Syntactic Component
D – Structure
(a) Base: (i) Lexicon
(ii) Categorial Component
(b) Transformational Component
S - Structure
PF Component
PF
LF Component
LF
Adapted from Horrocks (1987:98)
Movement theory within the government and binding theory (GB)
involves three things, these are
cxlviii
(I)
Extraction site
(II)
Landing site
(III) Intervening gap
The extraction site is the point from which the constituent is moved
(NP, VP, NWH or INFL). Landing site explains where the moved
element is positioned. The movement here could be by adjunction or
substitution to avoid crash landing of elements. Intervening gap is the
position that is left empty.
This emptiness is shown by the
introduction of the co-indexation (t1) or co-referential (ai) items.
Example of such as Uneme language is:
Olu gbé évè
Olu kill goat
‘Olu killed the goat’
évè o olu gbé (ti)
goat he olu kill
‘The goat was killed by Olu’
The item [ti] shows an empty position from which the element
‘goat’ is moved.
cxlix
4.2
Transformation processes in Uneme Language
Here we shall discuss some of the transformation processes that
may take place in the context of sentences in Uneme language.
4.2.1 Focus Construction
Stockwell (1977:157) defined focus as a way of introducing
special marking into the surface structure of the element or constituent
that is being focused. Focus construction is a kind of emphasis that is
syntactically marked through transformational markers. Focusing in
Uneme language is marked with a pronoun (ó) referring to the person
that performs the action.
Focus construction can be map into different ways;
i.
Subject NP focus
ii.
Direct object NP focus
iii.
Indirect object NP focus
iv.
Verb focus
cl
4.2.1.1 Subject NP Focus
In subject NP focusing, the subject noun phrase of a sentence must
maintain its status, that is, it must remain in its initial or original
position and the focus particle will be inserted immediately after the
subject and followed by the object. Below is the example of a subject
NP focusing in Uneme language.
Basic Sentence
(1) Olu
Olu
Derived Sentence
ró
émàrè
Olu ó
eat
food
Olu [foc] eat food
‘Olu ate the food’
(2) Olu
Olu
gua
le émàrè
‘It is Olu that eat the food’
ùkò
drive vehicle
‘Olu drove the car’
Olu
ó
gua
ùkò
Olu
he [foc] drive vehicle
‘It is Olu that drive the ear’
(3) Ola
gbé
évè
Ola
ó
Ola
kill
goat
Ola
he [foc]kill goat
‘Ola killed a goat’
gbé
évè
‘It is Ola that kill the goat’
cli
Basic Sentence
IP
I1
Spec
I
Tns
[+past]
VP
Agr
V1
NP
V
NP
N1
N1
N
N
Olu
ro
clii
emare
Olu
eat
food
‘Olu ate the food’
Derived Sentence
FP
F1
Spec
Foc
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
NP
Tns Agr
N1
V1
NP [+past] Spec
V
NP
N
N1
N
Olu
o
[tj]
le
cliii
emare
eat
food
‘It is Olu that ate the food’
4.2.1.2 Direct Object NP focus
In object NP focusing, the noun in the object position is
emphasized and moved from its original position to the subject position.
This movement involves the movement rule known as move alpha (move
α). The focus element is placed after the NP. Examples of object NP
focusing in Uneme language include:
(1)
émàlè ó
Olu
le
food he
Olu
eat
[ti]
[foc]
‘It is food that Olu eat’
(2)
ùkò
ó
olu
vehicle he Olu
gua
drive
[foc]
‘It is car that olu drove’
(3)
évè
ó
Ola
gbé
goat he
Ola kill
[foc]
‘It is goat that Ola killed’
cliv
Derived Sentences
FP
F1
Spec
Foc
IP
NP
I1
Spec
N1
NP
N1
N
I
VP
V1
Tns Agr Spec
[+past]
V
NP
N1
N
V
N
emale
food
o
Olu
he Olu
le
eat
‘It is food that Olu eat’
clv
[tj]
FP
F1
Spec
Foc
IP
NP
I1
Spec
N1
N
NP
I
VP
N1 Tns Agr Spec
V1
[+past] Spec
N
V
NP
N1
N
eve
goat
o Ola
he Ola
gbe
kill
‘It is goat that Ola killed’
4.2.1.3.
Indirect Object NP Focus
Basic
clvi
[tj]
Olu
ré
émàrè ékèkhì teebù
Olu eat
food
on
table
‘Olu ate the food on the table’
Derived
téébù
ó Olu
table [foc] Olu
ré émàrè
eat food
‘It was on the table that Olu ate the food’
FP
Spec
F1
clvii
Foc
IP
NP
I1
Spec
N1
NP
N
N1 Tns Agr
[+past]
N
I
VP
Spec V1
V
NP
Spec
N1
N
PP
Spec
P1
P
NP
N1
teebu o
Olu
re emare
table he[foc] Olu
eat
food
‘It was on the table that Olu ate the food’
θ
N
tj]
4.2.1.4. Verb Focus Construction
In verb construction, the focus is mainly on the verb of the
sentence. Let’s consider these examples in Uneme Language
clviii
Basic
Ade
gúógi
ékwi
Ade
break
pot
‘Ade broke the pot’
Derived
gúógí
ó Ade gúógí ékwi
breaking [Foc] Ade break pot
‘It was breaking that Ade broke the pot’
FP
Spec
F1
clix
Foc
IP
NP
I1
Spec
N1
NP
Spec V1
N
N1 Tns Agr
[+past]
N
V
I
VP
NP
N1
N
guogi
o
Ade
breaking he[foc] Ade
guogi
break
ekwi
pot
‘It was breaking that Olu broke the pot’
4.2.2 Relativization
In classical Transformational Grammar, the process of forming a
relative clause construction is known as Relativization
clx
Stockwell (1977:59) defines relative clause as a sentence
embedded into a noun phrase, and marked in some way as subordinate to
the particular noun for which clarity of references is sought.
Relativization is a process whereby an embedded sentence is
linked with the main constituents with the aid of WH relative pronoun
such as who, what, whose when e.t.c. Relativization is derived by the
move α rule. Examples of relativization in Uneme language include:
4.2.2.1 Subject NP Relativization
Basic Sentence
Derived Sentence
ovoha
gbó
évè
ovoha
nó
gbó
évè
boy
kill
goat
boy
that kill
goat
‘The boy killed the goat’
ónómòtsè
ró
émàrè
the man
eat
food
‘The boy who killed the goat’
ómòtsè
man
‘The man ate the food’
nó ró émàrè
that eat food
‘The man who ate the food’
clxi
Phrase marking of the basic and derived sentence
Basic
IP
clxii
I1
Spec
I
NP
N1
VP
Tns
Agr
V1
Spec
[+past]
V
NP
N
N1
N
ovoha
gbo
eve
boy
kill
goat
‘The boy killed the goat’
Derived
Rel. P
Rel1
Spec
Rel
IP
clxiii
I1
Spec
.
NP
N1
I
NP Tns
VP
Agr Spec
V1
[+past]
N
V
NP
N1
N
Ovoha no
[tj]
boy that
‘The boy who killed the goat’
gbo
kill
4.2.2.2 Direct Object NP Relativization
Example of such from the basic sentences in (1)
évè
no
goat that
ovoha
gbó
boy
kill
‘The goat which the boy killed’
émàrè
nó
ómòtsè
ro
clxiv
eve
goat
food
that
man
eat
‘The food which the man ate’
Rel. P
Rel1
Spec
Rel
IP
.
I1
Spec
NP
I
clxv
VP
Tns
N1
Agr
N1 [+past]
V1
Spec
V
NP
N
N
NP
N1
N
emare no omotse
food that man
‘The food which the man ate’
ro
eat
[tj]
Reflexivization
A term used in grammatical description to refer to a verb or
construction where the subject and the object relate to the same entity.
English uses reflexive pronouns to express this relationship e.g. ‘he killed
himself’
Reflexivization can also be referred to as a rule which introduce
the reflexive pronouns into a sentence in one formation by changing the
syntactic features on the object. Personal pronoun from [- reflexive] to
clxvi
[+ reflexive], when it is co-Referential with the subject e.g.
she saw her
she saw herself. Examples of transformational process
called reflexivization in Uneme language are:
Basic
Derived
Olu
kúílí Olu
Olu
Olu
bite
Olu bite himself
Olu
kúílí égbòì
‘Olu bites Olu’
‘Olu bites himself’
Ade gbé
Ade
Ade gbé
égbòì
Ade kill
Ade
Ade kill
herself
‘Ade killed Ade’
Ole yòì
‘Ade killed herself’
ole
Ole
yòì
You like you
You
like
‘You like
you’
kúíró me
me kúíró ìkèméè
I
bite
I
‘I bite
me’
yourself
‘you like yourself’
Me
me
kòléè
bite
myself
‘I bite myself’
clxvii
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
NP
N1
Tns
V1
Agr Spec
[+past]
N
V
clxviii
NP
N1
N
Olu
Olu
kuili
bite
Olu
Olu
‘Olu bites Olu’
IP
11
Spec
I
VP
Spec
NP
Tns
[+past]
V1
Agr
V
N1
NP
N1
N
Pron
Olu
kuili
clxix
egboi
Olu
bite
himself
‘Olu bites himself’
4.2.4 Question Formation
Question formation is a process of making a speech or utterance
which always requires an answer question formation is the way we derive
questions interrogatively in some sentence types from the basic sentence
(declaration) to interrogative sentence.
Formation of question is a process under transformational
processes which displays the concept of movement. We have different
types of questions which all require an answer accordingly and they
include: Yes or No questions, WH questions, Echo question, Adjunction
question and Rhetorical question, some of which will be discussed.
4.2.4.1
Yes/No Question
Yes or no are two words for expressing affirmatives and negatives
respectively in English language. It was formerly in four forms. In the
clxx
early English but has been reduced by modern English to two-form
system consisting of ‘Yes’ and ‘No’.
Radford (1988:462) says, yes/No question is the type of question
that presupposes that one of the two mutual exclusive possibilities is true.
In linguistics, a Yes/no question formally known as a polar
question is a question whose expected answer is either ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.
Formally, they present an exclusive disjunction, a fair or alternatives of
which only one is acceptable in English language and such question can
be formed in both positive and negative forms. Example of Yes/No
question in Uneme language include:
Basic
Derived
Olu
gbó
évè
atá
Olu
gbó
évè
Olu
kill
goat
did
Olu
kill
goat
‘Olu killed the goat’
‘did Olu killed the goat?’
Ade di
ùkò
atá
Ade di
ùkò
Ade buy
vehicle
did
Ade buy
vehicle
‘Ade bought a care’
‘did Ade buy a car?’
clxxi
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
NP
Tns
N1
Agr Spec
V1
[+past]
V
NP
N
N1
N
Olu
Olu
gbo
eve
kill
goat
clxxii
‘Olu killed the goat’
CP
C1
Spec
C
IP
I1
Spec
NP
I
VP
N1 Tns Agr Spec V1
[+past]
N
V
NP
N1
N
ata Olu
gbo
did Olu
kill
‘did Olu killed the goat?’
clxxiii
eve
goat
4.2.4.2
WH Question
In linguistics, a question that makes use of interrogative words are
also known as WH words which are used to investigate or ask questions
such words include: Who, what, where. Why, which, when and how
(how also perform the same function as others).
Example of WH questions in Uneme language include,
Basic
Derived
Ade gbì
Olu
Olà
atá
Ade gbi
Ade beat Olu
who did
Ade beat
‘Ade beat Olu’
‘who did Ade beat?’
Olu
só
Olà
Olu
shout
who shout
soní
‘Olu shouted’
‘who shouted?’
Ade eni
sango
obì
Ade live
sango
where do
‘Ade lives at sango’
okia Ade eni
Ade live
‘where does Ade lives?’
clxxiv
Basic
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[+past]
VP
Agr
Spec
N1
V
V1
NP
N
N1
N
Ade
eni
sango
Ade
live
sango
‘Ade lives at sango’
Derived
clxxv
CP
C1
Spec
C
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
Q-M
NP Tns
Agr Spec
V1
N1[+past]
V
NP
[tj]
N
obi
okia
Ade
eni
where
do
Ade
live
‘Where does Ade lives?’
clxxvi
4.2.4.3
Echo Question
Radford (1988:463) describes echo question as that which involve
a person echoing the statement or utterance of a particular speaker.
Echo question may serve to express or show a kind of unbelief or
surprise in an utterance that may call for repetition.
Example of echo question in Uneme language include,
Olu
gbó
Ade
Olu
gbé
ólá
Olu
kill
Ade
Olu
kill
who?
‘Olu killed Ade’
‘Olu killed who?’
Basic
IP
clxxvii
I1
Spec
I
VP
NP
V1
Spec
N1 Tns
Agr
[+past]
V
NP
N
N1
N
Olu
Olu
gbe
kill
‘Olu killed Ade’
Derived
IP
Spec
I1
clxxviii
Ade
Ade
I
VP
V1
Spec
Tns
[+past]
Agr
NP
V
N1
CP
Spec
C1
WH
Ø
N
Olu
gbe
Ola
Olu
kill
who
‘Olu killed who?’
4.2.4.4. Adjunction Question
Adjunction Question is a case whereby an item is adjoined to be a
sister to another node. In this case, the elements added are usually not
compulsory, but may be added to a question with either Yes or No to
function as complement to the question. They are added to an utterance
clxxix
to provide additional information. Examples of Adjunction Question in
Uneme include:
Basic
Bola
Derived
vaa
Bola òwè
Bola [modal] sleep
will
Bola sleep
‘Bola will sleep’
‘will Bola sleep?’
omotse oki
oki
omotse
rie
has
man
take it
man
va
òwè
rie loni
has take it
‘The man has taken it’
‘has the man taken it?’
Basic
IP
Spec
I1
clxxx
loni
I
VP
NP
N1 Tns
V1
Modal Spec
[+past]
N
V
NP
N1
pron
omotse
oki
rie
loni
man
has
take
it
‘The man has taken it’
Derived
CP
C1
Spec
C
IP
clxxxi
Q-M
I1
Spec
NP
I
VP
N1Tns Agr Spec V1
[+past]
N
V
NP
N1
Pron
oti omotse
has
man
rie
loni
take
it
‘Has the man taken it?’
However, the theory of movement claims that a constituent can be
moved from one position regardless of other variables to land at either
side of the position that is either left or right.
Furthermore, the movement is not arbitrary; it is constrained by
subjacency principle (constraint under bounding theory as discussed in
chapter 1). In other words, what we refer to as move α theory is subject
to subjacency condition which stipulates that ‘an element or constituent
that has undergone movement can cross not more than one bounding
node as a result of the rule application.’
clxxxii
α
X
Y
(Extraction site)
α
S1
S3---------------- α------------------S2
Diagram describes movement and the subjacency principle.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
Introduction
This chapter, being the last part of this research work is designed
to summarize the major issues contained in this research. It presents the
efforts of the researcher on Uneme Language and concludes with some
recommendation for further research on Uneme Language.
5.1
Summary
This research work has successfully examined the Noun Phrase of
Uneme Language. Chapter one of this work explains the origin of syntax
and the different definition that has been given to it by linguists in the
clxxxiii
field of syntax. Generally, syntax is the arrangement of words to form
sentences.
Also, it traces the history and location including the
population of Uneme people. Uneme language speakers are found in
Akoko Edo and Etsako North of Edo state in the south eastern part of
Nigeria.
The total population of the entire Uneme Community is
estimated to be 19,800 (year 2000 estimation). Genetically, the Uneme
language is grouped with the language in the Benue Congo.
The data collection and analysis of Uneme language were carried
out through the use of Ibadan 400 word list, frame techniques and oral
tradition to give a first hand information as well as ample illuminating
data to back up our research.
Government and binding theory was adopted, using x-bar theory of
syntax for analysis in Uneme language.
The basic phonological and syntactic concepts are discussed in the
second chapter. This chapter briefly reviewed the sound inventory, tonal
inventory and syllable structure of Uneme language.
The phrase
structure rule, lexical categories and phrasal categories are also discussed
clxxxiv
in this chapter. Syntactically, Uneme language exhibits S.V.O. (subjectverb-object) word order in its basic sentence.
Chapter three of his work is based on the Uneme Noun Phrase
which is the main focus of this research work. It discusses noun as the
head of a noun phrase together with its satellites such as determiners,
adjectives and quantifiers. They are all expressed as the forms of noun
phrase which can be abbreviated as NP.
The fourth chapter of this work expresses the transformation and
transformational processes that are involved in the transformation of
sentences in Uneme language. Among the transformational processes
attested in Uneme language are focus construction, relativization,
reflexivization and question formation which are already been discussed
in the fourth chapter of this project work.
Finally, the chapter five of this work which is the current and last
chapter is set to summarize every work done by the researcher and the
conclusion together with recommendation for further researches on
Uneme language.
5.2
Conclusion
clxxxv
Conclusively, the study of syntax has frequently been understood
as an inquiry into how words are put together to for larger constituent,
that is, sentences. Uneme like other natural language is a tone language
which operates a register tone. However, we have seen how words are
used in isolation and while put together to form phrases and sentence.
Finally, it will be interesting to define noun phrase as a phrasal category
that has a noun as its head and effort has been made in this project to
highlight the major function of noun phrase in Uneme language.
5.3
Recommendation
The work contained in this project is recommended for researchers
in the field of linguistics and who are interested in working on any aspect
of ‘Syntax’ of Uneme language. It will serve as a basis for any further
research work to be carried out on Uneme language. It is therefore
recommended that other aspects of linguistics of Uneme language such as
morphology, phonology and semantics should be worked upon to give
Uneme a chance of being a language of Education as well as mass media.
clxxxvi
Finally, Government and language policy makers should
Endeavour to encourage and develop minority and local languages like
Uneme which has been worked upon.
References
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Longman Group, UK Limited.
Cook, V.J. (1988). Chomskey’s Universal Grammar: An Introduction
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Crystal, D. (ed.) (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (6th
Ed.). Blackwell publishing Ltd.
clxxxvii
Geoffrey, H. (1987) Generative Grammar, Longman Group, UK
Limited.
Hakeem, B.H. (2003)
A Cultural History of the Uneme. Ikorodu,
Nigeria;The book company.
Hudson, G. (2000). Essential Introducing linguistics. Oxford, UK:
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Publishing Ltd.
Henk Van Riemsdijk and Edwin Williams (1986) Introduction to the
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Lamidi, M.T. (200) Aspect of Chomskyan Grammar, Ibadan: University
of
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McGregor, W.B. (2009) Linguistics ‘An Introduction’ New York.
Tallermam, (2005). Understanding Syntax (2nd Ed.) London: Hoddler
Education, an Hachetter UK Company.
clxxxviii
Ndimele, O.M. (1992). The Parameters of Universal Grammar: A
Government and Binding Aproach, Owerri: African
Education
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Roberts, N.B. (1986). Analysing sentences. An Introduction to English
Syntax. Longman Inc. New York.
Oyebade, F. (2008). A Course in Phonology (2nd Ed.) Ijebu-Ode:
Shebiotimo Publications.
Pike, K.L. (1948). Tone Languages: A Technique for Determining the
Number and type of pitch contrasts in a language, with
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Radford, A. (1988). Transformational Grammar: A first course.
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clxxxix
Stockwell, R.P. (1977). Foundation of Syntactic Theory. New Jersey,
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Introduction.
Ijebu-Ode: Shebiotimo Publications.
Niger-Congo
Adamawa
West Atlantic Mande
Benue
Eastern
Congo
Kaan
Defoid Oko
Nupoid
Idomoid
Igoid
Emosayan
Gur Kru
Yoruboid
Delta Edoid
Edoid
Kwa
Akais
Edoid
North Central
North Edoid
Edoid
Edo
Ghotuo
Kpeshi
Etsako
Sasaruen
Ivbie
Wanigwe
Osiso
North Okpela
cxc
UNEME
Arche
Fig 1.1 A chart showing genetic classification of Uneme (Adapted
from
Ethnologue report for Nigeria languages year 2010)
AFRICAN LANGUAGES
Niger-Kordofanian
Saharan
Khoisan
Niger-Congo
Kordofanian
cxci
Afro-Asiatic
Nilo-
Mande
Kwa
West Atlantic
Benue-Congo
Ayere-Ahan
Corss-River
Defoid
Idonoid
Bantoid
Dakoid
Akpes
Edoid
Eastern
Western
Amo
Northern
Piti Astan
Jera
Kaura
Dungu
Kono
Kinuku
Kaivi
Tumi
Vono
Surubu
Mala
Bina
Ruma
Shuwa-Zamani
KURAMA
Gbiri-Niragu
Fig.1.1: A chart showing genetic classification of Kurama
cxcii
Adapted from Ethnologue. com. (Accessed, October, 2010).
cxciii