Consumer Concerns about Food and Water
I. Foodborne Illnesses (also known as food poisoning)
Millions of people suffer the symptoms of foodborne illnesses. Most can be prevented by
storing and cooking foods at their proper temperatures and preparing them under sanitary
conditions. The FDA and other agencies focus on the potential hazards of food, the toxicity
levels, and the potential risk posed to human beings. Safety standards are set. The USDA
protects the food supply.
A. Foodborne Infections and Food Intoxications
1. Foodborne Infections
a. Eating foods contaminated with infectious microbes
b. Two of the most common pathogens are Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella.
2. Food Intoxications
a. Eating foods containing natural toxins or microbes that produce toxins
b. Most common is Staphylococcus aureus; most famous is Clostridium botulinum
3. Foodborne illnesses, diseases, organisms, onset and symptoms and prevention
methods
B. Food Safety in the Marketplace
1. Industry Controls
a. Pasteurization inactivates many of the microorganisms in food. Spoilage bacteria
are still present.
b. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) requires food
manufacturers to identify points of contamination and implement controls.
2. Consumer Awareness
a. Wash hands with hot, soapy water before meals.
b. Expect clean tabletops, dinnerware, utensils, and food preparation sites.
c. Expect cooked foods to be served piping hot and salads to be fresh and cold.
d. Refrigerate carry-out foods within two hours.
C. Food Safety in the Kitchen
1. Guidelines (see “How to Prevent Foodborne Illnesses”)
a. Keep a clean, safe kitchen.
b. Avoid cross-contamination by separating raw eggs, meat, and seafood from
other foods.
c. Keep hot foods hot.
d. Keep cold foods cold.
2. Safe Handling of Meats and Poultry
a. Cook meat thoroughly and use a thermometer.
b. Read labeling instructions.
c. Recommended safe temperatures
1. Whole poultry: 180˚ F
2. Poultry breast and well-done meats: 170˚ F
3. Stuffing, ground poultry, and reheated leftovers: 165˚ F
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4. Medium-done meats, raw eggs, egg dishes, pork, and ground meat: 160 ˚F
5. Medium-rare meats, roasts, veal, and lamb: 145˚ F
6. Foods should not be kept between 40˚ F and 140˚ F for more than 2 hours
7. Refrigerator temperature: 40˚ F
8. Freezer temperature: 0˚ F
Mad Cow Disease
a. Can cause neurological damage to cows and humans
b. Ground beef and sausage are more of a concern.
c. Wild game questions
Avian influenza is normally found in chickens, ducks, and turkeys.
a. Possible human infection
b. May be contracted by having contact with birds, not by consuming them.
Safe Handling of Seafood
a. Undercooked or raw seafood can cause problems such as hepatitis, worms,
parasites, viruses and other diseases.
b. Sushi may contain raw or cooled ingredients.
c. Raw oysters may be a concern.
d. Water pollution must be controlled.
e. Processing facilities must be clean, and temperatures should be controlled.
Other Precautions and Procedures
a. Abnormal odors with seafood – should smell fresh
b. Be mindful of safe refrigeration temperatures (40 F) and storage times.
Foods most commonly implicated in foodborne illnesses
a. Frequently unsafe
1. Raw milk and milk products
2. Raw or undercooked seafood, meat, poultry, and eggs
3. Raw sprouts and scallions
b. Occasionally unsafe
1. Soft cheeses
2. Salad bar items
3. Unwashed berries and grapes
4. Sandwiches
5. Hamburgers
c. Rarely unsafe
1. Peeled fruit
2. High-sugar foods
3. Steaming-hot foods
D. Food Safety While Traveling
1. Traveler’s diarrhea
a. Different microbes
b. Different standards for food and water
2. How to achieve food safety while traveling
a. Wash hands. Use antiseptic wipes or hand gels.
b. Eat only well cooked and hot foods.
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c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Wash fruits and vegetables in purified water and peel.
Use bottled water.
Drink only treated, boiled, canned, or bottled beverages, consumed without ice.
Refuse dairy products unless properly pasteurized and refrigerated.
Do not purchase foods or drinks from street vendors.
Take antimotility and antibiotic agents prescribed by a physician, if necessary.
E. Advances in Food Safety
1. Irradiation
a. Protection
1. Controlling molds in grains
2. Sterilizing spices and teas for storage at room temperature
3. Controlling insects and extending shelf life in fruits and vegetables
4. Destroying harmful bacteria in fresh and frozen beef, poultry, lamb and pork
b. Difference between irradiation and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) treatment
c. Supported by FAO and WHO
d. Foods approved
1. Eggs
2. Raw beef, lamb, poultry, and pork
3. Spices and tea
4. Wheat
5. Potatoes, tomatoes, and onions
6. Strawberries, citrus fruits, and papaya
2. Consumer Concerns about Irradiation
a. Negative emotions
b. Confusion with radioactive particles
3. Regulation of Irradiation
a. Labeling symbol
b. The FDA has regulations regarding specific uses and doses.
4. Other pasteurizing systems are high-intensity pulsed light or electric beams.
II. Nutritional Adequacy of Foods and Diets
The marketplace provides consumers with nutrition facts and guidelines. At home,
consumers can minimize nutrient losses through proper food handling and cooking
guidelines.
A. Obtaining Nutrient Information
1. Nutritional labeling regulations
2. USDA’s Dietary Guidelines
3. MyPyramid
B. Minimizing Nutrient Losses
1. Keep fruits and vegetables refrigerated.
2. Keep cut fruits and vegetables and juices in airtight containers in the refrigerator.
3. Steam or microwave to prevent losses during cooking.
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III. Environmental Contaminants
Concerns of environmental contamination are many, but hazards are relatively small. It is
important to be an informed consumer, keep alert to the possibility of contamination, and
listen to public health announcements. Eating a variety of foods is an effective defensive
strategy.
A. Harmfulness of Environmental Contaminants
1. Depends on its persistence
2. Each level of the food chain has a greater concentration then the one below, known
as bioaccumulation.
3. Heavy metals and organic halogens can enter the food supply.
4. Methylmercury
a. Can result in blindness, deafness, and lack of coordination, affects the intellect,
and can cause death
b. Fish can become contaminated with methylmercury.
c. Infants born to pregnant women who consume methylmercury can be affected.
5. PBB and PCB
a. Polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) was mixed with livestock feed in Michigan and
caused nervous system problems and liver disorders in those who consumed the
meat of the livestock.
b. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were found in rice oil in Taiwan and resulted
in fertility problems in men and women who had children with developmental
issues.
B. Guidelines for Consumers
1. Hazards appear to be small.
2. FDA regulates
3. Health agencies provide advisories (mercury).
4. The EPA regulates commercial fishing.
5. States test and monitor their own lakes and rivers.
IV. Natural Toxicants in Foods
Many foods contain natural toxicants. It is the quantity consumed and the chemical structure
of the contaminate, not the source, that makes it hazardous.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Poisonous mushrooms
Goitrogens in some vegetables
Cyanogens that produce cyanide
Solanine in potatoes
V. Pesticides
Pesticides can be safe when used appropriately, but leave residue on foods. When used
inappropriately, they can be hazardous. Consumers can minimize exposure to pesticides in
foods by following specific food preparation guidelines. Pesticides can improve crop yields.
Alternative farming methods are being explored.
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A. Hazards and Regulation of Pesticides
1. Hazards of Pesticides
a. Tolerance level set by government
b. People with weakened immune systems may be vulnerable.
2. Regulation of Pesticides
a. EPA and FDA keep within safe limits
b. Enforces the law
3. Pesticides from Other Countries
a. Policies must be established.
b. Imported foods contaminated with our banned pesticides that were sold outside
the U.S. (circle of poison)
B. Monitoring Pesticides
1. Food in the Fields
a. Monitoring programs
b. Certifications with periodic inspections
2. Food on the Plate
a. Survey research to determine how much is consumed
b. The Total Diet Study estimates pesticide consumption.
C. Consumer Concerns
1. Minimizing Risks
a. Trim fat and remove skin.
b. Select fruits and vegetables without holes.
c. Wash fresh produce with a scrub brush and rinse.
d. Use a knife to peel.
e. Discard outer leaves.
f. Peel.
g. Eat a variety of foods.
h. Consider buying certified organic foods.
2. Alternatives to Pesticides
a. Natural pesticides
b. Genetically altered plants; crop rotation
c. Using organisms to kill pests
d. Alternative farming methods
3. Organically Grown Crops
a. Produce and market organic crops
b. USDA labeling for organic foods
1. 100% organic ingredients may claim 100% organic and use seal
2. 95% organic ingredients may claim organic and use seal
3. 70% organic ingredients may list up to three ingredients on the front of the
package
4. Less than 70% organic ingredients may list them on the side panel but not
make claims on the front of the package
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VI. Food Additives
Many of the food additives used are preservatives. The FDA regulates the use of intentional
additives. Consumers are concerned about the incidental additives.
A. Regulations Governing Additives
1. The GRAS (generally recognized as safe) List
a. Additives that have been in use a long time
b. Believed to be safe based on current scientific evidence
c. Ongoing review
2. The Delaney Clause
a. Additives that have not been shown to cause cancer in animals or humans
b. Criticism of being too strict and inflexible
c. No more than 1 in a million risk
3. Margin of Safety
a. Determined by experimental research
b. 100 times below the lowest level that is found to cause harm
4. Risks versus Benefits
a. Use the lowest amount needed to get the effect
b. Cannot disguise faulty or inferior foods
c. Cannot deceive consumers
d. Cannot be used where nutrients are significantly destroyed
e. Cannot be used where their effects can be achieved by economical, sound
manufacturing processes
B. Intentional Food Additives
1. Antimicrobial Agents
a. Salt and sugar
b. Nitrites and nitrates
c. Nitrites can be converted to nitrosamines in the human body.
2. Antioxidants
a. Vitamin C (erythorbic acid, sodium ascorbate)
b. Vitamin E (tocopherol)
c. Sulfites (sulfur oxide, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfate, potassium bisulfate,
sodium metabisulfite, and potassium metabisulfate)
1. Prevent oxidation in many processed foods
2. Adverse reactions in people
3. Declare on the label
4. Inhibit use on raw foods
5. Destroy thiamin
d. BHA and BHT
1. Prevent rancidity in baked goods and snack foods
2. Cancer link – protect in small amounts, harm in larger amounts
3. Colors
a. Natural colors include annatto, caramel, carotenoids, dehydrated beets, and grape
skins.
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b. Artificial colors include blue #1 and #2, green #3, red #40 and #3, yellow #5 and
#6.
4. Artificial Flavors and Flavor Enhancers
a. Natural flavors include spices, herbs, essential oils, fruits, and fruit juices.
b. Artificial flavors include artificial sweeteners.
c. Flavor enhancers include MSG or monosodium glutamate.
1. Used in Asian foods, canned vegetables, soups, and processed meats
2. MSG symptom complex has adverse reactions in some people.
3. Must be listed on the label
5. Texture and Stability
a. Common emulsifiers – for stabilization
1. Lecithin
2. Alginates
3. Mono- and diglycerides
b. Common gums – to thicken and gel
1. Agar, alginates, and carrageenan
2. Guar, locust bean, and psyllium
3. Pectin
4. Xanthan gum
5. Gum Arabic
6. Cellulose derivatives
6. Nutrient Additives
a. Appropriate uses
1. Correct dietary deficiencies
2. Restore nutrients to levels prior to storage, handling, and processing
3. Balance vitamin, mineral, and protein content of a food in proportion to its
energy content
4. Correct nutritional inferiority
b. Common Nutrient Additives
1. Thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, folate, and iron in grain products
2. Iodine in salt
3. Vitamins A and D in milk
4. Vitamin C and calcium in fruit drinks
5. Vitamin B12 in vegetarian foods
C. Indirect or incidental food additives enter food through harvesting, production,
processing, storage, or packaging.
1. Acrylamide
a. Causes cancer and nerve damage in high doses
b. Found in potatoes cooked at high temperatures (french fries and potato chips,
breakfast cereals, and cookies)
c. Also classified as a genotoxicant – a substance that mutates or damages genetic
materials
2. Microwave Packaging
a. Active packaging is where the packaging components migrate into food.
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b. Passive packaging is where the package simply holds the foods but components
can migrate into food at high temperatures.
c. Test empty glass or ceramic containers in microwave for 1 minute:
1. If warm, do not use.
2. If lukewarm, it is safe for short-term heating.
3. If cool, it is safe for long-term cooking.
Dioxins
a. Chemical pollutants created as by-products of chemical manufacturing,
incineration, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp, and other industrial processes
b. Found in coffee filters, milk cartons, paper plates, and frozen food packages in
minute quantities
Decaffeinated Coffee
a. Methylene chloride found in decaffeinated coffee
b. Depends on the decaffeinating process used
Hormones
a. Bovine growth hormone (BGH) in cattle to produce leaner meats and dairy cows
to produce more milk
b. All cows make this hormone naturally.
c. Food levels are regulated and monitored.
d. Digested by the human body
e. Still controversy
Antibiotics
a. Given to animals and residues remain in meat and milk
b. People with sensitivities may suffer allergic reactions.
c. Antibiotic resistance is a problem.
VII. Consumer Concerns about Water
Water may contain infectious microorganisms, environmental contaminates, pesticide
residues, and additives. The EPA monitors the safety of public water systems. Many
consumers are choosing home water treatment systems or drinking bottled water.
A. Sources of Drinking Water (potable water)
1. Surface water
a. Sources include lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.
b. Readily contaminated through acid rain, runoff from highways and urban areas,
pesticide runoff from agricultural areas, and industrial wastes
c. Refreshed by fresh rain, aeration, sunlight, plants, and microorganisms
2. Ground water
a. Sources include underground aquifers.
b. Supplies rural areas and pumped by wells
c. Contaminated more slowly but more permanently
d. Especially susceptible to contamination from hazardous waste sites, dumps,
landfills, underground tanks storing gasoline and other chemicals, and improperly
discarded household chemicals and solvents
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B. Water Systems and Regulations
1. Home Water Treatments
a. Shop carefully.
b. Advantages and disadvantages
c. Determine the quality of home water first.
2. Bottled Water
a. FDA has quality and safety standards.
b. Expensive
c. Water source must be identified
d. Refrigerate after opening
e. May contain contaminants
1.
To what extent does food poisoning present a real hazard to consumers eating U.S. foods? How often does
it occur?
Foodborne illness is the leading food safety concern. An estimated 76 million people per year experience
foodborne illness, and for 5,000 of them it can potentially be fatal.
2.
Distinguish between the two types of foodborne illnesses and provide an example of each. Describe
several measures that help prevent foodborne illnesses.
Two types of foodborne illnesses include those caused by an infectious agent (foodborne infection)—for
example, Campylobacter jejuni; and those caused by a poisonous substance (food intoxication)—for example,
Clostridium botulinum. Measures to prevent them include: use proper canning methods; avoid commercially
canned foods with leaky seals, or with bent, bulging or broken cans; cook food thoroughly; use sanitary food
handling methods; avoid unpasteurized milk; avoid raw fruits and vegetables where protozoa are endemic;
dispose of sewage properly; and refrigerate foods promptly and properly.
3.
What special precautions apply to meats? To seafood?
Wash all surfaces that have been in contact with raw meats, poultry, eggs, fish and shellfish before reusing;
serve cooked meats, poultry and seafood on a clean plate. Separate raw meats and seafood from those that have
been cooked. Do not use marinade that was in contact with raw meat. When cooking meats, use a thermometer
to test the internal temperature, and cook to the temperature indicated for that particular meat. Cook hamburgers
to at least medium well-done. Cook stuffing separately or stuff poultry just prior to cooking. Do not cook large
cuts of meat or turkey in a microwave oven. Cook eggs before eating them. Cook seafood thoroughly. When
serving meats and seafood, maintain temperature of 140 degrees or higher, and heat leftovers thoroughly to least
165 degrees.
4.
What is meant by a “persistent” contaminant of foods? Describe how contaminants get into foods and
build up in the food chain.
Stubborn or enduring continuance; the quality of persisting, rather than breaking down, in the bodies of animals
and human beings. Contaminants get into foods: heavy metals and other contaminants entering the air in
smokestack emissions return to the soil in rainfall, contaminants in the soil are absorbed by plants. People either
eat the plants (fruits and vegetables) or meat from livestock that have eaten the plants. Sewage sludge and
pesticides leave residues in the soil; runoff pollutes ground and surface water and contaminates the seafood that
people eat. Toxins in the food chain accumulate: a person whose principal animal-protein source is fish may
consume about 100 pounds of fish in a year, and these fish will have consumed a few tons of plant-eating fish in
the course of their lifetimes; the plant eaters will have consumed several tons of photosynthetic producer
organisms. If the producer organisms have become contaminated with toxic chemicals, these chemicals become
more concentrated in the bodies of the fish that consume them. If none of the chemicals are lost along the way,
one person ultimately eats the same amount of contaminant as was present in the original several tons of
producer organisms.
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5.
What dangers do natural toxicants present?
Poisonous mushrooms are natural yet can be dangerous when eaten. Cabbage, turnips, mustard greens, and
radishes contain small quantities of goitrogens that can enlarge the thyroid gland; this can cause problems if a
person with a thyroid problem consumes large quantities of these foods. Lima beans and some fruit seeds
contain cyanogens that, if activated, can produce the deadly poison cyanide. Potatoes contain small amounts of
natural poisons. Poisons are poisons whether made by man or by nature.
6.
How do pesticides become a hazard to the food supply, and how are they monitored? In what ways can
people reduce the concentrations of pesticides in and on foods that they prepare?
Pesticides may become hazardous by remaining on crops, polluting water, contaminating the soil, and
accumulating in the tissues of animals. The EPA determines what levels of pesticide residues in the food supply
are considered acceptable. The FDA is responsible for enforcing adherence to this tolerance level, and monitors
pesticide residues by collecting samples of foods and testing crops taken directly from the fields. Buy fresh
foods grown locally, using responsible methods, and buy a variety of foods.
7.
What is the difference between a GRAS substance and a regulated food additive? Give examples of each.
Name and describe the different classes of additives.
A GRAS substance (such as salt) is accepted as safe based on long experience consistent with the belief that it is
not hazardous, whereas a regulated food additive (such as MSG) has been chemically tested to ensure its
effectiveness and safety. Types of food additives include antimicrobial agents, which prevent growth of
microorganisms; antioxidants, which delay/prevent oxidative damage (e.g. rancidity); colors and flavors, which
enhance appearance and taste, respectively; emulsifiers and gums, which improve consistency by thickening or
stabilizing the food; and nutrients (vitamins and minerals).
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Safe Food Practices
Answer the following questions based on your understanding of food safety and see how you
rank in terms of being a “Food Safety Advocate.” (Circle “Yes” or “No.”)
1. I use a meat thermometer when I cook foods in the oven.
Yes
No
2. I wash my hands before I start meal preparation.
Yes
No
3. I rinse cutting boards with water after using them for food preparation.
Yes
No
4. When I place food in the freezer, I label the package with the date and type
of food that is in the package.
Yes
No
5. When thawing meats or poultry, I leave the food product out on the counter
to make the process quicker.
Yes
No
6. If a food smells funny, I taste it just to make sure that there is a problem.
Yes
No
7. I only purchase foods from a grocery store freezer that feel solidly frozen.
Yes
No
8. I use the extra marinade used in food preparation as a sauce when serving
food products.
Yes
No
9. I change my sponge in the kitchen when it looks dirty.
Yes
No
10. I check expiration dates of food products prior to purchasing them from a
grocery store.
Yes
No
Scoring:
 If you have answered “Yes” to questions 1, 2, 4, 7 and 10 give yourself 2 points for each
question, and if you have answered “No” then deduct 2 points for each question.
 If you have answered “No” to questions 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9 give yourself 2 points for each
question, and if you have answered “Yes” then deduct 2 points for each question.
Grading:
 A higher score indicates that you are a stronger “Food Safety Advocate,” whereas a lower
score indicates that you a weaker advocate and you need to go back to the kitchen!
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How to Detect and Avoid Spoiled Foods
These Foods...
Fresh poultry
Fresh meat
Fresh fish
Milk, cream, egg products
Frozen meats, poultry, fish,
casseroles
Canned foods*
Fresh fruits and vegetables
Cereal products, flour
Are Risky When:
 stored raw in the refrigerator for longer than 1-2 days, (3-4
days for cooked poultry)
 left unrefrigerated for more than 2 hours either before or
after cooking
 stored raw in the refrigerator for longer than 3-5 days (1-2
days for hamburger)
 discolored, smelling, slimy
 left unrefrigerated for more than 2 hours either before or
after cooking
 stored for longer than 1-2 days in the refrigerator
 dried at edges, smelly
 left unrefrigerated for more than 2 hours either before or
after cooking
 left unrefrigerated for more than 2 hours
 stored in the refrigerator longer than 5-7 days
 thawed at room temperature
 allowed to thaw and be refrozen
 eaten without thorough cooking
 liquid spurts out when can is opened
 can is corroded, rusty, or leaky, swollen on top or bottom,
dented on side seams
 contents have off-odors, a foamy or mushy texture
 stored at temperatures above 100° F or allowed to freeze and
thaw
 unwashed, moldy
 moldy, infested with insects
*Home-canned foods should never be used in family day care, congregate meal sites, or other food service
operations.
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