Classical Studies
Comedy, Satire and Society
Advanced Higher
6792
Spring 2000
HIGHER STILL
Classical Studies
Comedy, Satire and Society
Advanced Higher
Support Materials

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The publisher gratefully acknowledges Penguin Group UK for permission to
reproduce extracts from: ‘Knights’, ‘Peace’ and ‘Birds’ from The Birds and Other
Plays by Aristophanes; ‘Clouds’ and ‘Assemblywoman’ from Lysistrata and Other
Plays by Aristophanes, translated by Alan H Sommerstein; The Satires of Horace and
Persius, translated by Neil Rudd; The Sixteen Satires by Juvenal, translated by Peter
Green.
Every attempt has been made to gain permission to use extracts from the appropriate
copyright owners.
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes provided that no profit
is derived from the reproduction and that, if reproduced in part, the source is acknowledged.
First published 2000
Higher Still Development Unit
PO Box 12754
Ladywell House
Ladywell Road
Edinburgh
EH12 7YH
Classical Studies Support Materials: Comedy, Satire and Society (AH)
CONTENTS
Introduction
Staff Notes
Student Notes
Part One: Comedy, Satire and Society – Some Definitions
Part Two: Aristophanes and Old Comedy
A Introduction to Aristophanes’ comedies
B How to organise your study of Aristophanes
C Knights
D Clouds
E Peace
F Birds
G Assemblywomen
H Revision programme for Aristophanes
Part Three: The Satires of Horace
A The origins of satire
B Introduction to Horace’s Satires
C How to organise your study of Horace
D Satires, Book 1
E Satires, Book 2
F Revision programme for Horace
Part Four: The Satires of Juvenal
A Introduction to Juvenal’s Satires
B How to organise your study of Juvenal
C Satires
D Revision programme for Juvenal
E Putting it all together
Appendix: Stoicism and Epicureanism
Classical Studies Support Materials: Comedy, Satire and Society (AH)
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INTRODUCTION
These support materials for Classical Studies were developed as part of the Higher
Still Development Programme in response to needs identified at needs analysis
meetings and national seminars.
Advice on learning and teaching may be found in Achievement for All, (SOEID 1996)
and in the Classical Studies Subject Guide.
This support package provides support notes, of use to both teachers/lecturers and
students, for the Comedy, Satire and Society topic of the unit ‘Social Aspects of the
Classical World (Text- and Evidence-Based)’, which forms a major part of the
Classical Studies course at Advanced Higher. The notes cover the prescribed authors
and texts, and include examples of practice essay and practical analysis questions,
together with advice on how best to plan the approaches to questions of this type.
The material is designed in the form of a student study guide but it could be adapted
for use in a variety of ways, if required. The notes ‘For the Teacher’ provide
guidance on how it is envisaged the Study Guide will be used. The tasks and
activities included are only examples and are by no means exhaustive. While students
will tackle these tasks individually for the most part, there may be opportunities for
some collaborative working and staff will wish to discuss points raised with
individuals, groups and the whole class.
The exact way in which this material is used is, of course, at the discretion of the
individual teacher or lecturer.
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STAFF NOTES
Students working at Advanced Higher are beginning to learn and practice the skills
that will be essential when they go on to university. In particular it is important that
they can do two things:
 work on their own with the minimum of supervision, thus taking increased
responsibility for their own learning
 access a range of relevant materials and extract what they need for their own
purpose, thereby developing valuable research skills.
For this reason the materials prepared for use by students taking Advanced Higher
Classical Studies are different in kind from those prepared for students working at
Intermediate and Higher. The materials for ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’ take the
form of a Study Guide, which will direct the student to material in various
publications, most of which will already be available in the Classics department or the
school library. Some of the tasks in the Study Guide are straightforward, intended to
ensure that the student has read and understood the relevant text(s). Others require
some research, using reference books and the introduction and notes in the
translations of the prescribed authors. Others again are specifically directed towards
one or more of the prescribed themes within the area of ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’.
A student who works conscientiously through the Study Guide, performing all the
tasks listed and handing in assignments for her/his teacher to mark, should be well
prepared for both internal assessments and the external examination.
Please note that although no specific editions of Aristophanes, Horace or Juvenal are
prescribed, this Study Guide assumes that the most likely editions to be used are the
Penguin translations. Any page references or quotations refer to these editions, unless
otherwise indicated.
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STUDENT NOTES
(a) Getting started
Your chosen area of study is ‘Comedy, Satire and Society.’ You will be studying the
nature and limitations of the commentary on society provided by Athenian Old
Comedy and Roman Satire, with special reference to:
 the persona of the writer of comedy and satire
 the literary conventions of comedy and satire
 politics and war
 social and political ambition
 corruption of political and social relationships
 plain living versus luxury
 the relationship between the sexes
 changing values within the family
 the quest for peace of mind.
You will be studying the following texts in English translation:
 Aristophanes, Knights, Clouds, Peace, Birds, Assembly women
 Horace, Satires Books 1 and 2
 Juvenal, Satires 1-6, 8-11, 14.
Various translations are available, and no specific edition is prescribed. However, the
following Penguin translations, which are the most readily available, have been used
as the basis for this Study Guide:
 Aristophanes, Lysistrata and other Plays (translated by Alan Sommerstein)
 Aristophanes, The Knights, and other Plays (translated by Alan Sommerstein)
 Horace, Satires and Epistles (translated by Niall Rudd)
 Juvenal, The Sixteen Satires (translated by Peter Green).
These texts are the most important part of your work, but if you have the time you can
extend your knowledge by reading other works by these writers, and by reading
modern studies of their work. The work you did for Higher Classical Studies will of
course be useful in providing a basis for your knowledge of the ancient world, and
you should revise it as and when necessary, and extend your knowledge by further
research as often as possible.
There are various other books that can be used for reference or extra help. The
following list is not intended as a prescribed list, and is by no means exhaustive: it is
simply a selection of some of the most useful and most readily available books.
Individual schools may have others which are of equal value. Some of the books
listed are out of print, but may be available in the school’s Classics department or in
the school library. One or two particularly useful books are marked with an asterisk.
General reference
The Oxford Classical Dictionary
The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature
Who’s Who in the Ancient World
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Aristophanes
P.D. Arnott, Introduction to the Greek Theatre
R. Barrow, Athenian Democracy (very useful for background information)
P. Bradley, Ancient Greece (standard textbook; useful for historical material)
*K.J. Dover, Aristophanic Comedy (readable and extremely useful; the Study Guide
frequently refers to this book)
K.J. Dover and J. Tremewan, Aristophanes: Clouds, Acharnians, Lysistrata
D. Hennessey, Studies in Ancient Greece
*JACT, World of Athens (excellent for background information)
M. Parker, Socrates and Athens (a short and readable account).
Horace and Juvenal
*Michael Coffey, Roman Satire (very useful for both Horace and Juvenal)
John Ferguson, ed. Juvenal: The Satires (Latin text, with useful introduction and
notes)
Gilbert Highet, Poets in a Landscape
*JACT, World of Rome (excellent for background information)
Niall Rudd, Themes in Roman Satire
(b) Working on your own: some advice on taking notes
Your notes will consist of your answers to the questions on each play or poem. Your
teacher may wish to see them from time to time, to make sure that your note-taking is
of a satisfactory standard. Don’t fall into the trap of skating lightly over the surface
when you take notes. In the end, you will be the one to suffer if the groundwork isn’t
done properly. You will need your notes to revise from, and if you do the job poorly,
your revision – and maybe even your performance in assessments or exams – will
suffer. Be honest with yourself, and be thorough.
Read each play or poem at least twice. Include in your notes any brief quotes that
help to illustrate the points you are recording. This will save you lots of time when
revising, since you can then revise by reading your notes, referring to the text of the
play or poem as and when necessary. More specific guidance will be given on how to
study each author.
One bad habit to avoid is the habit of writing down quotations you don’t really
understand as a lazy way of getting the work finished faster. If you don’t understand
what the quotation means now, you will be even less able to understand it when you
revise. It’s much more sensible to ask your teacher to help with difficult sections of
whatever you are reading.
Finally, don’t be surprised if you find that you change your opinions about the texts as
you work on them. This is usually because your knowledge and understanding of the
texts is improving. The important thing is to be aware that your opinions have
changed, and to be able to explain why they have changed.
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(c) Assignments
At regular intervals you will find essay questions and Practical Analysis questions.
Take special care with your answers to these questions. Your teacher will mark these,
and this assessment will give both you and your teacher a clear understanding of your
progress.
Writing essays
Always plan an essay before writing it out. As a general rule, your plan will have an
introduction, a conclusion, and three main points in the middle. These three points
may be subdivided. (Why three? If you have fewer than three points you probably
haven’t done enough; if you have four or more you may be repeating yourself or
including irrelevant material. However, there can be exceptions to this ‘rule of three’,
as experience will show you.)
First of all, make sure you know exactly what the question is asking you to do. Your
introductory paragraph should include material which makes this clear. You can also
use your introductory paragraph to outline the way in which you propose to tackle the
question.
Note down the points you want to include. They may not occur to you in the order in
which you eventually use them in your essay. That doesn’t matter. First note them
down, then sort them out into a coherent plan. You will often find that at the planning
stage it’s useful to read through the notes you have made on the poem or poems in
question, as well as the poems themselves. As you do this, ideas and relevant quotes
will occur to you. Note them down before you forget them!
Once you have a good idea of what you want to put in your essay, you can note down
the points you want to include in your final paragraph. Don’t just repeat what you
said in your first paragraph, but make sure that you tie in your conclusion with the
wording of the question. At this stage you may not know exactly what you want to
put in the last paragraph. That doesn’t matter too much. If you have constructed a
good plan, you will find that words and phrases for your last paragraph will occur to
you as you write the essay. Note them down before you forget them.
Once you are satisfied with your plan, write out your essay. Aim to write about three
sides of A4 on average. Try to illustrate all the points you are making by referring to
the text. If you get into this habit now, you will find it easier to do so in an exam.
Also try not to repeat yourself. A good plan usually makes it easier to avoid this fault.
Don’t worry if your essay is too long; this is less of a crime (and also less common)
than not writing enough. Your teacher will tell you where you have gone wrong, and
you can do better next time.
Practical analysis
The Practical Analysis assignments provide practice in answering text-based
questions of the kind that you will have to answer in Paper 2 of the external Advanced
Higher exam. Paper II of Higher Classical Studies will already have given you some
idea of what is required. For Advanced Higher you are expected to work to a higher
standard.
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The general purpose of the questions is:
1. to see how well you understand the content of the passage set
2. to test your ability to relate the set passage to the rest of the text, or to similar
passages from other texts you have studied
3. to relate the set passage to one or more of the nine themes of ‘Comedy, Satire and
Society’
4. to comment on bias in the passage, and its reliability as a source of information
about Athenian and Roman society.
Read each question carefully to see which of these things you are being tested on.
Can you answer the questions simply by making detailed reference to the passage
itself? What knowledge will you require for your answer, either about life in classical
Athens or Rome, or about the rest of the play or poem from which the passage has
been taken, or about other works by Aristophanes, Horace or Seneca? Carry out any
necessary revision or research before tackling the questions. Use the marks allocated
as an indication of the length of answer required.
Unless your teacher has told you to do these questions under test conditions, you
should refer to your notes (and another relevant sources of information) as much as
necessary. On completion your answers should be handed in for your teacher to
mark.
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PART ONE: COMEDY, SATIRE AND SOCIETY
SOME DEFINITIONS
Before you can begin your study you need to know exactly what is meant by
‘comedy’, ‘satire’ and ‘society’. The last of the three should cause you no problem,
so give some thought to the first two, by thinking about the following questions and
writing some notes as an answer to them. Illustrate your notes by giving examples
from the present day (films, plays, TV programmes, poems). You can use a
‘Dictionary of Literary Terms’ to help you. The school’s English department should
be able to help with this if you can’t find one in the school library.
1. Comedy
What exactly is comedy?
What methods do dramatists and comedians use to make us laugh?
What techniques do they use?
Is comedy just funny, or does it have a serious side?
2. Satire
What exactly is satire?
What makes it different from comedy?
What kind of things does a satirist make you laugh at?
Is it more or less serious than comedy?
Once you have made your own notes, use the following information about Comedy
and Satire to check that you understand the main points. You should find that you
have written down the main points already, but you can now correct or add to your
own notes if necessary.
Comedy
Comedy assumes knowledge of certain basic aspects of society and human nature and
makes us laugh by exaggerating and distorting them. The comedian or writer will do
this in various ways – through words, gestures, costume, movement, situation. Some
(probably most) comedy has a serious side since it draws our attention to the frailties
and failings in ourselves and in those around us.
One important point to remember when studying comedy is that it often becomes
‘dated’ very quickly because there are lots of allusions to contemporary events and
attitudes, and to people in the news. But this is what makes comedy so useful to
social historians, who can learn a great deal about any given society by studying such
things as the plays of Aristophanes or the Satires of Horace and Juvenal. Any person
or event which is picked on must have been quite important at the time. However you
also have to remember that what’s picked on may be slightly exaggerated, and gives
you a very one-sided view of society.
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TV programmes like Men Behaving Badly, One Foot in the Grave or Only Fools and
Horses are useful examples (although there are plenty of others that you may know
better). What are you laughing at when you watch them? How real are the
situations? What’s exaggerated, and what has been left out? Do these programmes
have any influence on how you behave yourself, or how you look at the behaviour of
people around you?
When you are studying Aristophanes, you should keep these points in mind. He
often picks on well-known Athenians of his time, such as Cleon or Socrates. How
accurate are his characterisations? How easy is it for us to check their accuracy by
looking at other sources? He also makes fun of commonly held attitudes (e.g.
attitudes to politics and the law courts). Many of the people in his audience would
hold these attitudes. How would they feel about being laughed at in a play? Would
they be sufficiently influenced by the play to change their behaviour?
Satire
Satire is a special type of comedy. It is used as a weapon to attack people and types
of behaviour of which the satirist disapproves, and is usually sharper and more vicious
than comedy. The best examples of this on recent television are Spitting Image and
Jasper Carrot. The bitterness of the satire in the writers whose work you will be
studying varies from the very gentle Horace to the very bitter Juvenal.
The great eighteenth-century Irish satirist Jonathan Swift (who wrote Gulliver’s
Travels – a good example of a satirical novel) defined satire like this:
Satire is a sort of glass [i.e. mirror], wherein beholders do generally discover
everybody’s face but their own; which is the chief reason for that kind of reception it
meets in the world, and that so very few are offended with it.
Do you agree with Swift?
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PART TWO: ARISTOPHANES AND OLD COMEDY
A
INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOPHANES’ COMEDIES
You already know quite a bit about Athenian society in the lifetime of Aristophanes,
and you have read one of his plays for Higher Classical Studies, so you know a little
about his work as well. However, you need a stronger grasp of the background to the
plays you will be studying, and the following introductory work will provide what
you need.
Historical context
(a) Find and read an account of the history of Athens in the period 432-390 BCE.
There is a useful brief history of Athens in The World of Athens. You may also
refer to the relevant chapters of such textbooks as Bradley, Ancient Athens, giving
special attention to the period of the Peloponnesian War. This will provide the
necessary historical context, and you will be extending your knowledge of
specific events by your own reading of the texts and background books.
(b) Make up your own time-chart for the period 532-390 BCE. Use a sheet of A4
paper since this should give you plenty of space. This time-chart should contain
the most important events of the period, and you may wish to add to it from time
to time. To start you off, here are the most important events:
 Megarian Decree
 Beginning of the Peloponnesian War
 Plague at Athens
 Death of Pericles
 Siege and Destruction of Mytilene
 Pylos Campaign
 Peace of Nicias
 Sicilian Expedition
 Oligarchic Revolution
 Battle of Aegospotami
 Battle of Arginusae
 End of Peloponnesian War
 Trial and Death of Socrates.
Political context
There are regular references in Aristophanes’ plays to politicians, the political
organisation of Athens, the law courts and the Athenian allies (i.e. the Delian
League). Your Higher Classical Studies notes or the Historical Introduction in World
of Athens will provide basic background information. You will, however, have to
make your own ‘biographical dictionary’ containing information on the politicians
and other prominent characters who frequently crop up. Such books as Who’s Who in
the Ancient World, or The Oxford Classical Dictionary are useful for reference.
Start your ‘biographical dictionary’ by writing brief notes on Pericles, Cleon,
Demosthenes (N.B. the politician/general, not the 4th century orator of the same
name) and Nicias. Add any other names as necessary.
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Dramatic context
You need to know something about the conventions and staging of comedy in the late
fifth century BCE, the type of comedy referred to in books as ‘Old Comedy’, ‘Attic
Comedy’ or ‘Aristophanic Comedy’. Your Higher notes on the Greek Theatre will
probably cover much of what you need to know, but remember that there are some
differences between Tragedy and Comedy. Otherwise, your best source of
information is World of Athens. Add to your Higher notes as necessary to include all
of the following:
 physical form of the Greek theatre
 Athenian drama festivals (the Great/City Dionysia and Lenaea)
 costumes and props (especially the ekkuklema and mechane)
 actors and chorus
 financing and producing the plays
 normal format of Aristophanic comedy (including a definition of the parabasis).
Aristophanes
What do you know about Aristophanes? Probably not very much! Write a brief
biography, and draw up a list of the names of his plays (indicating whether they still
exist or not) and the dates of their first performance.
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B
HOW TO ORGANISE YOUR STUDY OF ARISTOPHANES
Now you’re ready to start work on the five plays of Aristophanes which are listed in
the syllabus. The nine general themes of ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’ which you
will be studying are listed on page 2 of this Study Guide. Each play will be concerned
with one or more of these. One thing you will have to do as you read is decide which
of them apply to which plays. The general procedure to follow will be the same for
each play:
1. Read the play through to form a general idea of its plot, character and theme(s).
(Note that the performance of a play in an Athenian theatre would have been
continuous, with no breaks between scenes. To make it easier for you to study,
each play has been divided up in this Study Guide into Acts and Scenes.)
2. Make a detailed study of the play by proceeding as follows:
(a) Make notes on each scene, to include:
 who’s involved
 what happens
 any points requiring special attention or clarification
 themes.
N.B. You may have to do some extra research, if there’s reference to
anything at all that you don’t understand. Consult the notes in your copy of
the play, and the notes in this Study Guide.
(b) Try to decide which character, if any, represents Aristophanes’ point of view.
For this purpose you should include the Chorus (or Chorus-leader) as a
character.
3. Write a short summary of the play. Include an outline of the plot, the names of
the main characters and a statement of the key theme(s).
4. Take each of the nine general themes of ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’ in turn and
consider the following points:
 Does the play have anything to say about this theme?
 If so, what does it say, and how successfully?
 Do comedians or comic writers deal with similar themes today?
 Are they more or less successful than Aristophanes?
5. Written Assignment 1
An essay of about three or four A4 pages. There will be one essay on each play.
For the first two essays, some guidance on planning and content will be given.
See also the section on writing essays on page 4 of the Introduction.
6. Written Assignment 2
‘Practical Analysis’ questions. See pages 4-5 of the Introduction for more
information.
N.B. Page numbers, quotations and references apply to the translations of each play in
the Penguin edition. References to ‘Dover’ are to K.J. Dover, Aristophanic Comedy.
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C
ARISTOPHANES, KNIGHTS
Preliminary work
This play is about the role of demagogues in the Athenian democracy, and contains a
fairly strong satirical attack on Cleon. Before you begin, or while you work on the
play, revise your notes on Athenian democracy and your biographical notes on Cleon,
Demosthenes and Nicias.
Reading the play
Now read Knights and make your own scene-by-scene notes following the general
instructions on page 14 of this Study Guide.
Act 1 Scene 1: pp. 36-45 (Demosthenes: Yowww!...the hated foe to flight!)
pp. 36-37 Most of the humour at the very beginning of the play is intended simply to
warm up the audience and ensure that everyone is paying attention.
Demosthenes and Nicias would presumably wear masks and have
mannerisms that would quickly identify them as representing the real-life
generals Demosthenes and Nicias.
pp. 37-38 Once the audience is (presumably) paying attention, Demosthenes begins
the Prologue proper, in which he explains the basic situation. See Dover,
pp. 53-55.
pp. 38-39 Note carefully all the ways in which Aristophanes uses his allegory to
identify the Paphlagonian as Cleon, and to criticise certain aspects of
Athenian politics and jury-courts. How many of these have you found?
Why has Aristophanes chosen Demosthenes, Nicias and Cleon as
characters in this play?
pp. 39-40 The jokes about wine are not necessarily suggesting that Demosthenes
drank a lot, since the character of the drunken slave was a stock character.
pp. 40-41 Oracles were probably as popular in Athens as horoscopes are today – and
probably just as likely to be fictitious! Here, Aristophanes is mixing
references to real people with the plot of his play.
p. 42
Note that complete fantasy is a regular feature of Aristophanic comedy.
The Sausage-seller can’t possibly see all the islands of the Athenian
Empire – he’d be lucky even to see one! Why do you think Aristophanes
is using fantasy in this play?
pp. 43-44 There is obviously strong criticism of both politicians and the Athenian
people here. What is it? To what extent do you think this criticism may
be exaggerated? (Compare it with present-day political satire.)
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Parodos: p. 45 (Chorus: Strike, strike...among the bran!)
The parodos is the Entry of the Chorus. The Chorus would usually sing a kind of
marching-song as it entered the orchestra. However, in different comedies the entry
is arranged in different ways. Here, the members of the Chorus come charging in
together. In other plays (e.g. Birds) they enter in ones and twos. Sometimes (e.g. in
Clouds) they are heard singing offstage before they enter.
The Knights (Hippeis) were members of the aristocracy, one of the top social classes
in Athens. The introductory note on p. 33 of the Penguin translation explains why
they would be likely to support the Sausage-seller against Cleon.
Scene 2: pp. 46-55 (Paphlagonian: Help!...See you soon!)
pp. 47-55 This shouting-contest is funny in itself, but it’s also a criticism of the way
in which politicians can sometimes seem to behave. (Watch the news on
TV for examples of slanging-matches in the House of Commons – and
parodies of this in satirical programmes and comedy shows.)
pp. 51-55 The Sausage-seller’s list of the Paphlagonian’s crimes is a very thinly
veiled attack on Cleon himself. For the enmity between Aristophanes and
Cleon, see the Introductory Note on pp. 31-34 in your textbook, and
Dover, pp. 60, 89-93. Don’t forget that Cleon would almost certainly
have been in the audience watching this play.
Parabasis: pp. 55-59 (Chorus: Go your way...escape the Knights.)
The parabasis is the direct address of the Chorus Leader to the audience. It is a very
important part of an Aristophanic play, since it provides a chance for the playwright
to speak directly to the audience. See Dover, pp. 49-53, on the main features of the
typical parabasis. Note in particular that the parabasis generally has little or nothing
to do with the theme of the play, but is used to deal with other points which the writer
wishes to make. Here, Aristophanes is concerned with his own career in the theatre.
Refer to Dover, pp. 210-218, to see how Aristophanes’ claims in the parabasis of
Knights actually relate to what we know about him and other writers of comedy.
Act 2 Scene 1: pp. 60-72 (Leader: Back safe...wot’s stopping you?)
pp. 60-62 The Sausage-seller’s speech is a parody of the ‘messenger-speech’ in
tragedy. (Compare it with the Messenger’s account in Antigone of the
deaths of Antigone and Haemon). It’s full of satire on the Athenian
Council and Councillors. What criticisms is Aristophanes making of the
way Councillors behave?
pp. 62-63 More of the political brawling already seen in Act One, Scene 2.
p. 64
The Paphlagonian proposes a contest to see which one loves Thepeople
most. Such speeches would have been common enough at assembly
meetings, as well as part of the stock-in-trade of the Sophists (more about
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the Sophists when you study Clouds). A contest (or agon) was a frequent
dramatic feature in both tragedy and comedy. The one you know in
tragedy is the ‘contest’ between Haemon and Creon in Antigone.
pp. 64-83 The agon begins in Scene 1 and continues after the Choral Interlude. For
the structure of this agon, see Dover, pp. 91-92. The Sausage-seller
speaks first, with interruptions from the Paphlagonian. This provides
another opportunity for Aristophanes to attack Cleon’s character and
behaviour. But note how the Sausage-seller uses exactly the same
methods as the Paphlagonian to suck up to Thepeople. Is Aristophanes
suggesting that all politicians are alike?
Choral Interlude 1: p. 73 (Chorus: How joyful...everything mine.)
The Chorus refers directly to Cleon here. The audience would be able to make the
necessary connection between the Paphlagonian in the play and the real Cleon,
probably sitting in the audience.
Scene 2: pp. 74-83 (Paphlagonian: Look, look...City of Gawpers.)
The agon continues. In how many different ways do the Paphlagonian and the
Sausage-seller try to outbid each other for Thepeople’s favour? What exactly is
Aristophanes satirising in this scene?
Choral Interlude 2: pp. 83-85 (Chorus: What fairer way...used to sell.)
This Interlude is also known as the ‘Second Parabasis’. It is not much more than a
list of people who behave badly, none of whom seem to be quite as bad as the
Paphlagonian or the sausage-seller.
Scene 3: pp. 85-89 (Sausage-seller: Keep silence all!...HIS GUTS OUT!!!)
This closing scene is typical of Aristophanes in that it celebrates the triumph of the
winner of the agon (i.e. the Sausage-seller). But Thepeople has also won, because now
Thepeople seems to have regained some common sense.
Revision points
1. List the criticisms made of Cleon in The Knights. From what you know of the
historical Cleon, how exaggerated or misleading do you think they are?
2. List the things which Aristophanes says go wrong when the Demos (i.e.
Thepeople) is led astray by demagogues.
3. Read the section in Dover on ‘Political Leadership’ (pp. 95-100). Note that
Aristophanes couldn’t really afford to suggest that democracy was a totally
useless form of government, even if that was really what he believed. What he’s
criticising is the poor quality of political leadership, and he seems to suggest
towards the end that the intelligence and integrity of ordinary people does
eventually make everything come out right.
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Would you agree with Aristophanes’ suggestion that the biggest problem about
Athenian democracy was that it could only work properly if it was properly led?
4. He also seems to suggest that the top social class (Knights) can work together with
the bottom social class (Sausage-seller) for the general good.
Do you agree that the top and bottom sections of any society can work together
for the general good?
Essay
Political success when allied to high moral character was a theme which
interested Aristophanes. How did he handle this theme in The Knights?
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Suggested plan (to be amplified or altered as necessary)
1. Introduction: make it clear you know what the question is about. Suggest that
high moral character and political success don’t necessarily go together.
2. Contrast the failure of men of ‘high moral character’ (Nicias and Demosthenes)
with the success of the unscrupulous character (the Paphlagonian).
3. Contrast the Paphlagonian and the sausage-seller. Are they equally bad?
4. Comment on Aristophanes’ attitude as revealed by items 2 and 3 above.
5. Conclusion. Tie in your findings with the wording of the question.
Points to include
 Show the link between ‘political success’ and ‘high moral character’ as presented
in this play. Aristophanes suggests that the two don’t necessarily go together. But
he also suggests that it’s possible for the democracy to benefit from low-life
characters like the sausage-seller as long as they’re well-meaning.
 Aristophanes was sceptical about democracy as a system of government, and
suggests that unscrupulous politicians have more influence than honest ones.
 The sausage-seller defeats the Paphlagonian only because he is able to beat him at
his own game, not because he is ‘of high moral character’. But at least the
sausage-seller’s heart is in the right place.
 Aristophanes may be particularly concerned about the way men like Cleon used
their power in time of war.
Remember
Credit will be given for relevant examples from the text. Credit will also be given for
well-planned, logically presented arguments.
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Practical analysis
Read the passage below, and answer the questions following it as fully as possible.
DEMOSTHENES:
Our master is a real case. He’s a countryman and bad-tempered
to match, he’s got a morbid craving for beans, and he flies into a fiery rage in no
time. His name’s Thepeople, that’s right, Thepeople, and he lives on the Pnyx,
and he’s as dyspeptic a deaf old man as you ever met. Well last New Moon’s
day he went and bought a new slave, a tanner from Paphlagonia, and a greater
swine of a stool-pigeon never walked this earth. This tanner-fellow soon got to
know master’s ways, and then he fell at his feet, licked his boots, wheedled,
flattered, sucked up, everything to take him in, with all the trimmings – in real
leather. ‘Thepeople,’ he’d say, ‘why don’t you just try one case today and then
have a good bath and get stuck into a slap-up supper on your three obols? Shall
I serve the first course now?’ Whereupon he grabs something one of us has
been cooking, this Paphlagonian does, and gives it to master so master will
think he cooked it and love him even more. Why, only the other day I’d baked
a lovely Spartan cake down in Pylos, and round he sneaks and grabs it and
serves up my cake as if it was all his work! And he won’t let anyone but
himself wait on master. If we try, he chases us away. All through dinner he
stands behind master with his fly-whisk (also real leather) and flicks away all
the other politicians. And his oracles! He’s forever trotting them out, throwing
Sibylline dust in master’s eyes, and when he thinks he’s got master sufficiently
ga-ga, he starts in with his lies. He’ll say anything if it’ll get one of us a
flogging. And then he makes the round of the whole household, taking bribes,
blackmailing people, making everyone’s teeth chatter. ‘Look at Hylas,’ he says.
‘Master gave him the works yesterday. All my doing. Best get on the right side
of me, that’s my advice, else it’ll be your turn next.’ And we pay up. What else
can we do? If we say no, we’ll only find ourselves shitting eight times as hard
when he spins his yarn to master. [To Nicias] We’ve got to think hard, old
chap. What can we do? Who is there for us to turn to?
(Penguin translation, pp. 37-38)
1. Who are Nicias and Demosthenes in real life, and by what means would
the Athenian audience have been able to identify the characters in the play
with the real men?
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2. In this passage, by what means does Aristophanes ensure that the
audience will identify the Paphlagonian slave as Cleon, even before this
character has come on-stage?
3
3. What criticism of the Athenian democracy is Aristophanes making, and to
what extent do you think that his criticism is fair?
4. Are there any indications later in the play that Thepeople is not quite so
gullible as he is made out to be in this passage?
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D
ARISTOPHANES, CLOUDS
Preliminary work
Before reading this play you must have some knowledge about Socrates and the
Sophists. Read the relevant sections of The World of Athens (pages 278-296), or Meg
Parker, Socrates and Athens (pp. 13-33, 46-47).
Write your own notes, to include answers to these questions:
1. Why was the ability to speak persuasively so important in Athens?
2. What was the most important contribution made by the sophists to the intellectual
world of the fifth century BCE?
3. What part did Protagoras play in the development of rhetoric?
4. What was the argument between ‘nomos’ and ‘phusis’?
5. What is the connection between Anaxagoras and Socrates?
6. What is the connection between the Delphic Oracle and Socrates?
7. What opinion have you formed of Socrates? Was he an unscrupulous, dishonest
crook and con-man, or an honest seeker after truth and a very likeable man?
Reading the play
Now read The Clouds and make your own scene-by-scene notes following the general
instructions on page 14 of this Study Guide.
Act 1 Scene 1: pp. 112-117 (Strepsiades: Lord Zeus…there myself.)
Note that in the Thinkery both science and rhetoric are taught. What is the state of
Strepsiades’ knowledge of these new ideas? Would his comparative ignorance be
shared by the audience?
Scene 2: pp. 117-134 (Strepsiades: How can I...for heaven’s sake!)
In what ways does Aristophanes satirise scientific inquiry in this scene? How does he
satirise Socrates?
On pp. 122-123 Socrates ‘initiates’ Strepsiades. What is Aristophanes satirising here?
The Chorus in Greek drama usually enters singing. In this play it enters in silence
(p. 126), having sung its song while still offstage. What effect does this create?
Parabasis: pp. 134-138 (Chorus: Go in...count your days.)
When Clouds was first performed in 423 BCE it came last in the competition. The
version we have is an incompletely rewritten version, and in the parabasis
Aristophanes complains about what he sees as unfair treatment of good-quality
comedy. What comparisons does he make with other comic poets?
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Scene 2 continued: pp. 138-145 (Socrates: In the name of...don’t always last.)
In this scene, what suggestions does Aristophanes make about the character and
teachings of Socrates? What evidence from sources other than this play do we have
to support or contradict Aristophanes’ characterisation of Socrates? What is the
attitude of the Chorus towards a) Strepsiades; b) Socrates?
Scene 3: pp. 146-157 (Strepsiades: In the name of Mist…whirlwind be.)
Revise your notes on Protagoras and the two ‘logoi’ (arguments). Add to them if
necessary as you work on this scene. Note that although Right praises ‘the good old
days’ he is in fact not a great moral example himself. Why do you think Aristophanes
portrays Right in this way? Would you have expected him to make Right an
exemplary character?
Second Parabasis: p. 158 (Chorus: We would like…first prize.)
What is the purpose of this Second Parabasis?
Act Two Scene 1: pp. 159-166 (Strepsiades:Twenty-sixth...lose his voice.)
What changes are there in the behaviour and speech of Pheidippides, now that he has
been ‘educated’? What sort of things does Strepsiades say that show he has picked up
bits of ideas and knowledge from Socrates without fully understanding them?
Scene 2: pp. 166-174 (Strepsiades: Help, neighbours…been bad today.)
Why does Strepsiades now change his mind about Socrates and his teaching? Why
does he blame the Clouds (the Chorus) for what has happened? How satisfactory is
the ending of the play?
Revision points
Think about these points, and make brief notes on each one:
1. Does Aristophanes say, ‘the good old days were the best’?
Does he suggest that the older man/father is always right and the younger man/son
is always wrong?
2. What criticisms is Aristophanes making of New Science and the Sophists? Are
they fair?
3. How accurate and fair is Aristophanes’ characterisation of Socrates?
Do you think Aristophanes liked or disliked Socrates, or is it impossible to tell?
4. Consider the Chorus of Clouds as a character in the play. What is the attitude of
the Chorus to Socrates and to Strepsiades?
5. What do you learn from this play about changing values in Athenian family life?
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Essay
How accurate a portrait of Socrates, his beliefs and teaching methods has
Aristophanes provided in the Clouds?
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Some suggestions for a suitable plan
(You may wish to change the order of these, or add ideas of your own.)
1. Problem with sources – Aristophanes, Plato and Xenophon. Each one has a
different Socrates. Comment on the relative bias and accuracy of these sources.
We don’t have a fully accurate portrait of Socrates against which to measure the
Clouds portrait. Note that Aristophanes and Socrates may have got on quite well
together – see Plato, Symposium.
2. [Brief outline of the play – not essential, but may be worth including at the
planning stage to refresh your memory.]
3. Problem with identification of Socrates as a Sophist.
Sophists and their teaching; new ideas in science and philosophy. To what extent
were these teaching methods and ideas shared by Socrates? Do we know?
4. Select 2-3 scenes from the play and comment on them as appropriate.
5. Conclusion. The portrait is probably not 100% accurate. Aristophanes may have
picked on character traits and mannerisms in Socrates’ way of speaking and
behaving, but exaggerated them.
Point to consider
The identification of Socrates as a sophist (probably one reason why Socrates was put
on trial) may have come about as a result of this play, or may already have existed in
people’s minds – especially those of less well educated people. We don’t know.
Practical analysis
Read the passage below, and answer the questions following it as fully as possible.
PHEIDIPPIDES: ...I want to ask you a question or two. When I was a child, did you
hit me?
STREPSIADES: Yes, of course I did – for your good – because I loved you.
PHEIDIPPIDES: Very well. You hit me for my good. Therefore, if it’s for one’s good
to be hit, it was right for me to take thought for your good and hit you. Why
should you be immune from being hit, when I’m not? I’m a free man, just like
you. As Euripides forgot to say, ‘The son gets thumped, do you think the father
shouldn’t?’ You’ll say, I know, that it’s the universal practice that only children
should be beaten. But I should remind you that it is also universally agreed that
old age is second childhood. In fact, seeing one expects a higher standard of
behaviour from the old than the young, it’s only right that they should be more
severely punished when they fall short.
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STREPSIADES: But look at the laws! Can you name a city where the law allows you
to do this to your father?
PHEIDIPPIDES: But what is a law anyway? It must have been made at some time,
and made by a man just like you or me; and he must have persuaded his people
by argument to accept it. Why shouldn’t I now make a new law allowing sons
to beat their fathers in return? I’ll be generous; the times we boys got hit before
the law was changed, we’ll renounce all claim to compensation for them. You
can treat them as a free gift. And again, look at chickens and so on. They
actually fight their fathers. And what difference is there between them and us,
except that they don’t move resolutions?
STREPSIADES: Well, if you’re so keen on a chicken’s life, why don’t you go the
whole hog? Why don’t you eat manure and sleep in a henhouse?
PHEIDIPPIDES: It’s not the same thing, silly. Not according to Socrates it isn’t.
STREPSIADES: Well, in that case you’d better not hit me. If you do you’ll live to
regret it.
PHEIDIPPIDES: Never!
STREPSIADES: Oh yes, you will. I’ve got the right to beat you now; but one day you
may have a son, and you’ll have the right to beat him, and what will you say if
he quotes your new laws against you?
(Penguin translation, pp.169-70)
1. (a) What arguments does Pheidippides use to justify hitting his father?
(b) Do you find his arguments acceptable? Give reasons.
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2. How well has Strepsiades coped with Pheidippides’ arguments?
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3. In what ways and with what success is Aristophanes satirising Socrates and
his ideas in this passage? (When considering ‘success’, try to decide
whether the Athenian theatre audience would understand the satire, or – if
they didn’t – whether this mattered.)
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E
ARISTOPHANES, PEACE
Preliminary work
This is not a difficult play to study. It is a celebration of the peace-treaty of 421 BCE,
which brought a temporary end to the hostilities between Athens and Sparta. The
treaty was signed formally soon after the play was performed (see Dover,
Aristophanic Comedy, p. 137). Find and read an account of the historical events from
432 to 421 BCE, with special reference to causes of the Peloponnesian War and the
events leading to the ‘Peace of Nicias’ in 421 BCE. Note in passing what has
happened to Nicias, Demosthenes and Cleon in these years.
Read the section on Greek Religion in The World of Athens and make your own notes.
Is there anything to suggest that the gods might have a sense of humour, and be able
to laugh at themselves?
Reading the play
Note that most of the action is in Act 1, and that there is really no plot as we would
understand it. Note also that the characters called ‘Harvest’ and ‘Festival’ in the
Penguin translation are called ‘Opora’ and ‘Theoria’ respectively in Dover,
Aristophanic Comedy.
Now read Peace and make your own scene-by-scene notes following the general
instructions on page 14 of this study guide.
Act 1 Scene 1: pp. 98-100 (First Slave: Quick, quick…on beetle-back!)
The main purpose of this opening scene is to get the undivided attention of the
audience. Has it succeeded, in your opinion?
Scene 2: pp. 100-107 (Trygaeus: Gently, gently…Fortune’s cup!)
Much of the first part of this scene is written in mock-tragic language. What effect do
you think this has? Then the gods Hermes and War are presented as comic characters.
What is the effect of this change in tone? What is War supposed to be doing in this
scene?
Scene 3: pp. 108-116 (Chorus: Come, quickly…Hurrah!)
The scene is still heaven. So where have these Greek farmers (the Chorus) all come
from? Remember that Aristophanes’ plays are fantasies, and that you shouldn’t waste
too much time wondering about realism! In what ways is this scene celebrating peace
and ridiculing war? (See Dover, pp. 137-39 for some useful points.)
Scene 4: pp. 116-122 (Trygaeus: My lady…waiting down there!)
This scene continues the celebration of peace. How successful is it as a celebration of
peace? Read carefully Hermes’ explanation of the causes of the war (pages 118-119).
How accurate is he? To what extent is Aristophanes giving a garbled version of what
really happened, and why is he doing this?
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Parabasis: pp. 122-125 (Chorus: All good fortune…one another.)
The Chorus is making a strong claim that Aristophanes deserves honour for his
services to Comedy. What points does the Chorus make, and to what extent do you
agree with these points? Compare these points with the points made in the parabasis
of Clouds. What similarities and differences do you see?
Act 2 Scene 1: pp. 126-133 (Trygaeus: Whew!…glorious name!)
In what ways does Aristophanes include the audience as active participants in this
scene? Is this dramatically effective?
Scene 2: pp. 134-137 (Trygaeus: There we are…Shoo!)
This scene introduces the character Hierocles, the oracle-monger. What is an oraclemonger? In which earlier play had Aristophanes made reference to the business of
oracles and oracle-mongering? Compare the scene in the earlier play with this one.
Are there any similarities or differences?
Choral Interlude (Parabasis 2): pp. 137-140 (Chorus: What joy…foxes in the
field!)
The main purpose of this interlude is the celebration of peaceful pursuits and
festivities. Sum up the main points which Aristophanes makes.
Scene 3: pp. 140-144 (Trygaeus: Whew!…I know that.)
Several more visitors arrive at Trygaeus’ house. What kind of reception do they get,
and why?
Scene 4: pp. 144-146 (Trygaeus: I now declare…Hymen i-o!)
Do you think this is an effective closing scene for the play?
Revision points
1. What information on Aristophanes’ attitude to peace and war does the play
provide?
2. Who benefits from war, and who benefits from peace?
3. Name six prominent Athenian politicians or writers who are mentioned in Peace.
What use does Aristophanes make of them in the play?
4. Briefly describe the events in 432-431 BCE leading up to the outbreak of war, and
the events of the first few years of the Peloponnesian War (431-429).
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Essay
In what ways and with what success does Aristophanes celebrate peace and
condemn war in Peace? To what extent do these feelings about peace and war
have a meaning for us today?
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N.B. This essay will require careful planning to make sure that you don’t leave
anything out. The first part is quite complex: you have to consider ‘celebration of
peace’ and ‘condemnation of war’; and for each of these you have to consider ‘in
what ways’ and ‘with what success’. The second part requires comparison with the
present day, which you will be able to do once you have summed up the main points
in the first part.
Practical analysis
Read the passage below, and answer the questions following it as fully as possible.
HERMES:
Listen to me, my poor farming friends, and you will hear what became
of Peace. It all started when Pheidias got into a spot of bother. Because
Pericles was afraid he’d share Pheidias’ fate – he knew how you liked to get
your teeth into people – and so before anything could happen to him, he threw a
little firebrand into the city marked ‘Megarian Decree’ and in a moment it was
all ablaze, with him fanning the flames, and the smoke was in the eyes of every
Greek, at home or abroad. The vines tried hard to resist, but in the end one of
them began crackling, the wine-jars started hitting and kicking one another in
rage, and there was nobody could bring the blaze under control and Peace just
vanished.
TRYGAEUS: I never heard that before – and I never realised there was a connection
between Peace here and Pheidias.
HERMES:
And then your subject allies saw you roaring and baring your teeth at
each other, and so being in any case fed up with having to pay tribute they
plotted against you and went and bribed the Spartan leaders to go to war. The
Spartans were always greedy, and very bad hosts as well, so they chucked Peace
into the street and took up with War instead. Their gain, of course, was sheer
loss to their own farming community. The Athenian fleet started those reprisal
raids, destroying the fig-trees of perfectly innocent country folk.
TRYGAEUS: Not innocent! It was the Spartans chopped down my black fig-tree that
I’d planted and tended with my own hands.
HERMES:
Meanwhile in Athens, all the farmers were packed into the city. They
were being sold down the river in just the same way, but they didn’t tumble to
it. All they could think of was the grapes and figs they’d lost, and they looked
to the politicians to help them. They knew very well that the ordinary people
were poor and short of bread; but they drove Peace out of town with a sharp
goad made of bluster – and though she loved the city and kept coming back over
and over again, they always chucked her out again.
(Penguin translation, pp. 118-119, abridged)
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In this passage Aristophanes provides an allegorical account of the origins and early
years of the Peloponnesian War.
1. In your own words explain as fully as possible the events and
circumstances to which Hermes and Trygaeus are referring in the passage.
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2. To what extent, and for what purpose, has Aristophanes given a biased
account of these events and circumstances?
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F
ARISTOPHANES, BIRDS
Preliminary work
As in Peace, the gods have a part to play in Birds. Re-read the section on Greek
Religion in World of Athens. Note in particular the relationship between gods and
mortals, and the purpose of sacrifices. Also make a few notes on the influence the
ideas of the Sophists had on religious beliefs.
Find and read an account of the main events in Athens in 415-414 BCE. Which of
these events have something to do with Greek religion? Add notes on these events to
your notes on Greek Religion.
What do you understand by the phrase ‘the Ideal State’? Birds is about a fantasy-land
in the sky where everything is planned to be perfect. You may know the term ‘Cloud
Cuckoo Land’ – this is the source of that term! (But if you are using the Penguin
translation, the state is called ‘Much Cuckoo in the Clouds’: refer to the introduction
to Birds on pages 149-151 of the Penguin translation.) You may also have heard of
‘Utopia’, another fantasy land where everything was supposed to be perfect. It is a
fairly common idea in European literature, and there are various English novels with
the Ideal State as their theme. You might find it useful to read one of them: for
example, Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, or Ursula K. Le Guin, The Dispossessed.
Note that most writers on the Ideal State suggest that such a state isn’t really possible,
because human beings are fallible (i.e. liable to make mistakes), and sooner or later
something happens to spoil the ideal.
The play itself
Now read Birds and make your own scene-by-scene notes following the general
instructions on page 14 of this Study Guide.
Scene 1: pp 155-165 (Euelpides: What’s that?…have that impression too.)
Euelpides and Peisthetaerus meet Tereus the hoopoe. (NB. Make sure you know the
myth about Tereus.) What criticisms are Euelpides and Peisthetaerus making of
Athens in Scene 1? Are they justified?
On the entry of the Chorus, see Dover, p. 145.
Scene 2: pp. 165-177 (Chorus: Ca-ca-ca-…you lead the way.)
What does this scene tell you about the relationship between gods and men? Why
should it be possible for birds to take the place of gods? What influence has the
teaching of the sophists had on the content of this scene?
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Parabasis: pp. 177-181 (Chorus: Nightingale…Hobby-Horse Marines!)
In what way does the parabasis develop the themes of the play? (For some further
information, see Dover, pp. 146-47.)
Scene 3: pp. 181-190 (Peisthetaerus: Well, that’s that…sacrifice indoors.)
What kind of people are rejected as unsuitable for the city in the clouds, and why?
Would they be excluded from any ideal state, or are they the kind of people that only
Athenians would dislike?
Chorus: pp. 190-192 (Chorus: All mortals…get our own back somehow.)
Why should the birds be regarded as gods?
Scene 4: pp. 192-197 (Peisthetaerus: Well, birds…receive the visitors.)
Compare these messenger speeches with the messenger speech in Knights (see Study
Guide, p. 16). What contribution do the messenger speeches make to the
development of the plot in Birds?
Chorus: p. 198 (Chorus: It looks as if…prophesying.)
Scene 5: pp. 198-214 (Rebellious youth: Gonna fly…Alalai!)
Who else is rejected as unsuitable for the city in the clouds? Find out about the myth
of Prometheus and make notes on it. Why was Prometheus an enemy of Zeus and a
friend of man? How is Heracles characterised in this scene?
Compare this scene with the closing scene of Peace. Which do you think would be
more effective in the theatre?
Essay
In the Birds, Aristophanes offers us his version of the Ideal State. To what
extent would you agree with his criticisms of human society, and with his
proposals for an ideal state.
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Practical analysis: Aristophanes Birds
This Practical Analysis exercise is drawn from CSYS Classical Studies Paper II, 1998.
Passage 1
PHEIDPPIDES: Very well. You hit me for my own good. Therefore, if it’s for one’s
good to be hit, it was right for me to take thought for your good and hit you.
Why should you be immune from being hit, when I’m not? I’m a free man, just
like you. As Euripides forgot to say, ‘The son gets thumped, do you think the
father shouldn’t?’
(Aristophanes, Clouds, 1411-1420)
Passage 2
PEISTHETAERUS:
Thanks. Why do they all think so highly of me, these nations?
THIRD MESSENGER: Why, because you have founded this noble city in the skies.
Don’t you realise how much men admire you. How may enthusiasts there are
for this city of yours? You see, until you founded Much Cuckoo, Sparta was all
the rage. People grew their hair long, they starved themselves, they stopped
having baths (like Socrates), they all carried walking sticks. But now there’s
been a complete change, they’re all bird-mad.
(Aristophanes, Birds, 1276-1284)
Passage 3
TRYGAEUS: Let us now to heaven pray
To bless us this and every day,
To give us lots of bread to eat
And wine to drink, and figs so sweet,
To give all Greece abundant wealth,
Our wives fertility and health,
Restore us all the joys of yore,
And make at last an end of war
For ever and ever, Amen!
(Aristophanes, Peace, 1344-1352)
1. Read Passage 1. To what extent do passages such as this represent a
genuine picture of the breakdown of traditional relationships in the Athens
of Aristophanes? Why is the name of Euripides associated with the
introduction of new ideas?
2.
Read Passages 2 and 3. Do you feel that Aristophanes has a genuine
sympathy with the ordinary folk in his audience or that he is simply
mocking them and treating them with scorn?
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G
ARISTOPHANES, ASSEMBLYWOMEN
Preliminary work
For this play, you will have to begin with some revision on the role and status of
women in Athenian society, and the Athenian Assembly and its function in the
government of Athens. Read, for example, the section in World of Athens about the
role of women in Athenian society. Also revise your ‘Higher’ notes on the Athenian
Assembly.
Read the ‘Introductory Note’ in the Penguin translation. Make notes on the political
situation at the time this play was produced, and follow up any points if necessary in a
general history book or World of Athens.
Plato’s Republic is mentioned in the ‘Introductory Note’ to the Penguin translation as
having similar subject matter to Assemblywomen. Find out more about Plato’s
Republic (for example, in Oxford Companion to Classical Literature). Then read the
section in which Plato discusses the role and status of women (pages 201-241 of the
Penguin Translation). In what ways does Plato’s attitude to women differ from the
usual Athenian male attitude?
Reading the play
Now read Assemblywomen and make your own scene-by-scene notes following the
general instructions on page 14 of this study guide.
Scene 1, part 1: pp. 222-231 (Praxagora: Hail, radiant orb…a clothes peg.)
What do you learn about normal procedures in the Assembly? What do you learn
about the role and status of women in Athenian society?
Look at Praxagora’s speech (pp 228-30). What are the main points of her argument?
Is it convincing?
Chorus: pp. 231-233 (Chorus leader: Time we were moving….wheelbarrow men.)
The role of the Chorus in this play is unusual. For further information, read the
paragraph on p. 219 of the Penguin translation, and refer to Dover, pp. 193-95.
What information about the organisation and conduct of the Athenian Assembly can
you extract from this scene?
Scene 1, part 2: pp. 233-238 (Blepyrus: What’s going on… Bye-bye, Chremes.)
What points are made in praise of women in this scene? What points are made
criticising women?
Chorus: pp. 238-239 (Chorus Leader: Come on…and greet her.)
This is a chorus of men dressed as women pretending to be men. In what ways could
Aristophanes use this for comic effect?
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Scene 1, part 3: pp. 239-246 (Praxagora: Well, my dears…all lined up.)
What indications are there of the sort of problems from which Athenian society has
been suffering? What suggestions does Praxagora have for building a better society?
What do you think of them?
Scene 2: pp. 247-252 (Chremes: Come here…no time to be lost.)
In what way does Aristophanes use the Citizen to criticise Athenian society?
Scene 3: pp. 252-261 (First Hag: Why don’t the men come?…funeral oil-flask.)
In this scene, what use does Aristophanes make of the concept of democracy, and of
Athenian attitudes to women?
Scene 4: pp. 261-264 (Maid: You happy people!…to win first prize.)
Does this scene have any real contribution to make to the play? If so, what
contribution does it make? If not, why do you think Aristophanes has included it?
Revision
As in Birds, Aristophanes has the Ideal State as a theme – but this time it is far from
happy. Compare Birds and Assemblywomen, with reference to the theme of the ideal
state, and draw up a list of similarities and differences.
Essay
To what extent is it possible to use Assemblywomen as evidence for Athenian
attitudes to democracy and the role of women in society?
(20)
Practical analysis
Read the passages below, and answer the questions following them as fully as possible
Passage 1
FIRST WOMAN: So now we’ve settled everything, haven’t we? Only – how on earth
are we going to remember to raise your hands? We’re more used to raising our
legs.
PRAXAGORA:
Good point. When we vote, we have to hold up one arm, like this,
bare to the shoulder. – Now, hitch up your skirts and put those walking-shoes
on, just as you’ve seen your husbands do when they’re going to Assembly or
down town somewhere. – And now if you’ve all got your shoes on properly, fix
on your beards, and see that they’re properly adjusted. Right, now put on your
husbands’ cloaks that you’ve so cleverly stolen, lean on your sticks – that’s the
way – and off you go. And on the way, sing one of the songs the old men sing
when they come in from the country.
(Penguin translation, p.231)
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Passage 2
PRAXAGORA: Everyone is to have an equal share in everything and live on that; we
won’t have one man rich while another lives in penury, one man farming
hundreds of acres while another hasn’t enough land to get buried in; one man
with dozens of slaves and another with none at all. There will be one common
stock of necessities for everybody, and these will be shared equally. …
First of all I shall declare all land, all money, and all private possessions to be
common property. And from this common stock it will be our job – the
women’s job – to feed you and manage your affairs sensibly and economically.
CHREMES:
What about the people who don’t own any land, but have all their
wealth hidden away in silver or Persian gold?
PRAXAGORA: They must put it all into the common pool.
(Penguin translation, p. 242, abridged)
1. Read Passage 1. From this passage, and from your wider reading, explain
what features of Athenian society are being satirised here.
10
2. Read Passage 2. Explain the main ideas that Praxagora is proposing in this
passage. How popular would these ideas have been with the people of
Athens? Do you think that Aristophanes was being serious in proposing
such ideas?
10
(20)
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H
REVISION PROGRAMME FOR ARISTOPHANES
Look back at the nine themes listed on page 2 of the Introduction.
Take each one in turn and make notes on how each of the plays you have studied
contributes to a discussion of that theme. The following questions and suggestions
should help you get started.
1. The persona of the writer of comedy
 Aristophanes used the parabasis of his plays to speak directly to his audience.
How can we be sure that the speaker in the parabasis isn’t just another character
representing ‘the comic writer’, rather than a vehicle for Aristophanes’ own
thoughts and ideas?

What is meant by ‘persona’ in this context?

What ideas and opinions does Aristophanes appear to have?
2. The literary conventions of Aristophanic comedy
 How many actors were used for the comedy? What difference did this make to
the structure of the play?

What role did the chorus have?

The basic structure of Aristophanic Comedy is:
1) scene(s) setting up the main idea of the play
2) parabasis
3) agon
4) scene(s) developing the main idea
5) final celebratory scene.
The number and order of these items may vary. Can you identify all of them in
each play? Are any of them missing from any of the plays? If so, why?

Were there any stock characters or stock jokes? Do any scenes or scene-types
recur in two or more plays?
3. Politics and war
 What appears to have been Aristophanes’ attitude to the Athenian democracy?
What criticisms does he make, and how justified do you think they are? Does he
ever find anything good to say about the democracy?

Which politicians did he dislike, and why? Which ones did he admire, and why?

What, as far as you can tell, was his attitude to war? Does it appear to have a
major influence on his choice of theme even during the Peloponnesian War? What
particular aspects of war are of interest to him? (You may find it useful to refresh
your memory of Lysistrata.)
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4. Social and political ambition
 What aspects of social and political ambition are of interest to Aristophanes?
What does he have to say about them? Is he always critical? (Note that your
revision notes for ‘Politics and War’ will already have made you think about these
points.)
5. Corruption of political and social relationships
 What events, attitudes and human failings are likely to damage human
relationships? Which of these would you describe as political, and which would
you describe as social?

What examples of the corruption of political and social relationships does
Aristophanes provide in his plays? Is his attitude entirely negative?
6. Plain living versus luxury
 This subject was of greater concern to the Roman satirists than it was to
Aristophanes. What does Aristophanes have to say on the subject? Do you think
he found it an important subject? What evidence is there to support your opinion?
7. The relationship between the sexes
Don’t limit yourself to Assemblywomen when revising this topic, although it
obviously has most of the material. Look closely at the other plays as well, and you
will find occasional references to women (e.g. opening scene in Clouds) or roles for
female characters (e.g. in Peace).

What do you learn of the Athenian male attitude to women? To what extent did
Aristophanes share this attitude as far as you can tell?

Is it possible, by studying Assemblywomen, to obtain a fair and accurate picture of
the Athenian female attitude to men?

Is Assemblywomen only, or even mainly, about the relationship between the
sexes?
8. Changing values within the family
In Aristophanes, this is mainly about the father-son relationship, and Clouds is the
obvious play to study. But again, don’t limit yourself to one play. You can, for
example, find some material in Assemblywomen.

What do you already know about Athenian family values?

What changes appear to be taking place in Athenian society, judging from the
evidence in Aristophanes’ plays? What do you suppose has caused these
changes?

Does Aristophanes approve or disapprove of the changes – or can’t you tell?
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9. The quest for peace of mind
Look particularly at Peace and Birds, but consider also Assemblywomen and Clouds.

In Aristophanes, the ‘quest for peace of mind’ seems to be associated with ideas
about the Ideal State. Why do you think this is?

What things does Aristophanes think would contribute to peace of mind? How
serious is he in his consideration of this subject?

Do you think that Aristophanes may have been looking in the wrong place for
peace of mind? That is, instead of trying to create the ideal state, should people
not learn to be content with what they have? (You may not be able to answer this
question in any depth just now. It will be easier once you have studied Horace’s
ideas on this subject.)
10. Finally
 Don’t forget that you should be able to take each of these themes and make
comparisons with the modern world. What similarities are there? Why? What
differences are there? Why?

Aristophanes was writing to entertain a contemporary theatre audience, not to
provide an accurate, complete and impartial account of his society for future
generations. How accurate and useful is he as a source of information about life
in Athens at the end of the fifth century BCE? Revision of your Higher notes, and
further reading (e.g. Barrow, Athenian Democracy, or The World of Athens) will
help you here.

You will – once you have finished the course – also be expected to make
comparisons between Aristophanes and the two Roman writers, Horace and
Juvenal. You should find this fairly straightforward after you have completed the
revision programmes for Horace and Juvenal.
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PART THREE: THE SATIRES OF HORACE
A
THE ORIGINS OF SATIRE
Although the Greeks invented most literary genres (such as epic, tragedy, comedy,
lyric and elegy), the genre of satire was invented by the Romans, who called it satura.
The original meaning of satura is not certain, but it most probably was either a full
dish offered in solemn ritual, or a stuffed sausage. Thus its meaning as applied to
literature was a ‘miscellany’, or mixed literary form. It could contain dialogue,
anecdote or narrative, and usually included personal commentary. This commentary
could be good humoured or more bitter, and usually contained a strong element of
moralising. The topics covered were equally wide-ranging, although the commonest
were current affairs, human failings and social life in general.
The first writer of satire was Ennius, who lived from 239 BCE to 169 BCE. His book
of Saturae has survived only in fragment, but we know that it was a collection of
poems on miscellaneous subjects in various metres. At this early stage in the life of
satire, the censorious and even vituperative tone does not seem to be an essential
feature.
The next satirist, Lucilius (c.168-103 BCE), is the writer who made censure and
outspoken criticism the predominant features of satire. About 1,400 lines of his
poetry still exist, but most of these are single lines or small groups of lines rather than
long continuous passages. However it is clear that Lucilius wrote on a wide variety of
subjects, expressing personal opinions and often criticising human weakness. He
criticised the behaviour of the politicians, offered praise where he thought it was due,
expressed philosophical thoughts and even wrote some literary criticism. He was a
source of inspiration for later Roman satirists including Horace and Juvenal.
N.B. Although ‘satire’ is a Roman invention, satirical writing already existed. For
example Aristophanes used his plays as vehicles for outspoken attacks on men and
morals.
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B
INTRODUCTION TO THE SATIRES OF HORACE
Historical context
1. Before beginning your study of Horace you need to set him in his historical
context. Find and read a short history of Rome for the years 44 BCE- 14 CE
(from the murder of Julius Caesar to the death of Augustus). You can, for
example, use the History section of World of Rome, or Bradley, Ancient Rome.
This will provide the necessary historical context, and you will be extending your
knowledge of specific events by your own reading of the texts and background
books.
2. Then make up your own time chart for these years, as you did for the history of
Athens before beginning your study of Aristophanes. This time-chart should
contain the most important events of the period, and you may wish to add to it
from time to time. To start you off, here are the most important events:
 Assassination of Julius Caesar
 Formation of the Second Triumvirate
 Battle of Philippi – defeat and death of Brutus and Cassius
 Treaty of Tarentum
 Battle of Actium – defeat and death of Antony and Cleopatra
 Settlement(s) of Augustus
 Death of Augustus.
Political context
During Horace’s lifetime, many Romans decided that it was unsafe to express
political opinions that were unacceptable to the Second Triumvirate, and subsequently
to Octavian/Augustus. Therefore you don’t find in Horace’s Satires any of the topical
and sometimes libellous references to politicians that were common in the plays of
Aristophanes and the satires of Lucilius. However, although there is no attack on
Octavian’s political opponents (or praise of Octavian himself), there may have been
some propagandist purpose in Horace’s mind. The Satires were published around 35
BCE, after the defeat of Sextus Pompey and before the development of open conflict
between Antony and Octavian. The Satires may in part have been intended to show
Maecenas and his friends (including Octavian) as cultured and intelligent men who
shared Horace’s disapproval of greed, ambition and discontent.
Literary context
Horace’s main purpose in writing the Satires was literary. He wanted to write wellcomposed poems that would please the reader, but at the same time he wanted his
poems to be edifying and instructive. (This is clear from some of his comments in the
poems, for example in Satires, I.1 and I.10.)
It is also important to realise that the ‘Horace’ we see in these poems is not
necessarily the real Horace. Although there is no reason to doubt the authenticity of
the autobiographical material, Horace has probably been selective, and may at times
exaggerate or distort for effect. Horace was 25-30 years old when he wrote these
poems, but the ‘Horace-narrator’ persona seems to be an older, more mature and
disciplined man, easy-going and sensible, and constructive in his criticism of human
failings.
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C
HOW TO ORGANISE YOUR STUDY OF HORACE
Your study of Horace will take more or less the same format as your study of
Aristophanes. The nine general themes of ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’ which you
studied in connection with Aristophanes (listed on page 2 of this Study Guide) also
apply to Horace. Each poem will be concerned with one or more of these. The
general procedure to follow will be the same for each poem.
1. Read the poem through to form a general idea of its theme(s) and general content.
To make it easier for you to study, the structure of each poem is clearly set out for
you. Please note that line numbers and quotes refer to the Penguin
translation of Horace’s Satires. Ask your teacher for guidance if you are
using a different translation.
2. Work through all the questions on each poem. These are designed in such a way
as to lead you through the poem section by section, to help you understand the key
ideas, and to explain any ideas or references likely to cause difficulty. (Also
remember to make use of the notes and introduction in whichever translation of
the Satires you are using.)
The final question on each poem asks you to write your own brief summary of the
poem. You may prefer to do this question first. You may also think it isn’t
important and be tempted to miss it out. Don’t do this: if you are able to write a
brief summary of the poem, this will confirm that you have studied the poem well
and have a good understanding of it. It will also be very useful when you are
revising before your external exam.
3. Revision: Take each of the nine general themes of ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’
in turn and consider the following points:

Does the poem have anything to say about this theme?

If so, what does it say, and how successfully?
4. Written Assignment 1
An essay of about three or four A4 pages. Essays will be set at regular intervals.
See also the section on writing essays on page 4 of the Introduction.
5. Written Assignment 2
‘Practical Analysis’ questions will also be set at regular intervals. See pages 4-5
of the Introduction for more information.
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D
SATIRES, BOOK 1
Introduction
(These introductory notes are based on Horace, Satires I, ed. P. Michael Brown, Aris
& Phillips, 1993.)
There are ten poems in Book I, grouped in three triads, with the tenth poem providing
an epilogue. These poems show to greater or lesser degree the following common
features of Roman satire:
1. diversity of subject matter
2. serious and constructive moralising
3. comments on the literary and moral requirements of satire
4. personal and autobiographical element.
Satires 1-3: Each one attacks a fault in the field of personal relationships:
Satire 1: Greed or avarice
Satire 2: Male sexual folly
Satire 3: Intolerance and over-severity in judging the faults of other people.
In each poem, Horace attacks these faults on grounds of self-interest. He stresses
moderation in all things. The approach is informal: he engages the reader’s attention
at the start and leads up to the main theme indirectly. In each poem there is an
imaginary opponent with whom Horace has an argument. The overall tone is of sweet
reason and good-natured persuasion.
Satires 4-6: Each one of these is highly personal in content.
Satire 4: Horace states what he believes to be the moral and literary requirements of
satire. He claims that his satires have a constructive moral purpose, and are
carefully composed.
Satire 5: Horace describes a journey which he made to Brundisium in 38/37 BCE.
The careful composition and the good humoured, mildly ironic tone
exemplifies the points made in Satire 4. The poem also looks forward to
Satire 6, in that it illustrates the relationship between Horace and Maecenas.
Satire 6: The poem discusses ambition and the follies of ambition. Horace illustrates
his point by referring to his relationship with his father and with Maecenas,
both of whom Horace regards with admiration and gratitude.
Satires 7-9: Each poem relates an anecdote, light in tone, involving a conflict, which
is easily resolved.
Satire 7: An altercation between two men involved in a law suit.
Satire 8: Conflict between a statue of the garden-god Priapus (who narrates the
poem) and two witches.
Satire 9: An encounter between Horace and a bore. (This poem links with Satire 6 in
that it refers to Maecenas and is critical of ambition or self-seeking).
Satire 10: Horace justifies his criticism of Lucilius, and states his own standards of
satire and his place in the history of the genre.
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Satires I.1
Satires I.1-3 are connected in that each one is a criticism of a particular type of foolish
human behaviour. Satire 1 is mainly concerned with greed or selfish acquisitiveness,
although it begins and ends with the common human feeling of discontent with one’s
life.
Structure
A. 1-22
‘How is it…prayers.’
[Why are men discontented?]
B. 23-40
‘Again…richer than you.’
[Reason why they put up with their lot]
C. 108-121
‘I can return…another.’
[Answer to ‘Why are men
discontented?’]
The digression on greed (41-107) is the most important part of the poem, since it
provides the answer to the question. But by writing an apparently rambling poem,
Horace makes it sound conversational and informal, and thereby hopes to hold the
attention of his reader more closely.
Questions
1. Section A
a) Do you agree that most people are discontented with their lives?
b) According to Horace, what do most people spend their lives doing?
2.
Section B
a) What points does Horace make to illustrate the futility of greed?
b) Do you find his argument convincing? Explain why.
c) Would you describe his attack on greed as harsh or gentle? Does this make
any difference to the effectiveness of the attack?
3.
Section C
a) What answer does he give to the question asked in Section A?
b) Do you agree with him? Why?
4.
Write a section-by-section summary of the poem.
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Satires I.2
Horace’s purpose in this poem is to urge the Roman male to take a balanced view of
his sexual needs. He gives most space to the folly of adulterous relationships with
married women, but he emphasises that infatuation with any kind of woman is
harmful, if it is taken to extremes. He concentrates on the unhappiness, humiliation
and dangers which such relationships are likely to cause. His attitude to romantic love
is thus totally different from such Roman writers of love poetry as Catullus,
Propertius and Ovid. His attack is similar to Lucretius’ attack on romantic passion
(On The Nature of the Universe, V. 1058-1287), except that Horace is cooler and
more detached than Lucretius, as well as being more humorous. (You will find it
interesting and useful to read the relevant passage in Lucretius. There is a Penguin
translation.)
Horace is suggesting that any kind of extreme behaviour is bad. Far too much of
anything is just as bad as none at all. One point that he makes again and again in his
poems is that a moderate amount of anything is best. The phrase he sometimes uses
for this is ‘aurea mediocritas’ or the ‘golden mean’. Learn this phrase, and be ready
to use it as appropriate in your written assignments.
As in Satires I.1, Horace approaches his subject indirectly.
Structure
A. 1-24
‘The federated...its opposite.’
[Extremes of behaviour]
B. 25-63
‘Maltinus…with a cloak.’
[Extremes of sexual behaviour]
C. 64-134
‘Villius…grant me that.’
[Advice on avoiding extremes]
Questions
1. Section A
Horace is writing about extremes of generosity and meanness.
Does he say both extremes are equally bad?
Do you agree with his comments in this section?
2.
Section B
Horace considers different categories of Roman women. You may find it useful
to revise your Higher notes on Roman women, or to read the information about
Roman women in World of Rome, or any similar textbook.
a) What different categories of Roman women does he mention?
b) What dangers and follies does he associate with each of these categories? Are
any of them less dangerous than any others?
3.
Section C
a) What advice does Horace offer in this section?
b) How do you react to his advice? Is it sensible and sound, or is he cynical?
4.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires I.3
The type of folly which Horace attacks in this poem is extreme intolerance or extreme
tolerance. Again he advises a common-sense approach in judging the faults of other
people. Again, too, he approaches his main point indirectly. You will need to know
something about the two rival philosophies of Stoicism and Epicureanism in order
fully to understand what Horace is saying in this poem. See Appendix: Stoicism and
Epicureanism.
Structure
A. 1- 24
Singers…pilloried.’
B. 25-75
‘Before examining…in return.’
(i) 25-37
(ii) 38-67
(iii) 68-75.
[(i) Inconsistency of Tigellius]
[(ii) Inconsistency of Maecius]
[The faults of friends]
C. 76-124
‘Since, then…given the crown.’ [How to judge and punish offences]
(i) 76-79
(ii) 80-82
(iii) 83-95
(iv) 96-124
D. 125-142
‘But if…your Majesty.’
[Criticism of Stoicism]
Questions
1. Section A
In what way is inconsistency used to link this introductory section with the main
section?
2.
Section B
a) What faults does Horace mention in lines 38-67?
b) What conclusion does Horace come to in lines 68-75?
3.
Section C
a) What points does Horace make in lines 80-82 and 83-95?
b) In lines 96-124 Horace criticises the Stoic paradox that all faults are equal.
What statement does he make in lines 96-98?
Why does he give an account of the development of civilisation in lines 99112? What point is he making in lines 113-124?
c) Do you agree with the Stoic view, or with the Epicurean view as stated by
Horace? Explain why?
4.
Make a section by section summary of this poem.
Essay
How serious are the faults which Horace criticises in Satires I.1-3, and to what
extent do you agree with his criticisms?
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Satires I.4
In this poem, Horace is writing about satire. He justifies satire because it has a moral
purpose. He also describes what he regards as the most appropriate format for satire.
Structure
A 1-8
‘Take…versification.’
[Early satirists: Old Comedy, Lucilius]
B. 9-25
‘That was…a scolding.’
[Bad satirical style (In Lucilius,
Crispinus and Fannius) compared with
Horace]
C. 25-38
‘Pick …bake-house.’
[People fear and shun the satirist]
D. 39-62
‘Now let me…dismembered.’ [Poetic status of satire]
E. 63-143
‘But that’s…happy bond.’
65-68
69-78
79-103
104-143
[Reply to the criticism of satire stated in
stated in lines 25-38]
(i) The innocent have nothing to fear;
(ii) H. not seeking a wide audience;
(iii) H. not a vindictive writer;
(iv) Horace’s satire is constructive.
Questions
1. Sections A-C
What principal differences does Horace see between himself and his predecessors
and contemporaries?
2.
Section D
When Horace says that satire isn’t poetry, he seems to be thinking of ‘poetry’ as
including only poetry like epic or tragedy, with comedy and satire as belonging to
a rather inferior category.
Do you agree with him? Why do you say this?
3.
Section E
In lines 63-143 Horace is doing two things in particular: first he gives examples
of destructive criticism (of which he disapproves) and then gives examples of
constructive criticism (which he has learned from his father).
(a) What examples of destructive criticism does he give?
(b) What examples of constructive criticism does he give?
(c) What kind of picture do you get of Horace’s father?
(d) Do you agree with Horace’s opinion that satire should have a moral purpose?
4.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires I.5
Horace describes a journey which he made to Brundisium in the company of some of
his friends. One purpose in writing this poem was probably to imitate a poem by
Lucilius which describes a journey to Sicily. Another purpose may have been to
celebrate his friendship with important politicians like Maecenas and poets like Virgil.
The poem contains little ‘satire’, apart from mild attacks on the discomforts of the
journey, and some sharper criticism of the small-town official (34-36) and Egnatia’s
local superstition (97-103).
Structure
A 1-23
‘Leaving...and back.’
[Journey through the marshes]
B
23-49
‘It was…stomachs.’
[Joined by Maecenas and Virgil]
C
50-70
‘Next...the night?’
[At Cocceius’ house]
D
71-104
‘From there...journey.’
[The last stages of the journey]
Questions
1. What does Horace have to say on the subject of friendship? (N.B. The
Epicureans regarded friendship as one of the highest possible pleasures.)
2.
What elements of satire can you find in the poem?
3.
In lines 98-103 Horace uses Epicureanism to satirise a local superstition. Explain
clearly the point he is making.
4.
What do you find of most and of least interest in this poem, and why?
5.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Practical analysis
This Practical Analysis exercise has been adapted from questions in CSYS 1996
Paper II.
Read the passage below, and answer the questions following it as fully as possible.
Then, at Capua, the mules laid down their packs early.
Mxcenas went off to take exercise; Virgil and I had a sleep,
for ball-games are bad for inflamed eyes and dyspeptic stomachs.
Next we put up at a well-stocked villa belonging to Cocceius,
which overlooks the inns of Caudium. Now, 0 Muse,
recount in brief, I pray thee, the clash of Sarmentus the clown
with Messius Cicirrus, and from what lineage each entered
the fray ...
Then Gnatia, on whose construction the water-nymphs scowled, provided .
fun and amusement by trying to persuade us that incense melts
without fire on the temple steps; Apella the Jew may believe it —
not me, for I have learned that the gods live a life of calm,
and that if nature performs a miracle, it is not
sent down by the gods in anger from their high home in the sky.
Brindisi marks the end of this long tale and journey.
(Horace, Satires 1.5)
1.
2.
Horace mentions various people and places in these lines. Who are these
people and what are these places? How important is it for us to know
who they all are?
10
To what extent are these lines typical of Horace’s Satires? In your
answer, consider such things as technique, tone and subject-matter.
10
(20)
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Satires I.6
You will find it useful to revise your knowledge of the Roman social class structure
before working on this poem. You can use the relevant sections in such textbooks as
World of Rome, Bradley, Ancient Rome, or David Taylor, Roman Society.
This poem resembles Satires I.1-3 in that it examines a general moral topic
(ambition). It differs from them in that it is autobiographical, and pays tribute to the
two men who had the greatest influence on Horace’s life: his father and Maecenas.
Horace makes it clear in the poem that he himself has no political ambitions, and
seems to suggest that a senatorial career is not appropriate for a man with his lowly
social origins. But on the other hand he sees nothing wrong with a man of humble
background advancing himself socially.
Note that Horace’s objections to a political career are at least partly due to his
adherence to Epicureanism (see especially lines 22-44, 100-131).
Structure
A. 1-44
1-17
18-44
‘Although …favour.’
[Nobility and Ambition]
(i) Noble birth and noble character.
(ii) Low birth prevents political
advancement.
B. 45-88
45-64.
65-88
‘I revert …gratitude.’
[Maecenas and Horace’s father]
(i) Praise of Maecenas
(ii) Praise of Horace’s father.
C. 89-99
‘I would …used to.’
[Horace’s attitude to his father]
D. 100-131
‘For then …Quaestors.’
[Horace’s lifestyle]
Questions
1. Section A
a) What point is Horace making in lines 1-17 about the relationship between
noble birth and noble character?
b) What point is Horace making in lines 18-44 about the influence of social
class and a career in politics?
2.
Section B
a) What is the main point which Horace is making in lines 45-64 about
Maecenas?
b) What are the characteristics which Horace found particularly admirable in his
father (65-88)?
c) What do Maecenas and Horace’s father have in common?
3.
Section C
What point is Horace making in lines 89-99? Do you agree with him? Why?
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4.
Section D
Describe Horace’s lifestyle. How ‘Epicurean’ is it?
5.
What exactly is Horace saying about political ambition in this poem? To what
extent do you agree with his opinions?
6.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires I.7
A violent quarrel between two adversaries in a lawsuit: The main purpose of this
poem is simply to provide an anecdote leading up to the witticism in the final lines.
(Since the effect depends on a pun, it loses something in translation.)
Structure
A. 1-3
‘The story…sore eyes.’
[Introduction]
B. 4-20
‘Now Persius…Bacchius.’
[Horace sets the scene]
C. 21-35
‘They rush…special skill!’
[The anecdote]
Questions
1. This poem is usually regarded as the weakest in Satires Book I. What is your
opinion of it? Justify your opinion by reference to the content of this poem, and
by comparing it with others you have read.
2.
Explain the references to Hector, Achilles, Diomedes and Glaucus in lines 11-16.
3.
Write a summary of this poem.
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Satires I.8
Narrated by a fig-wood statue of the garden-god Priapus. The statue describes how it
watched two witches carrying out a magical ritual, and involuntarily drove them away
when its fear at their activities made it fart.
The poem may be either a satirical attack on Candidia (if she is a real person) or a
satire on witchcraft, of which the Roman establishment disapproved. However, the
poem is not an attack on the folly or danger of belief in witchcraft, so much as a
chance for Horace simply to show how ridiculous such a belief is.
N.B. In lines 8-16 Horace describes the transformation of the Esquiline from paupers’
graveyard to healthy gardens. The main person responsible for this improvement was
Maecenas. The poem thus includes an indirect compliment to Horace’s patron.
Structure
A. 1-16.
‘Once…ground.’
[Introduction]
B. 17-50.
‘For myself…cheered.’
[Activities of witches]
Questions
1. How effective is this poem as a criticism of witchcraft and belief in witchcraft?
2.
Write a summary of this poem.
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Satires I.9
A dramatic narrative describing how Horace tried to get rid of a bore, and was
eventually rescued from him.
The bore is not just a nuisance; he’s also a real social climber trying to get an
introduction to Maecenas. Thus the poem gives Horace the chance to satirise the fault
of social ambition (see also Satires 1 and 6 in this Book.)
This poem is also a good example of Horace gently making fun of himself – he shows
himself as lacking the strength of mind to get rid of the bore.
Structure
A.
1-21
‘I happened...his back.’
[Horace meets the bore]
B.
21-43
‘Our friend…followed.’
[Attempts to shake him off]
C.
43-47
‘How do you…throat.’
[Maecenas – Fuscus]
D.
74-78
‘Suddenly….save me.’
[Rescue at last]
Questions
1. How successful is this poem as a satire on social ambition?
2.
What character traits does the bore have which make him particularly undesirable
or irritating?
3.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires I.10
Horace justifies his criticisms of Lucilius’ satires, and sets out his own theory and
practice of satire. He criticises Lucilius’ slipshod style and his over-reliance on cheap
laughs and invective. He says that he himself chose to write satire because he saw the
need for bringing a higher literary standard in the genre.
Structure
A. 1-30
‘True…Canusian.’
[Criticisms of Lucilius’ style]
B. 31-49
‘I myself…distinction.’
[Horace’s choice of satire; contrast with
other poets]
C. 50-71
‘But I said…quick.’
[Further criticisms of Lucilius]
D. 72-91
‘If you hope…armchairs.’
[Horace’s purpose in writing satire]
E. 92
[Coda]
Questions
1. Section A
a) What criticisms does Horace make of Lucilius’ writing?
b) What can you learn from these lines about Horace’s own ideas about how to
write satire?
2.
Section B
a) Horace mentions several other poets and their type of poetry. Who were these
poets, and what sort of poetry did they write?
b) Why does he refer to these poets?
3.
Section C
a) What further comments does Horace make about Lucilius in this section?
b) What further information can you glean from this section about Horace’s own
ideas about the nature and purpose of satire?
4.
Section D
Horace now writes directly about his own satires. To what extent does he add to
what he has already said earlier in the poem?
5.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Practical analysis
Read the following passage, then answer the question below it.
So it’s not enough to make your listener bare his teeth
in a grin – though I grant there’s some virtue even in that.
You need terseness, to let the thought run freely on
without becoming entangled in a mass of words that will hang
heavy on the ear. You need a style which is sometimes severe,
sometimes gay, now suiting the role of an orator or poet
now that of a clever talker who keeps his strength in reserve
and carefully rations it out. Humour is often stronger
and more effective than sharpness in cutting knotty issues.
Humour was the mainstay of those who wrote the Old Comedy;
that’s the respect in which they ought to be followed.
Horace, Satires, I.10 (Penguin translation p.79)
Question
1.
2.
In this passage Horace gives us his definition of the proper requirements of
satire. Do you think he has succeeded in meeting all of these requirements
in the rest of Book I?
10
Horace refers to the writers of Old Comedy (i.e. to Aristophanes and other
Athenian comic writers), and seems to suggest that he is following in their
footsteps in using humour for ‘cutting knotty issues’. What similarities
and differences are there between Horace and Aristophanes in their use of
humour as a cutting tool?
10
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E
SATIRES, BOOK II
Introduction
Book I of the Satires was probably published about 35 BCE. Book II was written
some time between 33 and 30 BCE, at a time when Octavian was gaining control of
the entire Roman world.
Compared with Book I, the Horace of Book II seems to be a more confident, but also
a more isolated figure. This may be because Horace has adapted a different persona
for Book II, that of the detached observer. Book II also contrasts city life and country
life, perhaps because Horace has by now bought his Sabine estate and is in a better
position to contrast the two ways of life.
In Book II, most of the Satires are in the form of a dialogue. Horace represents
himself as being taught or criticised by various experts or would-be experts. This use
of dialogue is an allusion to the dialogue-form of Plato’s philosophy, and an
indication of the philosophical tone of Book II. Here Horace touches on his favourite
philosophical themes: the golden mean, natural limits, and self-sufficiency.
In Book I, Horace had put his Satires into groups. In Book II, the pattern is different,
with poems 1-4 and 5-8 being structured identically:
1 Consultations
5
2 Rural simplicity
6
3 Stoic sermons
7
4 Follies of gastronomy 8
The poems are also linked with one another in various ways, as will become clear
when you work your way through them.
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Satires II.1
A dialogue between Horace and the eminent lawyer Trebatius: Horace is consulting
Trebatius about what to do to avoid getting himself into trouble over what he writes in
his satires, presumably because his first book of satires had caused some trouble.
Structure
A. 1- 7
‘Some people…sleep.’
[Horace asks for advice]
B.
‘For sound...and hostile.’
[Horace should write praise of Octavian]
C. 24-60
‘What...to write.’
[Horace will write more satire, because
he is a satirist by nature]
D. 60-79
‘My lad...opinion.’
[Lucilius wrote satire and didn’t suffer
for it]
E. 79-86.
‘No…scot free.’
[Horace will be safe because his poetry
is good]
7-23
Questions
1. Compare this poem with Satires I.4. Both are concerned with satire and satirists.
What similarities and differences do you see?
2. This poem was probably composed after Horace wrote all the other satires in
Book II. Is there anything in Satires II.1 which suggests what themes you might
find in the rest of Book II?
3. Is the persona in this poem the same as the persona In Book I?
4. Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires II.2
A lecture on the topic of ‘the simple life’: Horace claims to be passing on the
teachings of the farmer Ofellus, whom he knew as a boy. Ofellus prefers the simple
and frugal life of the Romans of bygone days, in contrast to the gluttony and self
indulgence of contemporary city dwellers.
This poem is similar in its approach to the ‘diatribe’ satires of Book I (Satires I.1-3),
which are monologues in which the speaker explores a succession of moral topics.
The philosophy of the poem is basically Epicurean, but there are two key
philosophical points which recur frequently in Horace’s poems:
a) the ‘golden mean’: the idea that the best way in life is to follow a middle path,
avoiding opposing extremes
b) self-sufficiency: the person who needs little and is satisfied with what he has will
be prepared for any changes in fortune.
Structure
A 1-8
‘My friends…breakfast.’
[A before-lunch lecture begins:
virtue is living on little]
B. 8-22
‘What’s …grouse.’
[Hunger is the best sauce]
C. 23-52
‘And yet…suggestion.’
[Gluttony is an acquired bad habit]
D. 53-69
‘Ofellus….blunder.’
[A stingy diet is just as bad]
E. 70-93
‘Now I come…young. ‘
[The benefits of a simple diet]
F. 94-111
‘You like…for war.’
[Spend your money less selfishly]
G. 112-136
‘To bring…fate.’
[A lecture from Ofellus]
Questions
1. Throughout the poem, Horace illustrates his philosophical points by using
examples.
a) What examples does Horace use?
b) Do his examples help you to understand his points more clearly? If so, why?
If not, why not?
2.
One idea underlying this poem is that it’s wrong for rich people to waste their
money on food.
a) To what extent do you agree?
b) What does Horace think the rich should do with their money?
3.
In which way does this poem illustrate the theme of self-sufficiency?
4.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires II.3
The setting for this poem is Horace’s Sabine estate, at the time of the Saturnalia (1719 December). Damasippus (a former speculator in various types of luxury goods)
suddenly arrives. Damasippus has gone bankrupt, and subsequently become a
follower of the Stoic philosopher Stertinius. Most of the poem consists of a lecture by
Stertinius on the Stoic dogma that ‘those who are not wise are mad’. This idea is
illustrated by various examples, which attempt to prove that all passions and vices are
symptoms of insanity. At the end, Horace suggests that Damasippus is the greater
madman.
Structure
The structure is complex. There is an introductory section (A-C); then in sections DI, Damasippus recounts a lecture given by the Stoic philosopher Stertinius. The
lecture itself is introduced and begun in sections D and E, and its five main divisions
are in sections F-I. The closing sections J-L are a conversation between Horace and
Damasippus after Damasippus has finished his narration.
I.
II.
III.
A. 1-16
‘You write…better days.’
[Damasippus arrives]
B. 16-31
‘That’s good…you please.’
[Damasippus’ changed
circumstances]
C.
‘Now let’s...themselves.’
[Stertinius and his advice]
D. 41-76
‘First let…to repay.’
[Introduction to Stertinius’ lecture]
E. 77-81
‘Settle down…all mad.’
[Stertinius begins his lecture]
F.
‘By far…pillage.’
[1 - avarice]
31-40
87-157
G. 158-223 ‘Well, who…blood.’
[2 - ambition]
H. 224-280 ‘Join me…related terms.’
[3 - extravagance (224-246);
4 - love (247-280)]
I.
281-295 ‘There used to be…simple.’
[5 - superstition]
J
296-299 ‘Those are…house.’
[Damasippus sums up]
K
300-307 ‘My dear…suffering.’
[Horace’s response]
L
307-326 ‘I’ll tell you…maniac.’
[Damasippus criticises Horace]
Questions
1. Section A
a) Why has Horace taken books by Plato, Menander, Eupolis and Archilochus
with him to his country estate?
b) Damasippus obviously doesn’t understand that Horace has written little
because he sets himself very high standards and needs peace and quiet in
which to work. Does this in any way influence your attitude towards
Damasippus?
c) What advice does Damasippus give Horace in lines 14-16? What do you think
of his advice?
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2.
Section B
Horace observes (lines 26-28) that although Damasippus has been cured of one
obsession, another has taken its place. What are the old and the new obsessions?
3.
Section C
a) Damasippus says (line 32), ‘You’re mad too, and so are pretty well all fools.’
This is the Stoic paradox ‘all fools are mad.’ Compare this with Satires I.2,
24; I.3,77; and II.7,42. Try to decide how far Horace really agreed with this
idea.
b) The Stoics believed that suicide was morally acceptable if a man felt he could
not live honourably, and if he chose an honourable way of dying. Why does
Stertinius stop Damasippus from committing suicide?
4.
Section D
a) Stertinius gives a definition of madness in lines 43-45. What is this definition?
b) Stertinius uses two examples to illustrate his definition: an imaginary example
(lines 48-62), and one drawn from the activities of Damasippus himself (lines
62-76).
 Outline these examples briefly in your own words.
 To what extent do these examples help you to understand the point
Stertinius is making?
 Do you agree with Stertinius?
5.
Section E
Stertinius is here imagined as gathering an audience round him. He isn’t just
talking to Damasippus, because most people suffer from one folly or another.
In lines 78-80 Stertinius lists the vices he intends to attack. What are they?
[Note that these are the main vices attacked by other philosophers and satirists.
One is missing from the list – discontent. Horace deals with it in Satires II.7]
6.
Section F - Avarice
a) Stertinius begins with the example of Staberius (lines 84-99). Sum this up in
your own words. Why is Staberius mad?
b) Aristippus (lines 99-102), is the complete opposite of Stertinius. Why is
Aristippus mad? What do Stertinius and Aristippus have in common?
c) In lines 104-128, Stertinius argues that the lover of wealth is mad because he
refuses to use the wealth which he has accumulated.
 He gives three short examples in lines 104-110. What are these examples?
And what conclusion does he draw from them?
 He gives three slightly longer interlinked examples in lines 111-120. What
are these examples? What surprise conclusions does he come to in line
120, and what explanation of this conclusion does he offer in lines 120121?
 In lines 122-128 Stertinius now addresses the old miser of lines 111-120.
Do you agree with what Stertinius says? Why?
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d) In lines 128-141, Stertinius uses a famous example from Greek mythology –
the example of Orestes killing his mother.
 Who was Orestes, and why did he kill his mother?
 Stertinius seems to be arguing the point that Orestes went mad before he
killed his mother, and that if senseless homicidal mania is madness, it is no
different from the killing of a mother (or wife) in order to inherit her
property. Do you agree with this argument? Why?
e) In lines 142-157, Stertinius takes an example from contemporary Rome – the
example of the rich man who prefers to die rather than spend money. This
doesn’t add anything to the argument. Does it make a suitable conclusion to
the homily on avarice? Why?
7.
Section G - Ambition
a) In lines 155-167 Stertinius neatly makes the transition from avarice to
ambition. Sum up these lines, showing how the transition is made. (N.B. For
the Romans, ambition would have been a special form of avarice since you
had to be very wealthy to achieve your political ambitions.)
b) The anecdote in lines 168-181 shows Oppidius as a moderate man, while his
sons illustrate two extremes. What point is being made by this anecdote?
c) This leads directly to the point made by Stertinius in lines 182-186. What is
his point?
d) In lines 187-223, Stertinius switches abruptly to another example from
mythology. Look up the notes on lines 187 and 199-201 (on p.253 of the
Penguin translation), to learn the background to the imaginary debate in lines
187-207.
 Why was Ajax mad? Why was Agamemnon mad?
 Sum up the argument in lines 208-223. Do you agree with what is being
said here?
8.
Section H - Extravagance and love
The Latin word luxuria really means ‘extravagant self-indulgence in physical
pleasures’. Horace is thinking especially of eating too many expensive foods.
a) Sum up the anecdote in lines 226-228 in your own words. In what way is the
man who received a legacy a fool?
b) Sum up the two short anecdotes in lines 239-245. What point is Stertinius
making?
c) In lines 247-280, Stertinius considers love as a kind of subdivision of
extravagant self-indulgence. What arguments does he advance to prove that
love is an infantile folly? Do you agree with him? Why?
9.
Section I - Superstition
Stertinius gives two anecdotes illustrating superstition. Sum them up briefly, and
explain what is foolish about the behaviour described there.
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10. Section J
Damasippus sums up. What general point does he make?
11. Section K
What response does Horace make? What do you think of his response?
12. Section L
In lines 307-313 Damasippus criticises Horace for imitating Maecenas, then adds
an illustrative anecdote (lines 314-320).
a) Do you think that Damasippus’ criticism of Horace is fair? Give reasons.
b) How suitable is the anecdote about the frog as an illustration of the point
Damasippus is making?
c) What criticisms of Horace does Damasippus make in lines 320-326?
d) Horace (line 326) regards Damasippus as a greater maniac than himself. Can
you find any justification for Horace’s opinion?
13. Make a section by section summary of the poem. (Make it very brief. Do not
rewrite all your answers to the other questions!
Practical analysis
Horace had already examined avarise in Satires I.1. What similarities and
differences do you see when comparing Satires I.1 with Satires II.3, lines 82157?
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Satires II.4
Horace meets Catius, who has just been to a lecture, and is rushing off to write down
the new philosophical rules he’s just heard. It turns out that Catius has in fact been to
a lecture on how to dine well. He repeats instructions on how to choose the best
ingredients, how to avoid discomfort and ill-health, and how to derive the greatest
enjoyment from food. These instructions are a kind of parody of Epicurean
philosophy, which was often popularly misunderstood as advocating a life of selfindulgence. Horace appears to be doing two things in this poem:
 satirising Catius, who has a greater interest in food than in philosophy
 using the serious opening and ending of the poem as a frame for a gentle warning
not to misunderstand the teaching of Epicureanism.
Structure
A. 1-11
‘Catius!...a secret.’
[Horace meets Catius]
B. 12-16
‘I’ll repeat...out of it.’
[The first course]
C. 17-19
‘If a visitor…juice.’
[The unexpected guest]
D. 20-27
‘That will…stomach.’
[The first course again: wine]
E. 27-34
‘If the bowels…scallops.’
[Seafood]
F. 35-46
‘The average…before mine.’
[The main course]
G. 47-62
‘Some talents…stall.’
[Wine]
H. 63-69
‘It is worth...olive.’
[Sauces]
I.
70-75
‘Apples…dishes.’
[Dessert course]
J.
76-87
‘It’s a…dining-rooms.’
[Service and presentation]
K
88-95
‘What a...happy life.’
[Ironic close]
Questions
1. What advice does Catius offer about how to avoid discomfort and ill-health as a
result of what one eats or drinks?
2.
What evidence can you find in the poem to suggest that Catius regards
gastronomy as a science or philosophy which only a few can understand?
3.
Look again at lines 88-95. The ‘truly happy life’ was the goal of every ancient
philosophical system. If you followed the instructions of Catius, how likely is it
that you would have achieved this ‘happy life’?
4.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires II.5
An imaginary dialogue between the prophet Teiresias and Ulysses in the underworld.
Ulysses asks for advice on how to make money; Teiresias teaches him how to be a
fortune-hunter. (Note that ‘Ulysses’ is the Roman name for the Greek hero
Odysseus.)
The topic of the fortune-hunter – a man who tries to become the beneficiary in a rich
man/woman’s will – was common in Rome in the period of the late Republic-early
Empire. The fortune-hunter’s main weapon was flattery, a kind of abuse of
friendship.
Horace probably chose Ulysses for this poem because he had the reputation of being a
wily and cunning character. Teiresias, as a prophet, was expected to speak in
ambiguous terms. There is thus a constant note of irony in the poem. Teiresias gives
cynical and immoral advice, but we don’t know if he gives it seriously, or if Ulysses
takes it seriously. What can’t be doubted is that Horace has found an ingenious way
of satirising the practice of fortune-hunting.
Structure
A. 1-22
‘Answer me...piles of cash.’
[Ulysses asks for advice]
B. 23-44
‘I’ve told you…will grow.’
[Using lawsuits]
C. 45-69
‘Again…of teeth.’
[Avoid being deceived by the testator:
an example]
D. 70-97
‘A further print…steady on.’
[Choosing the right tactics]
E. 98-110
‘When you …get down.’
[Success at last!]
Questions
1. In Greek mythology, Teiresias was a respected prophet; Ulysses was a hero and a
resourceful survivor. In lines 1-22, what use does Horace make of the heroic
background of his poem to emphasise the contemptibility of his theme?
2. Ulysses was cunning, resourceful, tough and enduring, able to talk himself out of
difficult situations. Look closely at Teiresias’ advice. In what ways would
Ulysses’ character make him ideally suited to being a fortune-hunter?
3.
What point is being made by the anecdote about Coranus and Nasica in lines
62-69?
4.
Penelope was Ulysses’ wife, who had remained faithful to him during his twenty
years’ absence from home. In the Odyssey she was besieged by a group of suitors
who tried to persuade her that her husband was dead and that she should marry
one of them. She refused. Teiresias suggests that the real reason for her refusal
is that the suitors don’t offer her a big enough dowry.
What purpose does Teiresias have in mentioning her in lines 75-83?
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5.
Horace himself does not appear in this poem, but its dialogue form is similar to
that used in Satires II.1. What other similarities and differences do you find
between these two poems?
6.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires II.6
This is one of Horace’s best-known and most imitated poems. It contains an
important autobiographical element, an anecdote illustrating the theme that different
kinds of life suit different people, and contributes another ‘philosophical’ poem to the
Satires.
This poem should be compared with Satires I.6, which is also about Horace and
Maecenas, and Horace’s preferences for a life away from the public gaze. Satires II.6
was written about 8 years after I.6, and since Horace was now famous it was harder
for him to live the quiet life he preferred. An important and recurring theme in the
Satires is the insatiable craving for gain; in this poem Horace shows that success and
affluence don’t necessarily bring happiness.
In this poem, Horace has two personae: the town mouse/townsman and the country
mouse/countryman. There are good things about both lives, but they can’t be
combined.
Structure
A. 1-15
‘This is...protector.’
[Prayer to Mercury]
B. 16-39
‘Well then…be put off.’
[Horace thinks of the problems of life in
Rome]
C. 40-58
‘Time flies…reticence.’
[Horace’s friendship with Maecenas]
D. 59-76
‘When I...highest form.’
[Horace longs for country life]
E. 76-117
‘From time …my hunger.’
[Anecdote of the mice]
Questions
1. Section A
a) What does Horace pray for, and why?
b) Mercury is the god of wealth and good fortune. Why should Horace feel a
special attachment to this god?
c) What folly is Horace criticising in this section?
2.
Section B
a) In lines 16-19, what two features of city life does Horace mention, from which
he can escape in the country?
b) What other unwelcome features of city life does he describe in lines 20-39?
c) What seems to you to be the most unpleasant part of Horace’s life in the city?
3.
Section C
In this section Horace describes his friendship with Maecenas.
a) Horace presents himself as a client of Maecenas. Write a paragraph describing
the patron-client relationship at Rome. (Use a reference book for information.)
b) A client was expected to keep any secrets his patron confided to him. What
kind of information do nosy people try to worm out of Horace in lines 52-58?
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c) What advantages and disadvantages can you see in Horace’s friendship with
Maecenas?
4.
Section D
a) What features of country life does Horace describe in this section?
b) Why does Horace refer to beans (line 63) as ‘Pythagoras’ kinsmen’?
c) Horace asks three philosophical questions in lines 74-76.
 In line 74, Horace considers the Stoic doctrine, that moral character is the
key to happiness. What answer would you give to the question in line 74,
and why?
 Friendship was often discussed by ancient philosophers. The Stoics
believed our motives in making friends were idealistic; the Epicureans
believed our motives were selfish. Read the notes on Stoicism and
Epicureanism in the Appendix. Then explain why these two philosophies
had such differing ideas about friendship.
 In line 76, Horace asks about the nature of goodness. This was another
subject of great interest to the ancient philosophers, and again the Stoics
and Epicureans had widely differing views. What were these views?
d) Horace does not specifically answer any of these three questions. What
answers do you think he might have given?
5.
Section E
a) In the story of the two mice, country life is contrasted with city life; anxiety is
contrasted with peace of mind. In what ways is the country mouse similar to
Ofellus in Satires II.2, 118ff?
b) In lines 83-89, the country mouse offers what he regards as luxuries. The
town mouse offers him what he regards as the ‘good life’, and lines 102-109
describe the town mouse’s ‘good life’. The Stoics believed that poverty was a
virtue. So the country mouse is a Stoic. But is the town mouse really an
Epicurean?
c) What is the connection between this animal fable and the rest of the poem?
What overall philosophical point is Horace making?
6.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
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Satires II.7
During the Saturnalia, it was customary for slaves and masters to change places. In
this poem Horace’s slave Davus takes the opportunity to speak out in a way not
normally permitted to a slave. The main point of Davus’ monologue is that masters
are no better than their slaves. (Slaves were usually regarded as lazy, dishonest,
gluttonous, sexually coarse and insolent. They were usually kept in their place by
threats of severe punishment). In saying this, he is using a typical Stoic paradox. The
Stoics believed that men were enslaved by love, fear and greed (the ruling passions),
so that even free men were slaves if they allowed these passions to rule them.
Structure
A. 1- 5
‘I’ve been…you like.’
[Horace invites Davus to talk]
B. 6-20
‘Some people...around it.’
[Two different kinds of people]
C. 21-45
‘Don’t take...porter.’
[Davus criticises Horace]
D. 46-71
‘You fancy…it’s chains.’
[The nature of slavery – a) adultery]
E. 72-101
‘I’m not…old masters.’
[ b) subservience]
F. 102-115
‘I’m trash…your heels.’
[ c) greed]
G. 116-118
‘Quicker…Sabine farm.’
[Conclusion]
Questions
1. Section B
a) Priscus and Volanerius represent two different kinds of people. What are
they?
b) Explain the reference to ‘change his stripe’ in line 10.
2.
Section C
In lines 23-45 Davus criticises Horace.
a) What criticisms does Davus make of Horace?
b) In what way is Horace like either Volanerius or Priscus?
3.
Section D
In lines 46-115, Davus gives a lecture on slavery, which he says he heard from
‘Crispinus’ porter’. Crispinus was a Stoic philosopher, whom Horace had
criticised in Satires I (see I.1.120; I.3.139; I.4.14). In this poem, his Stoic views
are being filtered through an uneducated slave.
(We have already been prepared for the presentation of Stoic ideas since line 42.
The Stoics believed the wise man was the opposite of a fool; and that the fool was
a slave while the wise man was free. But the Stoics didn’t believe in gradations
of foolishness, whereas Davus does – ‘more of a fool’. Davus has not completely
understood this Stoic teaching.)
Davus is using the Stoic doctrine ‘all fools are slaves’ simply because it gives
him the chance to prove that his master is a slave. In lines 46-71 he compares a
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sexual liaison with a prostitute and a sexual liaison with a married woman. The
slave gets what he wants from the prostitute without any difficulty or danger but
his master, who is having an affair with a married woman, disguises himself as a
slave to get into her house, and thus leaves himself open to all sorts of dangers.
a) What dangers has the disguised man exposed himself to?
b) Compare lines 46-71 with Satires I.2.28-134. What similarities and
differences do you find in theme and content?
c) In lines 55-56 Davus asks, ‘Then aren’t you in fact the very thing you pretend
to be?’ That is, ‘Aren’t you really a slave?’ What exactly is the point Davus
is making here?
4.
Section E
In this section, Davus puts forward the Stoic argument that if you refrain from
doing wrong through fear of the consequences, you aren’t really good. So if
Horace does things out of fear of punishment, he is no better than a slave.
a) What examples does Davus use to prove his point?
b) In lines 83-88 Davus describes the ideal Stoic. Sum up these lines in your
own words.
c) What point is being made in lines 95-101?
5.
Section F
The third Stoic sin is greed or gluttony. The slave steals the food he craves, and
is punished. The master indulges his greed, and suffers ill-health as a result.
In your opinion are slave and master just as bad as one another?
6.
Read the poem through, then write a section-by-section summary.
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Satire II.8
Fundanius tells Horace about a dinner-party, given by Nasidienus Rufus, at which he
was one of the guests. The purpose of the poem is to satirise Nasidienus, and this is
done through the description of the food served, and the account of the conversation.
Unfortunately some of the satire is lost on us, because we don’t have a good enough
knowledge of all the subtleties of Roman social conventions. However, the main
faults displayed by Nasidienus are vulgar affectation, social ambition and vanity. He
is trying to impress his principal guest, Maecenas, by serving expensive food and
drink, but completely fails to provide the kind of witty, sophisticated conversation that
was the most important component of any dinner party.
Structure
A. 1-19
‘How did you…occasion?’
[The beginning of the dinner]
B. 20-41
‘I was…the bottle.’
[The guests at the dinner]
C. 42-53
‘Then a lamprey...brine.’
[The main course is served]
D. 54-78
‘As he spoke…arose.’
[Disaster strikes]
E. 79-95
‘I’d love…African snakes.’
[The end of dinner]
Questions
1. Section A
Note on serving wine: Normally sea water was mixed with Greek wines as a
preservative. There is no salt in this Chian wine, which must have been too good
to need such treatment. Caecuban was the best Roman wine. The next best were
Alban and Falernian. In earlier days wine would not have been served until the
desert course; newer, more lavish social customs have taken over.
a) In this section, what suggestions are there of ostentation and opulence?
b) What do you make of the host’s words to Maecenas in lines 16-17 (‘If you
prefer…varieties.’)?
2.
Section B
Notes on the seating plan:
Fundanius, Viscus and Varius are all poets. Balatro and Vibidius are ‘shadows’:
uninvited guests who have been brought along by Maecenas because they are
clients of his; they will be expected to amuse and entertain their patron. (The
special term ‘parasite’ was used for such clients.) Maecenas is in the seat of
honour. Nomentanus and Porcius are Nasidienus’ ‘parasites’. Nomentanus is in
the place normally occupied by the host, apparently so that he can tell Maecenas
all about the food. This is an indication of the host Nasidienus’ bad taste.
a) Comment on the behaviour of the four clients in lines 29-41 (‘This became
clear…bottle’).
b) Maecenas never speaks. What do you suppose he would have thought of the
behaviour of the four clients?
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3.
Section C
Note: Fish was the most expensive item at a Roman banquet.
Why does Nasidienus describe this dish in such detail?
4.
Section D
Note: Nasidienus ‘called for his slippers’ in line 77, because he was going to
leave the table. Romans took off their slippers/shoes before reclining for a meal.
a) How does Nasidienus react to the accident at first?
b) Balatro makes fun of Nasidienus in lines 66-74, although Nasidienus doesn’t
realise it. Sum up what Balatro says in your own words.
5.
Section E
a) What does Nasidienus do to retrieve his dinner party from failure?
b) The meal seems to end very abruptly. So does this poem. What do you think
Horace’s purpose was in this poem?
6.
Write a section-by-section summary of this poem.
Essay
Horace states that greed is at the root of all the other vices. In what ways, and
with what success, does Horace make this point in Satires II?
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F
REVISION PROGRAMME FOR HORACE
First of all you need to have a very clear idea of the main theme(s) of each poem. The
best way to do this is to re-read each poem, then (in only 2-3 sentences) sum up its
theme and content.
Secondly, you must be able to use your study of Horace to answer questions on each
of the nine themes listed on page 2 of this Study Guide. The best way to do this is to
take nine sheets of paper, and write one of the nine themes at the top of each. Then
revise each of Horace’s Satires in turn, making notes as appropriate for each one.
You may, for example, find that one poem examines both ‘Social and Political
Ambition’ and ‘The Quest for Peace of Mind’. Make notes on both of these sheets
summing up the points Horace is making and adding any comments of your own as
appropriate.
The following questions and suggestions should provide some ideas. If you can
answer these questions, you have prepared yourself well for the exam.
1.
The persona of the writer of satire
The ‘Horace’ narrator in the Satires is not necessarily identical with the real
Horace.
 What kind of person does ‘Horace’ appear to be?
 Why should Horace wish to present himself in this particular way?
2.
The literary conventions of satire
Revise your notes on ‘Introduction to the Satires of Horace’, and the notes you
made on satire for the ‘Comedy Satire and Society’ (Part One of this Study
Guide).
 What kind of subjects did Horace write about?
 In what ways did he approach these subjects?
 How far does Horace’s satirical technique match the general definition of
‘Satire’?
 Is it possible to identify any theme(s) which were of special interest to
Horace?
3.
Politics and war
 We know from a reference in one of Horace’s other poems that he fought in
the Civil Wars after the death of Caesar, that he was on the losing side and
fled from the battle field at Philippi. What, if anything, do the Satires tell you
about Horace’s attitude to war? Why does Horace say so little about war?
 What appears to have been Horace’s attitude to politics?
 What criticisms does he make, and how justified are they?
4.
Social and political ambitions
 What aspects of social and political ambition does Horace write about?
 Does he condemn all social and political ambition?
 What philosophical ideas does he use with regard to social and political
ambition?
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5.
Corruption of political and social relationships
 Would you agree that Horace is concerned with social relationships rather than
political relationships? What evidence would you use to support this view?
 What kinds of social relationships are of interest to Horace? What use does he
make of philosophical ideas in dealing with corruption of social relationships?
 Is Horace’s criticism entirely negative, or does he offer advice on how to avoid
corruption?
6.
Plain living versus luxury
 What does Horace have to say on this subject? Why does he so often use
food as a metaphor for luxury and for the simple life?
 In what way does he use philosophical ideas to reinforce the points he is
making?
7.
The relationship between the sexes
 What is Horace’s attitude to the relationship between the sexes?
 To what extent does he share the standard Roman attitude to women?
 Do you think that this subject was of any great importance to Horace? Why?
8.
Changing values within the family
Horace doesn’t have much to say on this subject, but (as with Aristophanes) his
main interest is in the father-son relationship. In particular, we learn something
of his own relationship with his father.
 What does Horace have to say about family life?
 What does he say about changing values within the family?
9.
The quest for peace of mind
 Why were Stoicism and Epicureanism of interest to the Romans?
 Which one seems to have been the more attractive to Horace, and why?
 Do you think that this subject was of any great importance to Horace? Why?
10. Finally
 You should be able to take each of these themes and make comparisons with
the modern world. Are they of as much interest and importance to us as they
were to Horace? Why?
 How accurate and useful is Horace as a source for life in Rome in the period
of the late Republic/Early Empire?
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PART FOUR: THE SATIRES OF JUVENAL
A
INTRODUCTION TO JUVENAL’S SATIRES
This section assumes that you are using the Penguin translation of Juvenal’s Satires.
The Introduction to the Penguin translation is very extensive, but a bit difficult to read
through without some sort of guide, which forms the basis of the questions below.
The purpose of these questions is to ensure that you have a basic knowledge of
Juvenal’s life and times, as far as it is relevant for an understanding of the Satires
themselves. You will probably find that, after you have read Juvenal’s poems for
yourself, you want to add more to your introductory notes, or sometimes change what
you have written. Refer to these notes regularly as you work through the poems, and
alter or add to them as necessary. You may also find it more helpful to defer
answering Question 4 until you have read a few of the Satires, so that you have more
of a first-hand knowledge of Juvenal’s style.
If you are using a different translation, you will still be able to answer the questions,
but using other sources of information, such as Who’s Who in the Ancient World and
The Oxford Classical Dictionary. If you would like more information on Roman
social background (especially the client-patron relationship), refer to Carcopino, Daily
Life in Ancient Rome.
1. Pages 9-22: a biography of Juvenal
The main outline of Juvenal’s life is on pages 21-22. Read this, but don’t bother with
pages 9-20 (unless you want more details). Alternatively, read the entries about
Juvenal in Who’s Who in the Ancient World, Oxford Companion to Classical
Literature or Oxford Classical Dictionary.

Write a brief biography of Juvenal, including an outline of his literary career.
2. Pages 22-35: the main subjects of Juvenal’s satire
On page 23 you are told that Juvenal writes from a limited viewpoint, and never
seems to question the existing social structure. Read this paragraph (it’s quite long).

What is Juvenal’s basic point of view?
On pages 24-35 the three main categories of personality which Juvenal writes about
are listed: the decadent aristocrat; the wealthy, base-born parvenu; the client-patron
relationship.

Write a paragraph on each of these, summing up Juvenal’s basic attitude to each
one.
3. Pages 35-43: Juvenal’s philosophical position
There are three main subheadings here: Juvenal’s attitude to the past, his attitude to
religion and his attitude to philosophy.

Write notes on each of these three things.
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4. Pages 43-55: Juvenal’s style
Pages 43-51 discuss Juvenal’s general technique; pages 51-55 discuss his use of
language.

Read pages 43-44 and make notes describing how Juvenal selects and presents his
themes.
5.
Pages 55-63: Juvenal’s text
Don’t bother with this section.
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B
HOW TO ORGANISE YOUR STUDY OF JUVENAL
Your study of Juvenal will take more or less the same format as your study of
Aristophanes and Horace. The nine general themes of ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’
(listed on page 2 of this Study Guide) which you studied in connection with these
writers also apply to Juvenal. Each poem will be concerned with one or more of
these. The general procedure to follow will be the same for each poem.
1. Read the poem through to form a general idea of its theme(s) and general content.
To make it easier for you to study, each poem has been divided up into sections.
Please note that line numbers refer to the Latin text of Juvenal’s Satires,
because there are no line numbers in the English translation of the Penguin
edition. The Latin line numbers appear at the top of the each page in the
Penguin edition.
2. Work through all the questions on each poem. These are designed in such a way
as to lead you through the poem section by section, to help you understand the
key ideas, and to explain any ideas or references likely to cause difficulty. (Also
remember to make use of the notes and introduction in whichever translation of
the Satires you are using.)
The final question on each poem asks you to write your own brief summary of the
poem. You may prefer to do this question first. Refer to page 41 of this Study
Guide for a reminder of why it is important for you to do this.
3.
Take each of the nine general themes of ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’ in turn and
consider the following points:

Does the poem have anything to say about this theme?

If so, what does it say, and how successfully?
4.
Written assignment 1
An essay of about three or four A4 pages. Essays will be set at regular intervals.
See also the section on writing essays on pages 3-4 of the Introduction.
5.
Written assignment 2
‘Practical Analysis’ questions. See pages 4-5 of the Introduction for more
information.
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C
THE SATIRES OF JUVENAL
Note: John Ferguson’s edition of Juvenal provided some invaluable material for this
part of the Study Guide, and is strongly recommended for teacher use. It is still in
print, published by BCP/Duckworth.
Satire One
The first five Satires were published together as Book 1. Probably Satires 2-5 were
written first, then Juvenal wrote Satire 1 to provide an introduction, explaining his
reason for writing, and why he chose the medium of satire.
Structure
(Remember: line numbers refer to the Latin text)
A. 1-21
‘Must I…enlighten you.’
[Juvenal’s reason for writing poetry]
B. 22-80
‘When a…of my verse.’
[Juvenal’s reason for writing satire]
C. 81-146
‘Since the days…latest thing.’
[The main subject of satire]
D. 147-171 ‘But no one…Flaminian Ways.’
[The need for caution]
Questions
1. Section A
a) What reason does Juvenal give for deciding to write poetry?
b) Towards the end of this section, Juvenal mentions Lucilius. Who was
Lucilius, and what does Juvenal mean when he says he himself was ‘chosen to
drive [his] team down the track which great Lucilius blazed?’
2.
Section B
a) Juvenal now produces a long list of the vices in contemporary society which
provoke his anger.
How many different kinds of people does Juvenal list in lines 22-50 (foot of
page 66)?
b) Juvenal suggests in line 51 that the vices of these people would be ‘well
worthy of Horace’s pen.’
 Would you agree that Horace would also disapprove of these people?
 Would Horace’s method of satirising them be different in any way?
c) In lines 55-74 (page 67) Juvenal describes the vices of four more charactertypes. What are they?
d) In lines 74-80 (‘Honesty’s…verse’) Juvenal sums up his reason for writing
satire. What are his reasons?
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3.
Section C
In this section Juvenal shifts his focus, from a list of characters exhibiting the
vices he deplores, to the impact of wealth as a cause of vicious behaviour,
affecting both rich and poor.
a) In what ways are the rich damaged by wealth?
b) In what ways are the poor damaged by wealth?
c) Horace also wrote about the greed and extravagance which have their roots in
wealth. What similarities and differences do you see between Horace and
Juvenal on this subject?
4.
Section D
In this final section Juvenal explains why he is not going to attack living people
in his Satires. Re-read page 36 of the introduction to the Penguin translation for
more on this.
a) What does Juvenal suggest might happen to anyone who criticises an
influential living figure?
b) Do you think it will make Juvenal’s satire less effective if he doesn’t attack
people by name?
c) To what extent do Aristophanes and Horace also avoid attacking living
people?
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Satire Two
The main object of attack in Satire Two is homosexuality. However, it is not
homosexuality as such that Juvenal attacks: what he really dislikes is the perversion of
a man dressing and behaving as a woman. Juvenal also uses this poem to attack the
Emperor Domitian, who was assassinated in AD 96, and who is now a safe target.
Note: The attitude of Juvenal – and of other Romans – to sexual orientation and
sexual practices is not necessarily the same as commonly accepted attitudes of our
own day.
Structure
A. 1-63
i) 1-35
ii) 36-63
‘Northward…raven.’
‘Northward…in their teeth.’
‘Where now…raven.’
[Hypocritical homosexuals]
[Moralising hypocrites]
[A courtesan’s criticism]
B. 64-148
i) 64-81
ii) 82-116
iii) 117-148
‘When they…was staged.’
‘When they…the bunch.’
‘Sooner or…self-castration.’
‘And what about…was staged.’
[The perversions of aristocrats]
[Corruption in high places]
[Secret transvestites]
[Open perversion]
C. 179-170
‘Today…Ardaschan.’
[Conclusion - all conquering Rome]
Questions
1. Section A
Juvenal is critical of those hypocrites who moralise in public and are practising
homosexuals in private. Even worse is Domitian, who revived strict laws on
morality but had an incestuous relationship with his niece.
a) What examples of hypocritical behaviour does Juvenal give?
b) Juvenal does not mention Domitian by name, referring to him as ‘you-knowwho,’ but his readers would know who he meant. Why do you think Juvenal
has included this attack on Domitian?
c) What criticisms does the courtesan make of the hypocrite in lines 36-63?
(Note the irony of a woman who practises natural vice criticising a man who
practises unnatural vice!)
2.
Section B
a) The ‘pseudo-philosophers’ who are mentioned at the beginning of this section
are the moralists criticised by the courtesan. Why are they called ‘pseudophilosophers’?
b) One frequent object of Juvenal’s attack is the aristocrat who behaves badly,
setting a bad example and bringing discredit on his social class. Of what
particular kind of behaviour is the aristocrat guilty in lines 64-81?
c) Juvenal’s argument in lines 82-116 is that bad behaviour leads on to worse
behaviour. What does he claim will happen as a consequence of the behaviour
he attacked in lines 64-81?
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d) In lines 82-116 secret behaviour was described. Eventually, Juvenal argues,
the aristocrats allow their deviant behaviour to become public knowledge. He
describes the outcome in lines 117-148. What does he say the outcome will
be?
3.
Section C
Juvenal ends his attack with a fine flourish.
a) How would the dead (if they do exist) react to all this vice?
b) What impact has Roman vice had on the rest of the world?
c) One important point which Juvenal makes is that the Roman aristocracy (who
should behave well) are behaving so badly that they corrupt the rest of society.
Horace also makes this point. Where does he make this point, and to what
extent does his criticism agree with Juvenal’s?
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Satire Three
This is one of Juvenal’s best known Satires. A man called Umbricius, who is leaving
Rome to live in a small country town, delivers a long criticism of city life, especially
as it effects freeborn Romans with little money. Note that, although Umbricius is
leaving Rome, Juvenal stays behind.
Structure
A. 1-20
‘Despite…in August.’
B. 21-314
i)21-57
ii)58-125
iii)126-189
iv)190-231
v)232-314
232-8
239-48
249-53
254-67
268-314
[Criticism of Rome]
‘While…resigned.’
[crooks push out honest men]
‘Now let…them in Rome?’
[foreigners push out Romans]
‘Besides…menial’s savings.’
[the rich push out the poor]
‘What countryman…lizard, even.’ [house collapses and fires]
‘Insomnia…one prison only.’
[24 hours of dangers:
‘Insomnia…privilege.’
sleeplessness
‘The wagons…my toes.’
crowded streets
‘Do you see…general.’
lunchtime
‘Recently…pay for the ride.’
wagons
‘There are other…one prison only.’
night-time]
C. 315-322
‘There are many…that honour.’
[Introductory remarks]
[Umbricius leaves Rome]
Questions
1. Section A
What reasons does Juvenal suggest for anyone wanting to leave Rome and live in
the country?
2.
Section B
This long criticism of Rome falls into two distinct parts. Each of these two parts
can be further subdivided, as indicated in the ‘Structure’ outline.
i) - iii) The disadvantages of being honest;
being Roman;
being poor (21-189).
iv) - v) The discomforts and dangers of city life (190-314).
Work carefully through each section, making notes on the various discomforts
and perils described by Umbricius.
Essay
Compare Juvenal Satires 3 with Horace, Satires II.6. Which poet has given the
more convincing condemnation of city life?
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Satire Four
The main theme of this satire is extravagance, but Juvenal also takes the opportunity
to satirise the cruel tyrant Domitian (who is, of course, now dead).
Structure
A. 1-36
B. 37-154
‘Here’s Crispinus…my advantage.’
‘In the days…was done for.’
[Crispinus]
[Domitian]
Questions
1. Section A
Juvenal begins with an attack on Crispinus, who came to Rome as a fishmonger
(and may have been a slave) but was eventually made an eques by Domitian. The
point about the reference to Crispinus not having sex with unmarried girls is that
he preferred the extra excitement of adultery, or even sex with a Vestal Virgin.
a) What ‘serious charge’ does Juvenal bring against Crispinus?
b) Is it more serious, in your opinion, than Crispinus’ sexual misconduct?
c) If it’s less serious, why did Juvenal not mention it first?
2.
Section B
The story about Crispinus’ mullet provides a link with the main story, which is
about a turbot (a large and extremely expensive fish). The story can be
subdivided into three sections:
 The turbot is caught and taken to Domitian (37-71);
 No dish is big enough; Domitian summons the Privy Council (72-122);
 The Council decides that a dish should be specially made (123-135).
a) By what methods, in the telling of this story, does Juvenal convey the
impression of Domitian’s cruelty and tyranny?
b) What picture does Juvenal give us of the Privy Council?
c) Why has Juvenal used such a trivial story to satirise such a cruel tyrant? (In
considering your answer, it may be worth remembering that ridicule can be a
very powerful weapon. Nobody really likes to be laughed at.)
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Satire Five
Juvenal describes a typical dinner-party, at which the poorer guests are humiliated by
their snobbish host. Juvenal is just as critical of Trebius, the poor guest, as he is of the
snobbish host, Virro.
Structure
A. 1-11
‘If you…dog’s bread.’
[Introduction]
B. 12-155
i) 12-23
ii) 24-79
iii) 80-106
iv) 07-113
v) 14-124
vi) 25-145
vii) 46-155
‘Get one…heavens still.’
‘Yet, heavens!…for this?’
‘Just get…the Subura.’
‘A word…Go ahead.’
‘What comes in…hares and hens!’
‘If you ever…at dinner-time.’
‘For the lower…she-goat.’
[The dinner party]
[the invitation]
[wine, servants, bread]
[fish]
[attack on Virro]
[game and truffles]
[advice to Trebius]
[mushrooms, dessert]
C. 156-173
‘You imagine…such a friend.’
[conclusion; criticism of
Trebius]
Questions
1. Section A
Juvenal is talking to an acquaintance called Trebius, who seems to be willing to
eat second-rate food at a rich man’s table.
What point is Juvenal making in this introductory section?
2.
Section B
Juvenal takes us through all the stages of a typical dinner-party.
a) What is the one and only reason why Trebius is invited to dinner (i)?
b) What is the difference between the wine and bread served to Virro and his
client? How do the slaves who serve them differ (ii)?
c) What difference is there in the fish course served to Virro and Trebius (iii)?
d) In lines 107-113 Juvenal breaks into the scene and addresses Virro directly.
What does he say to Virro (iv)?
e) What are the clients served with while Virro eats game and truffles (v)?
f) In lines 125-145 Juvenal talks to Trebius. What does he say to Trebius (vi)?
g) What dishes are served to end the meal (vii)?
2. Section C
In the concluding lines, 156-173, which man – Virro or Trebius – is Juvenal
criticising more harshly, and why?
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Practical analysis
Read the passages below, then answer the questions that follow.
Passage 1
Get one thing clear from the start: a dinner-invitation
Settles the score in full for all your earlier
Services. This great ‘friendship’ produces – food. Each meal,
However infrequent, your patron reckons against you
To square his accounts. So if, after two months’ neglect,
With the bottom place to be filled at the lowest table,
He says, ‘Be my guest’ to you, his forgotten retainer,
You’re beside yourself with joy. What more could Trebius
Hope for? Now at last he has his reward – though it means
Cutting his sleep short, hurrying out in the dark with
Shoelaces trailing, all in a pother for fear lest
Everyone’s done the rounds already, paid their respects
Before the stars have vanished, while the chill constellations
Are circling the heavens still.
(Juvenal, Satires 5.12-23)
Passage 2
To bring this home, I would add that as a boy I knew Ofellus,
and when he had all his money he lived as simply as he does
now that he’s poor. He is still to be seen with his sons and livestock
working undaunted as a tenant on the farm which has been reassigned.
‘As a rule,’ he says, ‘on a working day I would never eat
any more than a shank of smoked ham and a plate of greens.
But if friends arrived whom I hadn’t seen for a long time
or a neighbour dropped in for a friendly visit on a wet day
when there was nothing to do, we used to celebrate, not with fish
sent out from town but a chicken or a kid, followed by dessert –
raisins taken down from the rafters with nuts and split figs.’
(Horace, Satires II.2.112-122)
1
2
In Passage 1, what Roman social custom is Juvenal satirising? How
important for our enjoyment of this poem is a knowledge of this particular
social custom?
10
From Passages 1 and 2, and from your wider reading, discuss the ways in
which Horace and Juvenal use the topic of food to comment on society.
10
(20)
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Satire Six
This very long poem formed Book 2 of Juvenal’s Satires. It is a satire on women, in
whom he showed little interest in Satires 1-5. The first part of the poem is about
marriage and the way it is ruined by women; the second part of the poem is about
women’s misconduct generally.
Structure
The structure is very loose, but is basically as follows:
A. 1-20
‘During Saturn’s…common retreat.’
[Chastity in olden days]
B. 21-285
‘To bounce…indignation.’
[Unchastity in marriage]
C. 286-300
‘What was it…self-indulgence.’
[Chastity then; self-indulgence
now]
D. 301-642
‘What conscience…them off, too.’
[Women’s self-indulgence]
E. 643-661
‘Whatever…every drug.’
[All women equally bad]
Questions
1. Section A
What main point is Juvenal making in lines 1-20?
2.
Section B
a) Juvenal seems to be warning Postumus against getting married. What advice
does he give in lines 21-59 (‘To bounce…Mars that senile’)?
b) In lines 60-113 (‘Look around…as much as her husband’) Juvenal writes
about the passion women have for singers, dancers, actors and gladiators.
What is the main point being made in these lines?
c) In lines 114-135 (‘Then look at…strongest motive’) Juvenal writes about the
emperor Claudius’ wife Messalina. In what way is she both better and worse
than the women he has described so far?
d) In lines 136-285 (‘Censennia’s …and indignation’) Juvenal gives a looselyconnected series of examples of what makes an unhappy marriage. How many
examples can you find?
3.
Section C
Note: Section C is a bridge passage, providing a thematic link between sections B
and D.
In lines 286-300 (‘What was it…self-indulgence’) Juvenal contrasts ‘the good old
days’ with the way things are now. Sum up these lines in your own words.
4.
Section D
From now on, the poem is on an attack on the luxuria (extravagance) of highborn society women. Juvenal gives us a series of loosely-connected pictures of
these women, divided roughly into drink (301-45), sex (346-397), would-be
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politicians (398-412), domineering women (413-33), studious women (434-56),
extravagantly made-up women (457-73), sadistic women (474-507), superstitious
women (508-91), treatment of children (592-642).
a) Read through each of these sub-sections, and make your own notes on the
main points Juvenal is making.
b) How do you respond to this catalogue of misbehaviour, and why? (Are you,
for instance amused, entertained, appalled or disgusted?)
c) In lines 582-91 (‘Women of lower…rag and bone man’) Juvenal turns briefly
to poorer women. They also have their faults, but the rich are worse because
they can afford to be extravagant. Why do you think Juvenal mentions poorer
women at this point?
5.
Section E
In this final section, Juvenal links some of the old legends about women with
what still happens, and suggests that what happens in the present is worse that
what happened in these old stories.
What were the stories about Medea, Procne, the Danaids, Eriphyle, and
Clytemnestra? What do all these stories have in common?
Essay
Both Aristophanes and Juvenal satirise the relationship between the sexes.
What similarities and differences can you find, and to what extent is their satire
justified?
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Satire Eight
The theme of this poem is that a man is valued for his character, not for his family
background. The poem is addressed to a man called Ponticus who wants to become a
consul and then a provincial governor.
Structure
A. 1-38
‘What good are…same effect.’
[Family matters less than
character]
B. 39-145
‘At whom…commit adultery.’
[Two contrasts: Rubellius and
Ponticus]
C. 146-268
‘There goes…form by law.’
[Further examples]
D. 269-275
‘I’d rather…not mention.’
[Conclusion]
Questions
1. Section A
Sum up the points made by Juvenal in this opening section. Do you agree with
him? Explain your answer.
2.
Section B
In lines 39-70 (‘At whom…with all you own’) Juvenal offers his first specific
example: Rubellius Blandus.
a) Who was Rubellius Blandus, and what point is Juvenal making about him?
b) In lines 56-70 (‘Tell me, O scion…with all you own’) Juvenal uses an analogy
from horseracing to prove his point. Explain the analogy in your own words,
and comment on how successful it is in supporting Juvenal’s argument.
In lines 71-145 (‘Yet this will suffice…commit adultery’) Juvenal is talking to
Ponticus, who has political ambitions, and offering him advice. While doing this,
Juvenal also writes about provincial government past and present.
c) What advice does Juvenal give to Ponticus? Is this sensible advice?
d) What does Juvenal say about provincial government? (Note that he writes
about both past and present.)
3. Section C
In this section Juvenal gives further examples to illustrate his main argument.
The examples of bad behaviour are all drawn from the Roman aristocracy. The
good examples are equites, plebeians and even slaves.
a) In lines 146-235 (‘There goes…shirt of pitch’) Juvenal offers bad examples:
Lateranus, Damasippus, Lentulus, Gracchus, Nero, Catiline and Cethegus.
What bad behaviour is each of these guilty of?
b) In lines 236-260 (‘But the Consul…lives they preserved’), Juvenal offers
examples of good character: Cicero, Marius and the Decii. What does Juvenal
say about each of these?
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As Juvenal writes about Cicero, Marius, then the Decii, he is gradually moving
further and further back into Roman history, until he reaches the time of the
monarchy and the foundation of the Republic. Later Romans looked back to this
early period as a time of heroes (with one or two exceptions such as the
treacherous sons of Brutus – the man who expelled the last of the kings, and who
became one of the first consuls of the new republic). The king who had a slave
for a mother was Servius Tullius.
c) Find out about the last two kings of Rome (Servius Tullius and Tarquinius
Superbus), and the establishment of the Republic by Brutus. Write a
paragraph summing up what you have learned.
d) In lines 261-268 (‘The last…by law’), Juvenal contrasts the virtuous lives of a
series of noble Romans with the treacherous behaviour of the sons of Brutus.
Sum up these lines in your own words.
e) What general point is Juvenal making in this section of the poem (i.e. Section
C, from lines 146 to 268?)
4.
Section D
Thersites and Achilles are characters in Homer’s Iliad. Thersites was a low-born,
foul-mouthed, ugly man. Achilles was the greatest and noblest Greek hero, son
of a king and a goddess. The god Vulcan (Hephaestus) made a splendid set of
armour for Achilles.
a) What two points is Juvenal making in this concluding section?
b) One of the themes in ‘Comedy, Satire and Society’ is ‘The Corruption of
Political and Social Relationships’. In what ways, and with what success, does
Juvenal treat this theme in Satire Eight?
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Satire Nine
As in Satire Two, the theme of this poem is homosexuality. The poem is in the form
of a dialogue between Juvenal and Naevolus – the only one of Juvenal’s poems in a
dialogue form. Juvenal has chosen this form to characterise Naevolus as vividly as
possible, since we learn most about him from what he himself says. Naevolus is a
professional male prostitute who has been living as the ‘husband’ of an aristocrat
called Virro. He is a shameless character, out for what he can get, ready to exploit
Virro, and dissatisfied with his rewards so far. Through Naevolus’ words we also see
Virro, a weak contemptible man, yet another example of the debased Roman
aristocracy.
Structure
A. 1-26
‘Why do you…husbands too.’
[Juvenal asks why Naevolus is
unhappy]
B. 27-90
‘Many have…up to three.’
[Naevolus says Virro is mean]
C. 90-91
‘Indeed…other side.’
[Juvenal asks for V’s side of the
story]
D. 92-101
‘Takes no…top secret.’
[Naevolus says Virro might kill
him]
E. 102-123
‘Ah Corydon…truly free.’
[Juvenal says servants always
gossip]
F. 124-129
‘Useful advice…unregarded.’
[Naevolus is concerned about his
future]
G. 130-134
‘Never fear…aphrodisiac.’
[Juvenal tells him not to worry]
H. 135-150
‘Save that stuff…blandishments.’ [Naevolus’ plans for the future]
Questions
1. Write character sketches of Naevolus and Virro.
2.
In his edition of Juvenal’s Satires, John Ferguson makes the following comments
about Satire Nine:
There is no reforming zeal in this satire, only a detached record of
the total corruption. The sexual perversion which individuals affect,
and the social perversion of the exploitation of one class by another
are part of the same pattern of life.
Do you agree with these comments? Why?
3.
Write a section by section summary of the poem.
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Satire Ten
The theme of this poem is that most prayers are misguided, and that if the prayers are
answered, they don’t bring happiness. Juvenal’s argument is based on Epicureanism,
in its criticism of those who desire more than they can have. The Epicureans
disapproved of ambition to possess greater wealth, or political power, or literary fame,
or military power. They also saw no point in the desire for a long life or physical
beauty.
This poem is different in tone from the earlier Satires. Previously, Juvenal has played
the part of the detached but indignant observer. He is still critical of the ambitious,
the selfish and the greedy, but his tone in this poem is less bitter, and he ends with
some positive guidance on how best to behave.
Before working on this poem, you should revise the information about Epicureanism
in the Appendix to this Study Guide.
Structure
A. 1-22
‘Search…any highwayman.’
B. 23-27
‘The most popular…gleams with gold.’ [Wealth]
C. 28-53
‘They had…vulgar finger.’
[Democritus and Heraclitus]
D. 54-113
‘So if our…die in their beds.’
[Political power]
E. 114-132
‘Eloquence…rhetorician’s trade.’
[Eloquence]
F. 133-187
‘Consider…glory and conquest.’
[Military power]
G. 188-288
‘Grant us…without mutilation.’
[Long life]
H. 289-345
‘When a doting…still gets the chop.’
[Physical beauty]
I.
‘Is there nothing…in the heavens.’
[Conclusion]
346-366
[Introduction]
Questions
1. Section A
In the opening section of the poem, Juvenal touches on most of the subjects of
false desire which he later considers at greater length. What things does he
mention, and what does he say about them?
2.
Section B
What does Juvenal say about wealth in these lines?
3.
Section C
The ‘two old philosophers’ are Democritus and Heraclitus. It was common in
ancient times to contrast these two.
Democritus (late 5th - early 4th century BCE) was one of the originators of the
atomic theory, which was adopted by the Epicureans. He also wrote an essay ‘On
Cheerfulness’, in which he said that man’s aims in life is contentment founded on
moral well-being.
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Heraclitus (late 5th - early 4th century BCE) believed that the universe was an
eternal conflict of opposites controlled by law. He seems to have been very
different from Democritus – a serious, austere character who is said to have
suffered from ‘melancholia’.
Juvenal is mainly interested in Democritus’ outlook on the world. What does
Juvenal say about Democritus? Why do you think Juvenal is more interested in
Democritus than in Heraclitus?
4. Section D
To illustrate the futility of political ambition, Juvenal uses one powerful example
– that of Sejanus – and develops it at some length. In passing, Juvenal also
comments on how the common people at Rome have lost all political power and
now care only for ‘Bread and the Games’. He seems to suggest that this loss of
power began with Pompey, Crassus and Caesar.
a) In your own words, sum up the points which Juvenal is making in this section.
b) Juvenal asks, ‘What fame or prosperity are worth having if they bring you no
less disaster than joy (lines 97-98)’? What answer would Epicurus have given
to this question? To what extent do you agree with Epicurus?
5.
Section E
Juvenal uses the great orators Cicero and Demosthenes to illustrate his point
about eloquence. What does Juvenal say about these two men?
6.
Section F
Juvenal uses Hannibal, Alexander and Xerxes as his examples of the futility of
military ambitions. He prefaces these examples with some more general remarks
on military ambition.
a) Sum up Juvenal’s introductory remarks, and then sum up what he says about
Hannibal, Alexander and Xerxes.
b) What great ambition did all three of these men have in common? Do you see
anything wrong in this ambition? Explain why you say this.
7.
Section G
What examples does Juvenal offer as proof that a long life is not worth praying
for? To what extent do you agree with him?
8.
Section H
What examples does Juvenal offer as proof that physical beauty is not worth
praying for?
9.
Section I
Up to this point the poem has been deeply pessimistic. What positive advice does
Juvenal offer in this closing section?
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Practical analysis
Read the passage below, then answer the questions that follow.
Put Hannibal in the scales: how many pounds will that peerless
General mark up today? This is the man for whom Africa
Was too small a continent, though it stretched from the surf-beaten
Ocean shores of Morocco east to the steamy Nile,
To Ethiopian tribesmen – and new elephants’ habitats.
Now Spain swells his empire, now he surmounts
The Pyrenees. Nature throws in his path
High Alpine passes, blizzards of snow: but he splits
The very rocks asunder, moves mountains – with vinegar.
Now Italy is his, yet still he forces on:
‘We have accomplished nothing,’ he cries, ‘till we have stormed
The gates of Rome, till our Carthaginian standard
Is set in the city’s heart.’
A fine sight it must have been,
fit subject for caricature, the one-eyed commander
Perched on his monstrous beast! Alas, alas for glory,
What an end was here: the defeat, the ignominious
Flight into exile, everyone crowding to see
The once-mighty Hannibal turned hanger-on,
Sitting outside the door of a petty eastern despot
Till his majesty deign to awake. No sword, no spear,
No battle-flung stone was to snuff the fiery spirit
That once had wrecked a world: those crushing defeats
Those rivers of spilt blood were all wiped out by a
Ring, a poisoned ring.
(Juvenal, Satires 10.147-167)
1.
2.
By referring to this passage, and to Juvenal’s subsequent comments
about Alexander and Xerxes, explain what philosophical message
Juvenal is attempting to convey.
10
Is Juvenal’s criticism of human failings less effective when he uses
historical examples instead of examples from his own day? In your
answer, do not restrict yourself to commenting on Satire Ten.
10
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Satire Eleven
The theme of this poem is living within your means. Juvenal begins by criticising
those who live beyond their means. He then issues an invitation to a simple dinner
party, and describes the food and other arrangements for the dinner party.
Like Satire 10, Satire 11 is still critical of moral failings, but in a gentler and more
positive way than the earlier satires. Both poems show the strong influence of
Epicureanism.
Structure
A. 1-55
‘If Atticus …raised to stop her.’
[Introduction]
B. 56-63
‘Today…one by water.’
[Invitation to dinner]
C. 64-89
‘Now here’s…over his shoulder.’
[The dinner: food]
D. 90-135
‘In the days ..harder to slice.’
[The dinner: furniture.]
E. 136-161
‘Nor will you …common fatherland.’
[The dinner: servants]
F. 162-182
‘Perhaps you may…immortal poetry.’
[The dinner: entertainment
G. 183-208
‘Now cast care …all our pleasures.’
[Conclusion]
Questions
1. Section A
The introduction can be divided into three parts:
i)1-23
‘If…their means.’
Theme – living beyond your means
ii)24-38
‘I’ve…herring income.’
be aware of your limitations
iii)28-55 ‘What sort…stop her.’
results of extravagance
a) Sum up these three parts in your own words.
b) Part Two begins with the maxim ‘Know thyself.’ These words were inscribed
on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, along with the maxim ‘Avoid excess.’
How useful do you think these maxims are to anyone who is concerned about
how best to live his/her life?
2. Section B
Sum up the invitation briefly in your own words, making it clear whether the
dinner on offer is simple or elaborate.
3. Section C
Juvenal begins with a list of the ingredients of his dinner party, then follows this
with comments on life in ‘the good old days’.
Sum up section C in your own words. What is the connection between this
section and the introduction in lines 1-55?
4.
Section D
a) Sum up Section D in your own words, making clear the contrast between life
in earlier times and life in Juvenal’s time.
b) What point does Juvenal make at the end of this section?
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5.
Section E
Juvenal contrasts his servants with the servants of his more extravagant
contemporaries. Sum up section E in your own words.
6.
Section F
Juvenal contrasts the entertainment at extravagant dinner-parties with the
entertainment he is offering himself. Sum up Section F in your own words.
7.
At the end of this section Juvenal says, ‘It makes no difference whose is the voice
that recites such immortal poetry.’ The point he is making is that poetry (or
music, for that matter) which is written by a great master of the art will always
retain some of its greatness even when performed by an amateur. On the other
hand, low-quality entertainment has to be performed by experts if it is to give any
enjoyment at all.
Do you agree? Explain your answer.
8.
Section G
In this closing section, Juvenal makes it clear that his invitation is being issued on
a specific date in the Roman calendar. What is the date, and what festival is in
progress? (See the note on p.239 of the Penguin edition.)
9.
This poem, although disguised as a dinner invitation, is really an attack on the
extravagant lifestyle of the Roman aristocracy. Do you find it more, or less,
successful than attacks made in Juvenal’s earlier poems, such as Satires 1,4,5
and 8?
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Satire Fourteen
This poem has two main themes: the mis-education of children by their parents, and
the vice of avarice. They are linked in that they are both serious faults which Juvenal
sees in the lives of the Roman upper and middle classes.
Structure
A. 1-106
‘A great many...to idleness.’
[Children learn from their
parents’ bad examples]
B. 107-315
‘Most faults…make Hera goddess.’
[Avarice]
C. 316-331
‘If anyone...to death.’
[Conclusion]
Questions
1. Section A
Section A has three parts:
i) 1-37
ii) 38-72
iii) 73-106
‘A great…familiar vice.’
‘So we’ve…peace and war.’
‘So it makes…to idleness.’
[Bad examples set by parents]
[Advice to parents]
[Conclusion]
a) What examples of bad parental behaviour does Juvenal give in lines 1-37?
(You should be able to find four.)
b) What advice to parents does Juvenal offer in lines 38-72? How sensible (or
otherwise) is this advice?
c) In what way does Juvenal use the example of birds (lines 73-85) to support his
argument?
d) What two bad examples does Juvenal offer in lines 86-106? (Note that the
second example is not one that we would necessarily regard as bad; but many
Romans would see it as a silly superstition.)
2.
Section B
Juvenal seems to regard avarice as the principal vice that corrupted Roman life,
since it put money before all other things. Avarice subdivides into miserliness
and greed, and Juvenal sees all other vices as having their roots in avarice.
Corruption starts in the home, but is fostered by society, and the result is that
Romans of all classes have moved away from traditional Roman values.
Section B subdivides into four parts:
i) 107-118 ‘Most faults…pile mounts up.’
ii) 119-172 ‘So Daddy’s…our kitchen garden.’
iii) 173-255 ‘Here lies…and fathers.’
iv) 256-315 ‘What I’ve…a goddess.’
[definition of avarice]
[the parent teaches avarice]
[other vices caused by avarice]
[disadvantages of avarice]
a) Sum up Juvenal’s definition of avarice in lines 107-118.
b) Juvenal shows how the parent teaches miserliness and greed. Sum up lines
119-172 in your own words, showing in particular how the vice grows and
gets worse with the passage of time.
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c) What other vices are caused by avarice, and in what way does avarice lead to
these vices? (You should be able to find four, in lines 173-255.)
d) What dangers and difficulties does Juvenal list in lines 256-315 as resulting
from avarice?
3.
Section C
Juvenal ends his poem with some advice. Sum up his advice in your own words.
Is there anything in Section C to suggest that Juvenal doesn’t really expect his
advice to be followed?
Essay
What picture of Roman society do you obtain from a reading of Juvenal’s
Satires, and to what extent do you think this picture is an accurate one?
(20)
Practical analysis
(This exercise in Practical Analysis is drawn from CSYS Classical Studies 1996,
Paper II. It is longer than previous Practical Analysis exercises, covers all three
authors and gives practice in answering a range of questions based on the same
subject matter.
You may find that it is best tackled during your final revision before the external
exam. If you wish, it can be done either as a homework assignment or under timed
assessment test conditions. If it is done as a timed test, your maximum time for the
whole exercise is 75 minutes. If you are allowed to prepare for the test beforehand by
revising and making notes, the test should then last no more than 60 minutes.)
Passage 1
Socrates:
Chaerephon:
Strepsiades:
Help, I’m going to suffocate!
Help, I’m being prematurely cremated!
No more than you deserved; people who cock snooks at the
gods and argue about the back side of the moon must pay for
it. On them! Stones! Revenge! Revenge for the injured
gods!
(Aristophanes, Clouds 1504-1509)
Passage 2
A great many things, Fuscinus, of deservedly ill repute,
Things that would leave an indelible stain on the brightest fortune,
Children acquire from their parents.
(Juvenal, Satires 14.1-3)
Passage 3
What? Not satisfied yet? Still gasping for more? In that case
Nothing will be enough, not the wealth of Croesus and all
The kings of Persia – not even that of Narcissus,
Claudius’ favourite freedman, on whom the Emperor lavished
Such favours, and at whose say-so he put his own wife to death.
(Juvenal, Satires 14.327-331)
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Passage 4
Then, at Capua, the mules laid down their packs early.
Maecenas went off to take exercise; Virgil and I had a sleep,
for ball-games are bad for inflamed eyes and dyspeptic stomachs.
Next we put up at a well-stocked villa belonging to Cocceius,
which overlooks the inns of Caudium. Now, O Muse,
recount in brief, I pray thee, the clash of Sarmentus the clown
with Messius Cicirrus, and from what lineage each entered
the fray …
Then Gnatia, on whose construction the water-nymphs scowled, provided
fun and amusement by trying to persuade us that incense melts
without fire on the temple steps; Apella the Jew may believe it –
not me, for I have learned that the gods live a life of calm,
and that if nature performs a miracle, it is not
sent down by the gods in anger from their high home in the sky,
Brindisi marks the end of this long tale and journey.
(Horace, Satires 1.5.47-54, 97-104)
Questions
1. Read Passages 1 and 3. How strong do you think these writers’ feelings
are about their subject matter? How can they help us to understand
ancient society?
2.
3.
10
Read Passages 2, 3 and 4. These contain references to various
individuals. How important to our enjoyment of satire is the need to
know who these individuals were?
10
Read Passages 1-4. Using these and your further reading, illustrate how
a successful satirist uses a range of techniques to convey his message
effectively.
20
(40)
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D
REVISION PROGRAMME FOR JUVENAL
Your procedure for revision of Juvenal should follow the same lines as your revision
of Horace. That is, take each Satire in turn, read it through, and sum it up in 2-3
sentences. Then work your way through the following programme, making notes as
appropriate for each of the main themes.
1. The persona of the writer of satire
Revise what you know of Juvenal’s life.
 Is it possible to determine whether Juvenal is adopting a persona in his
Satires?
 Are there any reasons why Juvenal might wish to adopt a persona?
2. The literary conventions of satire




Briefly state the nature and purpose of satire in general, and Roman satire in
particular.
What subjects did Juvenal write about? In what way(s) did he approach these
subjects? What interested him most?
Why does Juvenal so often use historical examples, rather than personalities of
his own time?
What similarities and differences do you find when comparing the techniques
of Horace and Juvenal?
3. Politics and war
Juvenal’s attitude to politics was coloured by his own experience of life during the
reign of Domitian.
 What information can you find about Juvenal’s attitude to politics?
 What does Juvenal have to say about war?
4. Social and political ambitions

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

What aspects of social and political ambition does Juvenal write about?
Which of the two interested him more, and why?
Does he condemn all ambition?
What philosophical ideas does he use to support his views on ambition?
What social class does Juvenal appear to belong to?
Does this colour his attitude to ambition?
5. Corruption of political and social relationships



How far would you agree that this subject is of special interest to Juvenal?
What kind of political and social relationships are of particular interest to
Juvenal? What does he have to say about them?
Does he identify any way of curing the corruption?
6. Plain living versus luxury



What does Juvenal have to say on this subject?
To what extent do you think his views are coloured by his own apparent
poverty? Or do you think he was quite well off and was simply adopting the
persona of the poor but honest citizen?
What philosophical ideas can you detect in his writing on this subject?
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7. The relationship between the sexes



What is Juvenal’s attitude to the relationship between the sexes?
Is his attack on women in Satire Six justifiable in any way? Can you find
similar examples of his critical attitude to women in other poems?
To what extent does he criticise men’s attitudes to women?
8. Changing values within the family


To what extent does Juvenal suggest that Family Values in his own day are
worse than they were earlier in Roman history?
What, if anything, does Juvenal have to say about the father-son relationship?
9. The quest for peace of mind



Give special attention to Satires 3 and 10.
What does Juvenal have to say on this subject? To what extent does he equate
peace of mind with life in the country or life in the earlier days of Rome?
What philosophical ideas does Juvenal use in writing about this subject?
10. Finally
a) Compare the themes with present-day attitudes and concerns. Would you find
many people today who agreed with Juvenal? Why?
b) How accurate and useful is Juvenal as a source for life in Rome at the end of
the first century CE?
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E
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Obviously, you need to be able to compare and contrast what all three of your authors
have to say on each of these themes. For your final revision, take each theme in turn,
and write brief notes on how Aristophanes, Horace and Juvenal deal with that theme.
These notes should be very brief – only enough to remind you of the main points for
each writer – and should refer (when relevant) to the notes you have already built up
for each of them.
Note both similarities and differences, and try to account for all similarities and
differences you find. You will probably find that you can do this by considering
similarities and differences in political and social background as well as in personality
and interests.
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APPENDIX: STOICISM AND EPICUREANISM
Stoicism
Stoicism originated in the Hellenistic period of Greek history. Its founder was Zeno,
who taught in Athens until his death in 263 BCE. He taught his students in a large
stoa (colonnade) in Athens called the Stoa Poikile (Painted Colonnade), and this is
where the name Stoics comes from. The Stoic system was further developed by
Chrysippus, and it is not always easy to tell which elements of Stoicism are his, and
which are Zeno’s. Panaetius was the Stoic particularly associated with bringing
Stoicism to Rome in the late second century BCE.
Stoic philosophers found that their philosophy attracted members of the Roman
aristocracy, mainly because Stoic ethics were very similar to Roman cultural values.
The Stoics preached self-discipline, perseverance and steadfastness – qualities which
had always typified the best Roman cultural values. The Romans were not much
interested in the more speculative side of Stoic philosophy, and the Stoicism that
developed in Rome had a strongly practical flavour, encouraging the personal
qualities of duty and discipline. Two of the best-known Roman Stoics are Cato the
Younger and Seneca. Seneca’s writings give us the most fully developed picture of
Roman Stoicism.
According to Stoic physics, the universe was material, being made of a single
substance which could vary in quality from coarse to refined. The most refined form
of matter was described as fire, breath or embodied spirit. It was the creative force in
the universe, acting on the coarser forms of matter. This creative spirit was therefore
just as material as the body and permeated all things. It was rational, and could be
identified with such concepts as Nature, God, Fate or Destiny. The human body was
a miniature version of the universe, and therefore also contained a portion of this
creative spirit.
The Stoics believed that man could be truly happy only if he was free from anxiety.
Since Reason was the governing force of the universe, man could only be happy if he
allowed his life to be governed by Reason, so that he lived in harmony with the
universe (i.e. Nature). A man who lived in harmony with Nature would freely choose
to do what Fate had planned for him, and would therefore never suffer from anxiety or
distress, never feel that he was the helpless plaything of Fortune. Because emotions
often led to irrational behaviour, the Stoic avoided emotional responses to situations,
and always tried to allow Reason to govern his actions.
If circumstances made it impossible for a Stoic to live in harmony with Nature (or
Reason), suicide was an acceptable solution. Death was a blessing, since it liberated
the soul from the constraints of the body, and was therefore the ultimate freedom.
Both Cato the Younger and Seneca chose suicide as a release from a life in which
they felt they could no longer live in harmony with Nature.
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Epicureanism
The Epicureans were disciples of the Greek philosopher Epicurus, who taught in
Athens until his death in 270 BCE. Although, like Stoicism, Epicureanism had first
reached Rome in the late second century BCE, its teachings are best known to us from
the work of Lucretius, a Roman who lived in the first century BCE. It was less
popular with the Roman aristocracy than Stoicism, but did acquire a limited
following.
Epicurus taught that the universe was material, and consisted of indestructible matter
called atoms and void (empty space). All things in the universe, including the human
body and soul, are composed of atoms and void. They come together through natural
causes, and disperse in the same way, providing material for a new composition of
new objects. (This applies to the entire universe as well as to individual objects.)
Since the human soul is formed in the same way as the human body, the soul
disperses at death in the same way as the body does. The gods exist, but they have no
influence over the actions of humans; men may admire and respect them, but should
not expect to win the favour of the gods through prayer, nor expect punishment from
the gods for any wrong-doing.
For the Epicureans, the summum bonum (the most desired state) of life was pleasure.
However, this pleasure was not sensual pleasure, but freedom from anxiety, peace of
mind. Pain is caused by unsatisfied desire, so it is necessary to understand which
desires are natural (such as hunger and thirst) and should therefore be satisfied, and
which are unnatural (greed, fear, envy, &c) and should therefore be discarded. The
best way to ensure a life of pleasure was to live simply, the body in perfect harmony
with the mind. (In other words, the Epicurean summum bonum was the same as for
the Stoics, but achieved in a different way.)
One result of the Epicurean desire for a life free from pain was that Epicureans took
no part in political life, so that they were not in danger of suffering from jealousy or
failure. This was probably why Epicureanism was less popular with upper-class
Romans than Stoicism.
Epicureanism can best be summed up in the words of Diogenes of Oenoanda:
‘Nothing to fear in God. Nothing to feel in Death. Good can be attained. Evil can be
endured.’
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