Cognitive Processing
Fluid Reasoning
Reading Comprehension: Fluid reasoning or reasoning abilities have been shown to play
a moderate role in reading. For example, the ability to reach general conclusions from
specific information is important for reading comprehension.
Math Reasoning: Fluid reasoning is related to mathematical activities at all ages. For
example, figuring out how to set up math problems by using information in a word
problem is important for math reasoning.
Written Expression: Fluid reasoning skills are related to basic writing skills primarily in
the elementary school years and are consistently related to written expression at all ages.
Crystallized Knowledge:
Reading Comprehension: Low Crystallized knowledge abilities may hamper an
individual’s ability to comprehend written text due to lack of vocabulary knowledge,
basic concepts and general life experiences that are needed to understand the text. These
abilities become increasingly more important with age.
Math Reasoning: Crystallized abilities, including language development, vocabulary
knowledge, and listening abilities are important to math achievement at all ages. These
abilities become increasingly more important with age. Low crystallized abilities may
hamper an individual’s ability to comprehend word problems due to lack of vocabulary
knowledge. They may hamper one’s ability to learn basic math processes, such are long
division, due to impairments in one’s ability to listen to and follow sequential directions.
Written directions: Crystallized abilities, such as language development, vocabulary
knowledge, and general information are important to writing achievement primarily after
age seven (7). These abilities become increasingly more important with age.
Short term memory
Reading and Reading Comprehension: Short term memory is important to reading
achievement. Reading comprehension, involving long term reading passages, may be
affected by skills specifically related to working memory. Basic word reading may be
impacted by deficits in short term memory because it may interfere with acquiring letter
and word identification skills.
Math Calculation and Math Reasoning: Short term memory is important to math
computation skills. For example, deficits in short-term memory may impacts one’s
ability to remember a sequence of orally presented steps required to solve long math
problems.
Written Expression: Short term memory is important to writing. Memory span is
especially important to spelling skills, where working memory has shown relations with
advanced writing skills. (i.e., written expression)
Processing Speed
Basic Reading and Reading Fluency: Perceptual speed is important during all school
years, particularly the elementary years. Slow processing speed may impact upon
reasoning skills since the basic rapid process of symbols (i.e., letters) is often necessary
for fluent reading
Math Calculation: Processing speed is important to math achievement during all school
years, particularly the elementary years. Slow processing speed leads t a lack of
automaticity in basic math operations (i.e., addition, subtraction and multiplication)
Written expression: Perceptual speed is important during all school years for basic
writing and related to all ages for written expression
Visual Processing:
Math Calculation and Math reasoning: Visual Processing may be important for tasks that
require abstract reasoning or mathematical skills.
Auditory Attention
Basic reading: Auditory processing of “phonological awareness/processing: is very
important to reading achievement or reading development. Students who have difficulty
with processing auditory stimulus may experience problems with learning grapheme-to
phoneme correspondence, reading non-sense words, and decoding words due to an
inability to segment, analyze, and synthesize speech sounds. Older students will usually
have continued problems with decoding unfamiliar words.
Written Expression: Auditory processing is also very important for both writing skills
and written expression. Students who are weak in auditory processing abilities may have
difficulty spelling since this skill requires the ability to attend to the detailed sequence of
sounds in words
Long term retrieval
Basic reading: Long term retrieval abilities are particularly important for reading. For
example, elementary school children who have difficulty naming objects or categories of
objects rapidly may have difficulty in reading. Associative memory abilities also play a
role in reading achievement. (i.e., being able to associate a letter shape to its name and
sound.)
Math Calculation: Long term retrieval abilities are important to math calculation skills.
For example, students with deficits in long-term retrieval may have difficulty recalling
basic addition, subtraction, multiplication and/or division facts when encountered within
a math problem.
Written Expression: Long term retrieval abilities and naming facility in particular have
demonstrated relations with written expression, primarily with the fluency aspect of
writing.
Possible Implications
Long-Term Retrieval (Glr)
Involves the ability to store and retrieve information through association. Glr is not to be
confused with the amount of information available, a Gc function. Descriptors:
Memorization, fluency, association, retrieval, paired-associate learning, transfer.
Possible Implications
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Learning and recalling information
through association (e.g., facts,
related ideas/concepts)
Recalling information on tests
through association
Using associations provided by the
teacher to facilitate storage and
later retrieval
Pairing and retaining visual with
auditory information
Retrieving specific words,
memorizing poems, speeches, facts
Possible Recommendations
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Provide overlearning, review, and repetition
Provide immediate feedback
Provide a list of steps that will help organize
behavior and facilitate recall
Teach memory aids such as verbal mediation or
rehearsal, and mnemonic strategies (e.g.,
Keyword, Method of Loci).
Provide multisensory learning; use visual,
kinesthetic, vocal, and auditory channels as
appropriate
Provide context and meaning-based instruction.
Limit the number of new facts, words, concepts
presented in one session.
Short-Term Memory (Gsm)
Involves the ability to hold information in mental awareness and use it within a few
seconds. May be influenced by attention. Descriptors: Rote, sequential, immediate,
attention, auditory, concentration, limited duration, memory span, immediate awareness.
Possible Implications
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Following directions
Remembering information long
enough to process it for
understanding
Recalling sequences
Memorizing factual information
Possible Recommendations
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Keep oral directions short and simple
Ensure directions are understood; have student or
paraphrase directions.
Provide compensatory aids (e.g., write directions,
procedures,/and assignments on board or paper,
provide lecture notes or arrange for peer-shared
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(e.g., math facts
Listening to and comprehending
lengthy discourse
Taking notes
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notes, provide study guide to be filled out during
pauses in presentation.
Provide overlearning, review and repetition
Teach memory strategies (e.g., chunking, verbal
rehearsal, visual imagery)
Processing Speed (Gs)
Involves the ability to perform relatively simple cognitive tasks automatically (i.e.,
quickly and without conscious deliberation), particularly when under pressure to maintain
focused attention. May be influenced by attention. Descriptors: Speed, visual scanning
efficiency, automaticity, perceptual speed, attention, concentration.
Possible Implications
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Possible Recommendations
Processing information rapidly
Completing assignments within
time limits
Taking timed tests
Making rapid comparisons between
and among bits of information
Copying
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Provide more time to complete assignments
Reduce quantity of work in favor of quality
Limit or structure copying activities
Provide activities to increase rate and fluency
(e.g., flash cards, speed drills, educational
software)
Auditory Processing (Ga)
Involves the ability to analyze and synthesize auditory stimuli (but not comprehend
language, which is Gc). This ability is important for language development. Descriptors:
Phonological awareness, blending, auditory closure, auditory discrimination, phonemic
segmentation, musical ability.
Possible Implications
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Acquiring phonics (decoding)
Learning structural analysis
Spelling (encoding)
Speech perception)
Learning foreign languages
Developing musical skill
Possible Recommendations
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Provide phonological awareness activities (e.g.,
rhyming, alliteration, imitation, songs)
Provide specific training in sound discrimination,
blending, and segmentation
Emphasize sound-symbol associations in teaching
decoding and spelling
Provide study guides for listening activities
Provide assistance with note taking
Accompany oral information with visual
materials.
Visual Processing (Gv)
Involves perceiving, analyzing, and thinking with visual patterns, spatial configurations
and designs, and spatial orientation. Descriptors: Visual imagery, spatial relations, visual
perception, visual closure, visual-pattern recognition.
Possible Implications
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Assembling puzzles
Using patterns and designs in art,
geometry, geography
Designing
Building
Sensing spatial orientation
Reading maps, graphs, charts,
blueprints
Noting visual detail
Sensing spatial boundaries (e.g.,
fitting, assembly, and packing)
Organizing, arranging furniture,
appliances, equipment, etc. for
efficient use and visual appeal
Possible Recommendations
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Provide activities with manipulatives
Provide copying, tracing, drawing activities
Provide activities involving construction and
design
Verbally describe graphics and visually-based
concepts.
Provide support for tasks requiring spatial
organization.
Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc)
Involves expressive vocabulary, ability to grasp the relationships among word meanings,
and knowledge acquired from general experience within the mainstream culture. Gc is
often called crystallized intelligence and sometimes long-term memory in the literature.
Descriptors: Prior knowledge, background knowledge, schema, long-term memory,
acquired or stored knowledge, vocabulary, comprehension, episodic memory, declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge.
Possible Implications
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Learning vocabulary
Answering factual questions
Comprehending oral and written
language
Acquiring general knowledge and
knowledge in content areas
Using prior knowledge to perform
activities and understand new
concepts
Possible Recommendations
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Relate new information to acquired knowledge
Assess prior knowledge before introducing new
topics, concepts.
Pre-teach relevant vocabulary or background
knowledge
Provide specific vocabulary instruction such as the
meaning of common prefixes, suffixes, and root
words.
Incorporate interests and prior knowledge areas
into instructional activities
When presenting directions and discussing
concepts, use vocabulary that is understood by the
individual.
Fluid Reasoning (Gf)
Involves the ability to use inductive and deductive reasoning to ascertain commonalities
and differences, form concepts, generate rules, and apply rules to solve novel problems.
Often called fluid intelligence. Descriptors: Creativity, abstract problem solving, transfer,
analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, rule generation,
inference.
Possible Implications
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Drawing inferences
Solving abstract problems
Creating solutions to problems
Transferring and generalizing
information
Solving unique problems
Transforming and extending a
product or concept (rather than
matching or reproducing a
stimulus)
Thinking conceptually
Problem solving through rule
application
Possible Recommendations
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Teach problem-solving strategies
Provide overlearning, repetition, and review of
concepts
Use real objects and manipulatives to develop
concepts
Teach strategies to increase understanding and
retention of concepts (e.g., self talk, lists of
procedures or steps)
Encourage creativity with solution
Teach problem-solving techniques in the contexts
in which they are most likely to be applied.