University of Warmia and Mazury
Introduction to Linguistics
Anna Drogosz
Traditional Syntax
Syntax is concerned with the ways in which words are arranged and joined together to form larger units –
phrases, clauses, and sentences – and with ways of analysing these units.
The word syntax is derived from a Greek word meaning ‘tying together’ or ‘arranging’.
Parts of the sentence
sentence
clause
phrase
morpheme
[the evenings have turned very cold just lately and the days become shorter.]
[the evenings have turned very cold just lately]
[the evenings] NP.
[have turned] VP
[very cold] AdjP
[just lately] AdvP
[turn+ed]
 The relation between one unit and another unit of which it is a part is constituency.
 [the evenings] [have turned] [very cold] [just lately] – constituents of the whole sentence
 [[the] [evenings]] – immediate constituents (these units which occur next to each other and are in some
way related)
 constituents which cannot be divided any further are called ultimate constituents
 of the units the word is the most important in syntactic considerations.
Word classes of English (=parts of speech)
The traditional grammar called them parts of speech, and the tradition goes back to Greek and Latin
grammars.
The traditional definitions combine inflectional, syntactic and semantic criteria.
They are not perfect even for Greek or Latin, and when applied to other languages they become even more
problematic. Good will and common sense required in classifications.
The term word class is used these days.
The word classes of English:
open class
noun (John, room, answer, play)
 count/mass
 common/proper nouns
 properties: number (singular, plural)
gender (masculine, feminine, neuter)
case (common case, genitive case)
full verb (search, grow, play)
 main/auxiliary
 verb phrase
finite I am, he reads, they saw, come here
nonfinite to be, reading, called
transitive (with an object) John kicked a ball.
intransitive (which does not need an object)(John came.
adjective (happy, steady, new, large)
adverb (steadily, completely, really, so)
closed class
pronoun
 personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, me, him)
 reflexive (myself, herself)
 possessive (my, your, his, mine, theirs)
 reciprocal (each other, one another)
 relative (which, who)
 interrogative (wh-series)
 demonstrative (this, that, these, those)
 indefinite
– universal (all, both, each, every-series)
– assertive (some-series)
– nonassertive (any-series, either)
– negative (no-series, neither, none, no)
preposition (of, at, in, without, in spite of)
determiner (a, the, that, every, some)
conjunction (and, that, when, although, so)
modal verb (can, must, will, could)
primary verb (be, have, do)
lesser categories
numerals
 cardinal (one, two...)
 ordinal (first, second, third...)
interjections (oh, ah, ugh)
negative particle NOT
the indefinite marker TO
Exercise: Identify word classes in this text. In the case of nouns provide as much detail as possible,
e.g. lady: noun, common, count, singular, feminine, common case.
The rather broad lady showed up at the theatre just before the performance started and handed the usher two
tickets.
'Where's the other party?' asked the usher.
'Well,' said the lady with a blush, 'you can see one seat is rather uncomfortable so I bought two. But
they're really both for me.'
'Okay with me, lady,' the usher replied. 'But you're going to have a tough time. Your seats are
numbers fifty-one and sixty-three.'
Clause structure – grammatical relations
We can distinguish the following grammatical relations in the English sentence:
subject, verb, object (direct, indirect), adverbial, complement.
Examples in sentences:
He will get
S
V
He
S
He
S
got
V
a surprise.
O
is getting angry
V
C
through the window.
A
He got her a splendid present.
S V
Oi Od
He got
S V
his shoes and socks
Od
wet.
C
The silly boy got himself into trouble.
S
V Od
A
S – subject: the word(s) in a sentence about which something is said (predicated); it is usually a noun or a
pronoun which must agree with the verb form of the predicate)
O – object (direct, indirect) is a noun or noun equivalent (e.g. a clause) towards which the action of the verb
of the predicate is directed.
The direct object typically refers to an entity that is affected by the action denoted in the clause.
The indirect object typically refers to an animate being that is the recipient of the action.
Examples:
You can borrow my car (O direct)
They amuse me (O direct)
They gave me (O indirect) some chocolate (O direct)
I amuse them (O direct)
I gave them (O indirect) some chocolate (O direct)
She gives her friends (O indirect) expensive presents (O direct)
I gave him (O indirect) my address (O direct)
That lecture bored me (O direct)
You can please yourself (O direct)
I have given myself (O indirect) a treat (O direct)
I'll send Charles (O indirect) another copy (O direct)
I'll send another copy (O direct) to Charles (O indirect)
David saved me (O direct)
David saved me (O indirect) a seat. (O direct)
David saved a seat (O direct)
Usually if there is only one object, then it is object direct.
With a few verbs that are normally ditransitive (i.e. have two objects) the indirect object may be retained
while the direct object is omitted -- in that case the only object present is the indirect object:
Bob is teaching the older children (O indirect)
You can pay me (O indirect) instead.
C – complement refers to structures following any of the copular verbs: be, seems, called, etc.
Subject complement:
My glass is empty (subject compl.)
Their daughter had become an accountant (subject compl.)
Your dinner seems ready (subject compl.)
She is not herself (subject compl.) today
He is called Ted (subject compl.) by his friends.
Object complement:
His friends call him Ted (object compl.)
Most students find her (O direct) helpful (object compl.)
We elected her (O direct) our candidate (object complement).
Joshua made Peter his assistant. (object compl.)
A – adverbial
● a group of expressions that characterise the mode of action of the verb;
● answering the questions such as how, where, when, why;
● usually have the form of a prepositional phrase
subject related adverbial
The two eggs are for you (recipient)
The drinks are for the journey (purpose)
If fruit prices are higher this year, it because of the bad harvest (reason)
Transport to the mainland is by ferry (means)
Entrance was by special invitation only (means)
Payment is by cash only (means)
Marvin's main interest is in sport (stimulus)
Jack and Nora are with me (accompaniment)
The painting was by an unknown artist (agent)
How much is this jacket? It's 60$ (measure)
object-related adverbial
You can put the dish (object direct) on the table
He got himself (object direct) into trouble.
They are placing blame on us.
I'm keeping most of my money in the bank.
You should have your hands on the wheel.
She wants the payment in dollars.
Exercise: Establish the grammatical relations of the sentences below.
1. I must send my parents an anniversary card.
2. The sun is shining.
3. That lecture bored me.
4. Your dinner seems ready.
5. My office is in the next building.
6. Most students have found her reasonably helpful.
7. You can put the dish on the table.
8. Elisabeth enjoys classical music.
9. Your face seems familiar.
10. My sister lives next door.
11. We all wish you a happy birthday.
12. The doorman showed the guests into the living room.
13. The road is under construction.
14. A number of people saw the accident.
15. The accident was seen by a number of people.
16. An intruder must have placed the ladder there.
17. The ladder must have been placed there by an intruder.
18. My father gave me this watch.
19. I was given this watch by my father.
20. This watch was given (to) me by my father.
21. Queen Victoria considered him a genius.
22. He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria.
Sentence types
Sentence – a string of words arranged and combined in an appropriate way according to rules of grammar.
 simple sentence (consists of a single independent clause)
 multiple sentence (contains one or more clauses as its immediate constituents)
 compound (in which the immediate constituents are two or more co-ordinate clauses)
 complex (in which one or more of its elements are realised by a subordinate clause)
coordination Two clauses are joined by one of the conjunctions (and, or, but), and both are of the same
level of constituent structure.
Subordination The information in the subordinate clause id placed in the background with respect to the
superordinate clause. The subordinate clause is preceded by subordinators e.g. although, since, when, if etc.
Sentence types:




declaratives
interrogatives
imperatives
exclamatives




statements
questions
directives
exclamations
This is almost the end of the lecture.
It is very hot in here.
Pass me the salt, please.
Is this the salt?
syntactic types differentiated by their form
discourse functions of the simple sentence
declarative, a statement
declarative, a question (a request)
declarative, a directive
Imperative, directive
Interrogative, directive