The following information was obtained from various sources including:
Mather, N., & Jaffe, L. (2002). Woodcock-Johnson III: Reports, Recommendations, and
Strategies. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Information from handout, “Carroll-Horn-Cattell (CHC) Theory of Cognitive
Processing,” from Region 4, Houston, TX. Information in handout was adapted from:
(1) Flanagan, D.P., Ortiz, S.O., Alfonso, V.C. and Mascolo (2002). The Achievement
Test Desk Reference: Comprehensive Assessment and Learning Disabilities. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
(2) Flanagan, D.P., & Ortiz, S.O. (2001). Essentials of the Cross Battery Approach. New
York: Wiley.
(3) Flanagan, D.P., McGrew, K.S. & Ortiz, S.O. (2000). The Wechsler Intelligence Sales
and Gf-Gc Theory: A Contemporary Approach to Interpretation. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Fluid Reasoning (Gf) involves the ability to use inductive and
deductive reasoning to ascertain commonalities and differences, form
concepts, generate rules, and apply rules to solve novel problems. The
possible performance implications include the student having difficulty
in:
*drawing inferences
*solving abstract problems
*creating solutions to problems
*transferring and generalizing information
*solving unique problems
*thinking conceptually
*problem solving through rule application
Recommendations to address a weakness in Fluid Reasoning include:
*teach problem-solving strategies
*provide overlearning, repetition and review of concepts
*use real objects and manipulatives to develop concepts
*teach strategies to increase understanding and retention of concepts
*encourage creativity with solution
*teach problem-solving techniques in the contexts in which they are
most likely to be applied
Link to achievement:
*Reading: Fluid Reasoning has been shown to play a moderate role in
reading. For example, the ability to reach general conclusions from
specific information is important for reading comprehension.
*Written Expression: Fluid Reasoning skills are related to basic
writing skills primarily in the elementary school years and are
consistently related to written expression at all ages.
*Math: Fluid Reasoning is related to mathematical activities at all
ages. For example, figuring out how to set up math problems by using
information in a word problem is important for math reasoning.
Long-Term Retrieval (Glr) is the ability to store and retrieve
information through association. The possible performance implications
for a student with a weakness in Long-Term Retrieval includes
difficulty:
*learning and recalling information through association
*recalling information on tests through association
*using associations provided by the teacher to facilitate storage and
later retrieval
*pairing and retaining visual with auditory information
*retrieving specific words, memorizing poems, speeches, facts
Recommendations to address a weakness in Long-Term Retrieval include:
*provide overlearning, review and repetition
*provide immediate feedback
*provide a list of steps that will help organize behavior and
facilitate recall
*teach memory aids such as verbal mediation or rehearsal and mnemonic
strategies (i.e. Keyword, Method of Loci)
*provide multisensory learning: use visual, kinesthetic, vocal and
auditory channels as appropriate
*provide context and meaning-based instruction
*limit the number of new facts, words, concepts presented in one
session
Link to achievement:
*Reading: Long-term Retrieval abilities are particularly important
for reading. For example, elementary school children who have
difficulty naming objects or categories of objects rapidly may have
difficulty in reading. Associative memory abilities also play a role
in reading achievement (i.e., being able to associate a letter shape to
its name and its sound).
*Written Expression: Long-Term Retrieval abilities and naming
facility in particular have demonstrated relations with written
expression, primarily with the fluency aspect of writing.
*Math: Long-Term Retrieval abilities are important to math
calculation skills. For example, students with deficits in Long-Term
Retrieval may have difficulty recalling basic addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and/or division facts when encountered within a math
problem.
Short-Term Memory (Gsm) involves the ability to hold information in
mental awareness and use it within a few seconds. The possible
performance implications for a student with a weakness in Short-Term
Memory may include difficulty:
*following directions
*remembering information long enough to process it for understanding
*recalling sequences
*memorizing factual information (i.e., math facts)
*listening to and comprehending lengthy discourse
*taking notes
Recommendations to address a weakness in Short-Term Memory include:
*keep oral directions short and simple
*ensure directions are understood (have student repeat or paraphrase
directions)
*provide compensatory aids (i.e., write directions, procedures and
assignments on board or paper, provide lecture notes or arrange for
peer-shared notes, provide study guide to be filled out during pauses
in presentation)
*provide overlearning, review and repetition
*teach memory strategies (i.e., chunking, verbal rehearsal, visual
imagery)
Link to achievement:
*Reading: Short-Term Memory is important to reading achievement.
Reading comprehension, involving long reading passages, may be affected
by skills specifically related to working memory. Basic word reading
may be impacted by deficits in Short-Term memory because it may
interfere with acquiring letter and word identification skills.
*Written Expression: Short-Term Memory is important to writing.
Memory span is especially important to spelling skills, whereas working
memory has shown relations with advanced writing skills.
*Math: Short-Term Memory is important to math computation skills.
For example, deficits in Short-Term Memory may impact one’s ability to
remember a sequence of orally presented steps required to solve long
math problems (i.e., first multiply, then add, then subtract).
Processing Speed (Gs) involves the ability to perform relatively simple
cognitive tasks automatically (i.e., quickly and without conscious
deliberation), particularly when under pressure to maintain focused
attention. The possible performance implications include the student
having difficulty in:
*processing information rapidly
*completing assignments within time limits
*taking timed tests
*making rapid comparisons between and among bits of information
*copying
Recommendations to address a weakness in Processing Speed include:
*provide more time to complete assignments
*reduce quantity of work in favor of quality
*limit or structure copying activities
*provide activities to increase rate and fluency (i.e., flash cards,
speed drills, educational software).
Link to achievement:
*Reading: Perceptual speed is important during all school years,
particularly the elementary school years. Slow processing speed may
impact upon reasoning skills since the basic rapid process of symbols
(i.e., letters) is often necessary for fluent reading.
*Written Expression: Perceptual speed is important during all school
years for basic writing and related to all ages for written expression.
*Math: Processing speed is important to math achievement during all
school years, particularly the elementary school years. Slow
processing speed leads to a lack of automaticity in basic math
operations (i.e., addition, subtraction and multiplication).
Auditory Processing (Ga) involves the ability to analyze and synthesize
auditory stimuli. This ability is important for language development.
The possible performance implications include the student having
difficulty in:
*acquiring phonics (decoding)
*learning structural analysis
*spelling (encoding)
*speech perception
*learning foreign languages
*developing musical skill
Recommendations to address a weakness in Auditory Processing include:
*provide phonological awareness activities (i.e., rhyming,
alliteration, imitation, songs)
*provide specific training in sound discrimination, blending and
segmentation
*emphasize sound-symbol associations in teaching decoding and
spelling
*provide study guides for listening activities
*provide assistance with note-taking
*accompany oral information with visual materials
Link to achievement:
*Reading: Auditory processing or “phonological awareness/processing”
is very important to reading achievement or reading development.
Students who have difficulty with processing auditory stimuli may
experience problems with learning grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence,
reading non-sense words, and decoding words due to an inability to
segment, analyze and synthesize speech sounds. Older student will
usually have continued problems with decoding unfamiliar words.
*Written Expression: Auditory processing is also very important for
both writing skills and written expression. Students who are weak in
auditory processing abilities may have difficulty spelling since this
skill requires the ability to attend to the detailed sequence of sounds
in words.
Visual Processing (Gv) involves perceiving, analyzing and thinking with
visual patterns, spatial configurations and designs, and spatial
orientation. The possible performance implications include the student
having difficulty in:
*assembling puzzles
*using patterns and designs in art, geometry and geography
*designing
*building
*sensing spatial orientation
*reading maps, graphs, charts, blueprints
*noting visual detail
*sensing spatial boundaries (i.e., fitting, assembly and packing)
*organizing, arranging furniture, appliances, equipment, etc. for
efficient use and visual appeal
Recommendations to address a weakness in Visual Processing include:
*provide activities with manipulatives
*provide copying, tracing and drawing activities
*provide activities involving construction and design
*verbally describe graphics and visually-based concepts
*provide support for tasks requiring spatial organization
Link to achievement:
*Math: visual Processing may be important for tasks that require
abstract reasoning or mathematical skills.
Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc), which is often called crystallized
intelligence or crystallized abilities, involves expressive vocabulary,
ability to grasp the relationships among word meanings, and knowledge
acquired from general experience within the mainstream culture. The
possible performance implications include the student having difficulty
in:
*learning vocabulary
*answering factual questions
*comprehending oral and written language
*acquiring general knowledge and knowledge in content areas
*using prior knowledge to perform activities and understand new
concepts
Recommendations to address a weakness in Comprehension-Knowledge
include:
*relate new information to acquired knowledge
*assess prior knowledge before introducing new topics and concepts
*pre-teach relevant vocabulary or background knowledge
*provide specific vocabulary instruction such as the meaning of
common prefixes, suffixes and root words
*incorporate interests and prior knowledge areas into instructional
activities
*when presenting directions and discussing concepts, use vocabulary
that is understood by the student
Link to achievement:
*Reading: Crystallized abilities, especially one’s language
development, vocabulary knowledge, and the ability to listen are
important for reading and ,in particular, for reading comprehension.
A weakness in this area may hamper an individual’s ability to
comprehend written text due to a lack of vocabulary knowledge, basic
concepts, and general life experiences that are needed to understand
the text.
*Written Expression: Crystallized abilities such as language
development, vocabulary knowledge and general information are important
to writing achievement primarily after age seven (7). These abilities
become increasingly more important with age.
*Math: Crystallized abilities including language development,
vocabulary knowledge, and listening abilities are important to math
achievement at all ages. These abilities become increasingly more
important with age. Low crystallized abilities may hamper an
individual’s ability to comprehend word problems due to a lack of
vocabulary knowledge. They may hamper one’s ability to learn basic
math processes, such as long division, due to impairments in one’s
ability to listen to and follow sequential directions.