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ORIGINS AND OVERVIEW OF MODELING AND
SIMULATION
Instructor: Dr. J. Peter Kincaid
Topic Overview
Just as Human Factors grew from needs of World War II in the United States, so did the
modern field of modeling and simulation (M&S). The Link Flight Simulator, which first came
into service in the 1930’s, marked the beginning of the modern era of simulation and was used
widely by the US military to provide initial training to pilots. Significant events in the
emergence of M&S are listed below.
1930’s
1940’s (WWII)
1950’s and 1960’s
1970’s:
1980’s
1990’s
2000 – present
Simulation in its modern form initiated by Link Flight Trainer
First substantial use of simulation for training (mostly flight training)
NASA and the US military develop large, complex simulators for training
– Apollo 13 mission - simulator saved crew
– Gradual shift to use of digital computers
Widespread use of military and civilian simulators for training
– prices drop
– training effectiveness increases
– new uses become common (e.g. driving simulation)
Discrete event simulation becomes common
New technologies introduced
– Distributed Simulation for military training (SIMNET)
– IBM, Apple introduce first affordable and capable PC’s
First graduate program for M&S initiated (master’s degree at University of
Central Florida)
Center of Excellence for M&S established in Orlando
M&S becomes widespread, for example:
– Design of military weapon platforms and automobiles
– Simulation for entertainment (movie industry, Jurassic Park, PC
games)
M&S increasingly recognized as profession and academic field
– Three universities offer M&S Ph.D.’s
– M&S Professional Certification
– Increased spending for M&S – e.g., entertainment, homeland
security, virtual environments, low-cost PC-based simulation
Several Examples
1960’s and 1970’s- NASA’s Astronaut Training: Simulators played a major role in training
astronauts. The Apollo Mission Simulator allowed astronauts to simulate the operation of what
was then the most sophisticated vehicle ever built, the Apollo spacecraft. In the late 1970s, a
Space Shuttle Mission Simulator was developed that simulated launch and landing of the Shuttle.
In the early 1960’s, the slide rule and analog computer were the basic computational resources
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for engineers as they initially planned and designed to put man on the moon. Digital computers
were available in those years, but they were generally too slow for simulation and required
coding in machine or assembly languages. Computer technology improved during this period,
spurring the development of continuous simulation on digital computers.
The Apollo Mission Simulators were developed to provide training for the flight crew in
the operation of the spacecraft. These simulators were tied in with the Mission Control Center so
that an integrated training could be accomplished with the flight controllers. They were also used
for advanced training, particularly in emergency procedures. Numerous emergency procedures
cannot be practiced in flight, either because they would be too dangerous or because there is no
way to recreate the emergency. The importance of this facet of simulation was highlighted
during the Apollo 13 mission, where the Command Module simulator was used to design
procedures which allowed a crippled spacecraft to bring home the three astronauts. This is very
well depicted in the movie, Apollo 13.
1980’s-1990’s – SIMNET Networked Simulation for Training. Simulators developed prior to
the 1980s were stand-alone systems designed for single task training purposes, such as docking a
space capsule or landing on the deck of an aircraft carrier. These systems were expensive, with
costs in the ten’s of millions of dollars for an advanced pilot simulator system in the late 1970s,
Some flight cost more than their aircraft counterparts. In 1988 the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) initiated a lower cost program called Simulator Networking
(SIMNET) that would join multiple tank simulators over a network such that each could detect,
engage, and destroy the others. Graphics were computer generated and much less realistic than
current PC-based games. However, the resolution was sufficient for effective training. SIMNET
resulted in the institution of important simulation interaction principles and the creation of a
network messaging protocol that allowed exchange data.
SIMNET was the predecessor of the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocols.
DIS was a logical next step which attempted to leverage the SIMNET technology so that it could
be applied to a wider variety of combat vehicle simulators such as trucks, helicopters, fighters,
ships, and soldiers. Using this distributed virtual battlefield simulation, virtual theaters of war are
created that link multiple actors in real time.
The rapid development of this technology during the 1990s accelerated the drive for
content realism, leading to an emphasis on storyline and the development of databases of
historically and geographically accurate data. This drive for realism, compelling content, and
storyline was applied to both imagined and actual warfare scenarios. In the summer of 1990, for
example, a computer-based war game called Operation Internal Look was used by General
Norman Schwarzkopf and his staff at the U.S. Central Military Command to run through
scenarios of potential conflict in Iraq. Immediately after the invasion of Kuwait, the function of
Internal Look changed from virtual to actual: it was now used to run variations of the real
combat scenario.
2000-present – The Merging of simulations with Commercial Gaming. The shift in the culture
of the military with regard to simulation design coupled with enlightened procurement policies
led from SIMNET to Doom to America’s Army. The Marine Corps implemented a policy in
1996 aimed at implementing improvements in what was termed “Military Thinking and Decision
Making Exercises.” It identified personal computer (PC)-based wargames as an important way to
exercise these skills. A report was issued in 1997 observing that Department of Defense's
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simulations were lagging behind commercial games and advised joint research with the
entertainment industry. This eventually led to the development of America’s Army, a massively
multiplayer, online first person shooter game by the MOVES Institute at the U.S. Navy's Naval
Postgraduate School. America’s Army simulates the training and deployment of Army Special
Operation Forces. This freely downloadable game has not only become one of the most popular
games, it is used as a recruiting tool, and has been modified for use as a training tool by the
Army as well as other government agencies. As has happened with wargaming, the commercial
side of simulation has driven improvement in the government side. The MOVES Institute used
the commercial game Counter-Strike the model for America's Army.
Learning Objectives
We need to understand the past so that we can comprehend what the future holds for us in
the rapidly growing field of Modeling and Simulation. The objective of the present lecture is to
provide you with an outline of the development of M&S and its relationship to such areas as
Human Factors and Digital Media. M&S is a rapidly emerging field which is likely to bring
about some significant changes in the way we learn, design complex systems, and entertain
ourselves.
References
1960’s-1970’s
Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations.
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/cover.html Accessed January 2006.
Rolfe, J.M., and Staples, K.J. (1986) Flight Simulation. New York: Cambridge University Press,.
1980’s-1990’s
Dunnigan, J.F. (2003). How to Make War (Fourth Edition) : A Comprehensive Guide to Modern Warfare
in the Twenty-first Century. Harper Paperbacks, 4th edition.
Zobel, R. N. (December 2000). A Personal History of Simulation In The UK And Europe, 1964-2001.
International Journal Of Simulation. V1, 1-2, pp. 69-79.
2000-present
Aldrich, C. (2004). Simulations and the Future of Learning. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. San Francisco.CA
VIDEO PRESENTATIONS
Simulators: Modern Marvel Series, The History Channel.Apollo 13
Readings: A comprehensive set of M&S readings and other resources is available at
www.papiyas.com/ids5717w password is “password.