The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
Advice to the Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population
and Communities
from the Threatened Species Scientific Committee (the Committee) on Amendments
to the List of Key Threatening Processes under the
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)
1.
NAME AND DESCRIPTION OF THE THREATENING PROCESS
1.1 Title of the process
Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity
The term ‘novel biota’ refers to organisms that are new to an ecosystem whether by natural or
human introduction, the latter being the primary focus of this KTP. There are a large number of
terms in common use that fall within the term but the use of ‘novel biota’ is intended as an allencompassing term.
1.2 Name Changes
The original title of the nomination was ‘The introduction of novel biota and its impact on
biodiversity’. The Committee changed the name of the nomination to ‘Novel biota and their impact
on biodiversity’ to reflect that the threatening process is not restricted to only the introduction of
novel biota.
1.3 Description of the process
Since the arrival of the first non-Indigenous people to Australia, introduced novel biota have posed
an ongoing threat to Australia’s unique environment and biodiversity. Invasive species are
considered by biologists to have the second most destructive impact on native species and
ecological communities after habitat destruction (Sanderlund et al., 1999, p 2; Coutts-Smith and
Downey, 2006). Recognising the environmental impact of introduced species, the Convention on
Biological Diversity, of which Australia is a signatory, aims in Article 8 (h) to ‘Prevent the
introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or
species’ (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1993).
This key threatening process (KTP) ‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’, includes six
major groups of novel biota that are impacting on biodiversity, as detailed below.
Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity, including:
A. Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests.
B. Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests.
C. Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds.
D. Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds and algae.
E. Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests.
F. Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens.
This KTP does not include species in domestic, agricultural and commercial forestry situations
where these species remain appropriately managed. These species would only be included in this
KTP if they escape or are released from managed situations and become invasive, threatening
biodiversity.
This KTP does include further introductions of new genetic material of invasive species that are
already present in Australia, such as buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris). Buffel grass is an important
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agricultural pasture species in northern Australia, however the species has escaped into the
environment and is considered a major environmental weed in areas where it has established and
displaces native species. Similarly, further introduction of leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) a
small shrub introduced for fodder and widely planted in tropical and sub tropical Australia, is
covered by this KTP. Unless appropriately managed and heavily grazed it escapes into the
surrounding environment and becomes an invasive weed, forming dense thickets that restrict and
out-compete native species.
The KTP also includes the introduction or further cultivation of potentially weedy species for the
biofuel industry. Many species promoted as quality source biofuel plants have specific qualities
such as hardiness, ability to outcompete other species, need for limited water and resistance to
pests and disease, qualities that also make them excellent weed species (Low and Booth, 2007).
Many of the best biofuel plants such as giant reed (Arundo donax) and spartina (Spartina sp.) are
listed by the World Conservation Union in the top 100 of the World’s Worst Invaders (Lowe et al.,
2000; Low and Booth, 2007). If these weedy species are widely planted in Australia it is expected
that they will thrive as invasive weed species.
Novel biota have an impact directly or indirectly on all of society. Economic losses and control
costs to agriculture, fisheries and forestry enterprises are well documented (Pimentel, 2002;
McLeod, 2004). In 2009, it was estimated that the loss from invasive vertebrate species alone was
around $750 million (Gong et al., 2009) and Sinden et al., (2004) estimated the economic impact
from weeds to be around $4 billion. Novel biota impact significantly on recreational values in the
community, for example fire ants in Queensland potentially severely disrupt gardening and outdoor
activities, and weeds prevent access to recreational areas. They also have social impacts such as
effects on health and Indigenous people’s way of life. While these very important impacts are
acknowledged, the purpose of the KTP is to assess the impact of invasive species on the
environment and biodiversity.
This overarching KTP includes novel biota which are currently not present in Australia but that may
be introduced in the future, and species already in Australia that currently are not invasive but have
the potential to become so. Any current or future novel biota that fit into the six broad categories
outlined in the description above are considered to be included. A flowchart representing how
species are included in the KTP is at Figure 1 below.
The purpose of this KTP is to recognise the threat that all novel biota pose to the Australian
environment and to highlight the vast array of different novel biota and the threats they pose. Novel
biota, from introduced vertebrate species and deadly pathogens to smothering weeds both on land
and in the sea, all have varying impacts on native ecosystems, but ultimately they all threaten the
continued survival of the native species and ecological communities upon which they impact.
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Figure 1: Flow diagram
Species entering via
natural pathways
Non-invasive
Pre-border
Biosecurity
Species not currently
present in Australia
Invasive
Specific single invasive
taxa KTPs e.g. rabbits,
foxes
Post-border
Biosecurity
Potentially invasive
‘sleeper’ species in
Australia
Novel biota and their
impact on
biodiversity KTP
New threat
abatement
measures
Existing threat
abatement
measures
Invasive species that are
established in Australia that
do not have a specific KTP
1.4 The use of the term novel biota
Not all introduced species that fit into the six categories (A—F) included in this KTP pose a threat
to the environment; many introduced species have become naturalised (survives naturally through
reproduction) in Australia and it is only a small subset of these that become invasive (Williamson,
1996, p 2; Phillips et al., 2010 and references therein). Such species are recognised as novel to
the habitat however this KTP includes introduced species that are not only novel but also
significantly impacting on biodiversity. These species are referred to as invasive (species whose
introduction and spread threatens ecosystems, habitats or species with economic or environmental
harm) and are a threat to native biodiversity. For the purpose of this document, the term ‘novel
biota’ refers to non-native or non-Indigenous invasive species that have been introduced and
naturalised in a new habitat and have a significant detrimental impact on the environment.
This KTP does not consider native species that, due to changing climate conditions or natural
evolutionary change, extend their ranges into areas where they are not currently present. The
extension of ranges may result in new combinations of native species that could result in changes
to ecosystem functioning (Hobbs et al., 2006). This new combination of native species, while
novel, is considered to be a natural change.
This KTP includes native species translocated outside their range (except where translocation was
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for conservation purposes), that have become invasive and are adversely impacting on the
environment. The Cootamundra wattle (Acacia baileyana) is an example of a native species that is
now considered to be invasive after being translocated outside its range. The Cootamundra wattle
is native to southern New South Wales but has been very widely planted as an ornamental. It is
now naturalised in many parts of Australia and hybridises with other wattles (Morgan et al., 2002).
The seeds of this small tree are spread by the spring-loaded action of its pods, and also by ants
and birds. When it invades native bushland the Cootamundra wattle can replace local native
shrubs and shade out native grasses and wildflowers.
1.5
Currently nationally listed KTPs
There are currently 19 KTPs listed under the EPBC Act. Fourteen1 of these describe decline in
native species and/or ecological communities caused by one or more invasive taxa including cats,
foxes, feral pigs, gamba grass and fire ants (DEWHA, 2009a). This KTP encompasses the 14
currently listed specific invasive taxa KTPs, as well as other novel biota that are already
established in Australia and species with the potential to become invasive in the future.
There are a significant number of novel biota currently present in Australia, and of these only a
very small proportion (14) are nationally listed as KTPs. Novel biota that are currently nationally
listed as KTPs are considered to be some of the most detrimental species introduced into Australia
and warranted being listed as a specific KTP. These 14 listed KTP species are also captured by
this overarching KTP as they are considered to be invasive species and fit within the categories
defined for this KTP, as detailed above. However, it is not intended that this overarching novel
biota KTP will replace the existing species-specific KTPs.
It is anticipated individual novel biota KTPs will continue to be listed as stand-alone KTPs, as the
novel biota they cover have a very significant detrimental impact on the Australian environment.
Maintaining individual KTPs remains an effective mechanism for drawing attention to and
addressing the impact of particular invasive taxa, particularly as threat abatement action is already
well developed for these threatening processes.
1.6
Listing status under state and territory legislation
There are a number of KTPs listed under state legislation that recognise threats posed by one or
more novel biota. These are listed below:
New South Wales
The following are listed as potentially threatening processes under the New South Wales
Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995:
 Competition and grazing by the feral European rabbit
 Competition and habitat degradation by feral goats
 Herbivory and environmental degradation caused by feral deer
 Invasion and establishment of the cane toad
 Predation and hybridisation by feral dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
 Predation by feral cats
 Predation by the European red fox
1
The 14 currently listed KTPs include: Competition and land degradation by rabbits; Competition and land degradation by unmanaged goats; Dieback caused
by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi); Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis; Invasion of northern Australia by
Gamba Grass and other introduced grasses; Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic
plants; Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity following invasion by the Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean;
Predation by European red fox; Predation by exotic rats on Australian offshore islands of less than 1000 km2 (100,000 ha); Predation by feral cats; Predation,
habitat degradation, competition and disease transmission by Feral Pigs; Psittacine Circoviral (beak and feather ) Disease affecting endangered psittacine
species; The biological effects, including lethal toxic ingestion, caused by Cane Toads (Bufo marinus); and The reduction in the biodiversity of Australian
native fauna and flora due to the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (fire ant).
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Predation by the plague minnow (Gambusia holbrooki)
Predation by the ship rat (Rattus rattus) on Lord Howe Island
Predation, habitat degradation, competition and disease transmission by feral pigs (Sus
scrofa)
Introduction and establishment of exotic rust fungi of the order Pucciniales pathogenic on
plants of the family Myrtaceae
Invasion and establishment of exotic vines and scramblers
Invasion of native plant communities by bitou bush & boneseed
Invasion of native plant communities by exotic perennial grasses
Invasion, establishment and spread of Lantana camara
Invasion of native plant communities by African olive Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata
Invasion and establishment of escaped exotic garden plants as a key threatening process
Importation of red imported fire ants into NSW
Introduction of the large earth bumblebee (Bombus terrestris)
Competition from feral honeybees
Invasion of the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes)
Infection by psittacine circoviral (beak & feather) disease affecting endangered psittacine
species
Infection of frogs by amphibian chytrid fungus causing the disease chytridiomycosis
Infection of native plants by Phytophthora cinnamomi.
The following is listed as potentially threatening process under the New South Wales Fisheries
Management Act, 1994:
 The introduction of fish to fresh waters within a river catchment outside their natural range
Victoria
The following are listed as potentially threatening processes under the Victorian Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act 1988:
 Introduction of live fish into waters outside their natural range within a Victorian river
catchment after 1770
 Predation of native wildlife by the cat (Felis catus)
 Predation of native wildlife by the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
 Reduction in biodiversity of native vegetation by sambar (Cervus unicolor)
 Reduction in biomass and biodiversity of native vegetation through grazing by the rabbit
(Oryctolagus cuniculus)
 Invasion of native vegetation by blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L. agg)
 Invasion of native vegetation by ‘environmental weeds
 Introduction and spread of Spartina to Victorian estuarine environments
 Spread of Pittosporum undulatum in areas outside its natural distribution
 Loss of biodiversity in native ant populations and potential ecosystem integrity following
invasion by Argentine ants (Linepithema humile)
 The introduction and spread of the large earth bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) into Victorian
terrestrial environments
 Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus, resulting in chytridiomycosis
 The spread of Phytophthora cinnamomi from infected sites into parks and reserves,
including roadsides, under the control of a state or local government authority
 Use of Phytophthora-infected gravel in construction of roads, bridges and reservoirs
 Threats to native flora and fauna arising from the use by the feral honeybee (Apis mellifera)
of nesting hollows and floral resources
 The introduction of exotic organisms into Victorian marine waters.
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1.7
Impacts of invasive novel biota
There are many documented environmental impacts from invasive novel biota including: predation
by feral animals; soil erosion and water pollution; habitat loss; changes to hydrology; and clogging
and deoxygenation of waterways.
The impact of vertebrate pests on Australian species and biodiversity is well documented
(Dickman, 1996; May and Norton, 1996; Pultridge et al., 1997; Banks, 1999; Pultridge, 2002; Glen
and Dickman, 2005; McKenzie et al., 2006; Fitzsimons et al., 2010; Phillips et al., 2010).
Vertebrate pest species in Australia have few natural predators or disease and can reproduce
rapidly. Species such as cats and foxes prey on native birds, mammals, reptiles and insects. Feral
livestock, such as pigs and goats, directly and indirectly impact threatened species and ecological
communities in a variety of ways such as by grazing native species, fouling waterways and
damaging native vegetation. Rabbits graze heavily on native vegetation, which results in many
species failing to produce seed and a loss of food source and habitat for native fauna species.
Invasive invertebrates introduced to Australia, particularly invasive ant species such as the bigheaded ant (Pheidole megacephala) and Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), have had various
impacts on native species such as the displacement of native ants, and potential effects on the
ecological processes undertaken by the native ants (Lach and Thomas, 2008; Callan and Majer,
2009). On Christmas Island the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) is linked with the
displacement of native ants and is having a major impact on the endemic Gecarcoidea natalis (red
land crab) that is resulting in changes to the structure and composition of the rainforest (O’Dowd et
al., 2001; Lach and Thomas, 2008). Similarly, giant centipedes (Scolopendra sp.) introduced to
Christmas Island have been recorded as a possible reason for the dramatic decline in the
population of Pipistrellus murrayi (Christmas Island pipistrelle) (DEWHA, 2009b).
Invasive weed species in Australia have altered the environment by changing fire regimes, as is
seen with gamba grass in the Northern Territory (Rossiter et al., 2004; Fitzsimons et al., 2010).
Invasive weed species have also changed hydrology by altering drainage into rivers and lakes
(Levine et al., 2003), and affecting nutrient cycling (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 4). Invasive
weeds degrade catchment areas (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 4), degrade habitats (Smith et al.,
2007), and invade National Parks (Cowie and Werner, 1993; Stephens et al., 2008).
Aquatic weeds and algae impact on near-shore marine systems and freshwater ecosystems
(Finlayson and Rea, 1999; Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 4). Aquatic weed species, including
salvinia (Salvinia molesta) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), clog water ways (resulting in
fouling of the water, reduction in flow, and deoxygenation of water), kill and restrict access by
native species and act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes (Gopal, 1987, p 471; WoNS, 2003a).
The semi-aquatic upper tidal weed common cordgrass or rice grass (Spartina anglica) clogs many
Tasmanian estuaries (Kriwoken and Hedge, 2000).
Marine pests invade the habitat of native species, compete for food, and in some cases feed on
native species (Buttermore et al., 1994). Invasion by marine pests, such as Asterias amurensis
(Northern Pacific seastar) and Patiriella regularis (New Zealand seastar), has resulted in native
species being displaced (Buttermore et al., 1994). Other species, such as European fan worm
(Sabella spallanzani), can become so prolific that they smother the native species and act like a
carpet which transforms the seabed, altering the marine habitat (Marine Pests, 2009).
Native species are also being impacted on by pathogens. Three pathogens are currently listed as
KTPs under the EPBC Act, including: ‘Psittacine Circoviral (beak and feather) Disease affecting
endangered psittacine species’; ‘Dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora
cinnamomi)’; and ‘Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis’.
Endemic pathogens such as hydatids caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus and
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carried by wild dogs, foxes and feral pigs, threaten small macropodids such as the vulnerable
Petrogale penicillata (brush-tailed rock wallaby) (Barnes et al., 2010). Similarly, toxoplasmos,a
parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii and carried by feral cats (Felis
catus), threatens native species including Perameles gunnii (eastern barred bandicoot) and
Isoodon obesulus (southern brown bandicoot) (Henderson, 2009 and references therein).
1.8
Invasion pathways
Introduced species primarily arrive in Australia in two ways, either via accidental introduction or by
deliberate introduction. Accidental introduction can be as a result of species inadvertently being
transported on ships or aeroplanes. Deliberate introduction may be as a result of approved import
for biological control, smuggling by people wanting to import a prohibited species, or by the escape
of approved imported species into the natural environment. Figure 2 below illustrates the main
invasion pathways for introduced species. Species can also enter Australia without human
assistance, for example insects, seeds or spores aided by wind and vagrant birds, and weed
species in the gut and on feathers of migratory birds.
Figure 2: Invasion pathways of introduced species (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 2).
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Accidental introduction
Accidental or unintentional introduction means introduction of a species outside its natural range
unwittingly by humans or human delivery systems. The increase in globalisation, including world
trade, tourism and migration, has resulted in greater opportunities for introductions of alien species
on an international scale (Sanderlund et al., 1999, p 5). Accidental introductions include introduced
species entering the country in a variety of unintentional ways. Some examples of the pathways for
accidental introductions are outlined below.
Contaminants of agricultural products and livestock
Many species that have arrived in Australia have been introduced unintentionally as a contaminant
of agricultural products or livestock. African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) was thought to have
been introduced to Australia accidentally as a contaminant of pasture seed (Parsons and
Cuthbertson, 2001a, p 107) and is now a declared noxious weed in many states (Cook, 2008).
Bathurst burr (Xanthium spinosum), a plant native to South America, is reported to have been
introduced to Australia in the 1840s by arriving in the tails of horses imported from Chile (Hocking
and Liddle, 1995, p 250 and references therein) and is now a widely distributed weed in Australia.
Contaminated seed crops, nursery plants and cut flower trade
Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) is thought to have been introduced into the Tully region in
Queensland in 1994 in contaminated seed from Brazil (CRC Weed Management, 2003a). Seeds of
Siam weed are spread by wind and water; further spread can occur by movement of stem and root
fragments. Seeds may be blown long distances and also moved in mud on machinery and
recreational vehicles. Siam weed smothers native species, changing the environment and reducing
habitat for native species.
Machinery, equipment, vehicles, military etc
Machinery, equipment and vehicles imported into Australia or returning from military activities
overseas can hide novel biota as weed seeds. Under today’s standards, military equipment
returning from service overseas is required to comply with detailed decontamination processes to
remove any foreign species that may have attached to the equipment that could potentially invade
Australia (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 88). Historically, parthenium weed (Parthenium
hysterophorus), a two metre tall herb, was accidentally introduced into Australia on military
equipment during World War II (Calvert, 1998). Parthenium weed can grow very rapidly, potentially
maturing and setting seed in 28 days in ideal conditions (WoNS, 2009). Parthenium weed is
currently found in Queensland, and the Northern Territory, where it smothers native plants,
particularly native grassland ecological communities such as the endangered ‘Natural grasslands
of the Queensland Central Highlands and the northern Fitzroy Basin’ (DEWHA, 2008a). The
species can tolerate a wide variety of soil types and has the potential to spread widely.
Similarly, alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) was thought to have been unintentionally
transported to Australia from South America in the ballast of two post World War II cargo ships
(EPA/MAV, 2001). It was first noticed growing on ballast dumped in the Newcastle area in the
1940s (Julien, 1995, p 2), and can either grow on land or as a floating mass on fresh water
(WoNS, 2009). It can spread to new areas in small pieces of soil in machinery and smothers native
vegetation, deoxygenates waterways and degrades habitat of native species.
Stowaways
Many species arrive as hitchhikers on ships, planes and in shipping containers. Exotic rats, the
black rat (Rattus rattus), the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) and the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans),
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were common on ships in the 1800s and would have colonised Australia along with the first
European settlers (Rolls, 1969, p 410; Frith, 1973, p 150). Exotic rats have had a particularly
devastating impact on Australia’s offshore islands, and are listed as a KTP (DEWHA, 2006a).
Exotic rats are opportunistic feeders, with their diet at any one time generally reflecting the
availability of food in their environment. They eat both plant and animal matter all year round and
are able to utilise a diverse range of food sources to facilitate colonisation of different
environments. They are known to prey primarily on birds, small mammals, tortoises, lizards, large
insects, land molluscs, plant seeds and seedlings. Exotic rats impact on threatened Australian
native bird species including Cyanoramphus cookii (Norfolk Island green parrot) and Gallirallus
sylvestris (Lord Howe woodhen), by preying on their eggs and young chicks (DEWHA, 2006a).
Ship ballast and hull fouling
Marine species have been spread around the world inadvertently in the ballast of ships. Ballast is
used to stabilise ships while at sea and is then discarded in port before taking on new cargo
(Mack, 2003, pp 11–14). In the 1800s and early 1900s ballast mainly consisted of rubble, gravel
and stones found around the port of departure. This ballast often contained plants, invertebrates
and pathogens that were dispersed when the ballast was discarded in the new port (Mack, 2003,
pp 11–14). More recently, ships have used water as ballast and this resulted in different species
being introduced as larvae of the many species that are easily sucked up into the ship hulls, with
the water before being pumped out in another port (Carlton and Geller, 1993).
Hull fouling is another method of introduction of novel biota. Black striped mussel (Mytilopsis sp.)
discovered in Darwin’s marina in 1999 was thought to have arrived on the hull of a boat that had
not been treated with anti-foulant. Black striped mussel can grow in significant abundance on boat
hulls, mooring ropes, chains and other surfaces, causing native species to be displaced (DAFF,
2007).
Deliberate introduction
Deliberate or intentional introduction refers to the purposeful movement by humans of a species
outside its natural and dispersal range. This group includes species that are introduced for use as
crops, ornamentals, agricultural practices, biological controls or as game species. Some examples
of the pathways for deliberate introductions are provided below.
Plants introduced for agricultural, horticultural or forestry purposes
Many new plants have been introduced into Australia for use as agricultural plants and form the
basis of the successful cropping industry. Most introduced crop species that remain domesticated
are non-invasive and do not pose a threat to biodiversity, however there are some examples (e.g.
Brassica napus) of species that have been introduced for agricultural purposes that have escaped
into the environment and pose a threat to native species. A key example is the introduction of
gamba grass (Andropogon gayanus) into the Northern Territory in 1987 as a feed source for cattle.
Gamba grass is a large, perennial, highly productive introduced grass which forms tall (to 4 m),
dense stands (Csurhes, 2005). These stands cure later than native annual grasses and provide
increased fuel loads which promote intense, late, dry season fires.
Gamba grass was first introduced into Australia in 1931 by the CSIRO Division of Land Research
but was not widely released as a pasture grass until 1983 when commercial quantities of the seeds
became available (Csurhes, 2005). The spread of gamba grass has been accelerated by
transportation of seed in hay, road maintenance activities and a succession of above average wet
seasons during the mid to late 1990s. The success of gamba grass as an invader can be attributed
to its ability to colonise a range of habitats from wetland margins and riparian corridors through to
open woodlands and more closed forests (Flores, 1999; Flores et al., 2005).
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Gamba grass invasion can increase fire frequency as land managers need to burn more frequently
to reduce the large fuel loads. It also has the potential to support fires more than once per year due
to its high tolerance to fire and its ability to resprout shortly after fire (Bowden, 1963). Frequent,
intense, late dry-season fires have a detrimental effect on native habitats and ecosystems. Fires in
gamba grass-dominated ecosystems produce flame heights that are higher than typical fires,
causing canopy fires which affect the whole tree. Research has shown that these fires can lead to
a 50% reduction in tree cover over 12 years (Ferdinands et al., 2006). The increased fire risk due
to gamba grass has also resulted in significant economic costs associated with having fire fighters
permanently stationed ready for wildfire due to gamba grass supporting fires 5–10 times more
intense than those fuelled by native grasses (Setterfield, 2009).
Across the world many Pinus species have been introduced outside their natural range as
important plantation timber species, many of which have become invasive (Richardson et al.,
1994). In Australia, Pinus radiata is considered invasive and can invade outside of the plantation
forests into threatened ecological communities including grassland and shrublands (Lindenmayer
and McCarthy, 2001; Williams and Wardle, 2007; Haby et al., 2010).
Soil remediation
Tall wheat grass (Lophopyrum ponticum) is a perennial grass growing to 2.2 m high. Native to the
Balkans, Black Sea, Asia Minor and southern Russia, tall wheat grass grows naturally in very salty
soil. It was first introduced to Australia in 1935 for reclamation of saline soils and during the last
decade has been widely planted on saline soils as a pasture species for domestic livestock (Booth
et al., 2009). This has resulted in a very high propagule pressure, particularly in western Victoria.
Tall wheat grass has now become a serious invasive grass in temperate Australia (Booth et al.,
2009). It is a serious threat for saline and subsaline wetlands, including numerous Ramsar-listed
sites (Carr et al., 1992), and also threatens estuaries, riparian environments and grasslands in
south eastern Australia. Tall wheat grass can change the composition of ecological communities
by out-competing and eliminating native plant species and preventing recruitment of all species; it
also degrades faunal habitats and alters ecosystem functions associated with fire and potentially
also with hydrology and nutrient cycling (Booth et al., 2009).
Medicinal and herbal introductions
Plant species introduced into Australia for medicinal and herbal purposes have escaped and
become invasive weeds. St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) is a perennial herb native to
Europe, Asia and North America (Briese et al., 2000). It was introduced into Australia for medicinal
and ornamental purposes in the late 19th century and planted into gardens, from where it has
escaped (Briese et al., 2000). St John’s wort crowds out native species and reduces habitat. It
invades grassland, Eucalyptus and Callitris woodlands and is often found along river banks,
travelling stock routes, water catchment reserves and roadsides (Briese et al., 2000).
Commonwealth Plant Introduction Scheme
Historically in Australia a number of plant introduction schemes have operated (Cook, 2008) in an
attempt to introduce plants to improve Australian agriculture, increase pastoral productivity and
maximise Australian human population density (Cook and Dias, 2006). One such scheme, the
Commonwealth Plant Introduction (CPI) Scheme (1930s-2000) introduced 145 000 accessions of
greater than 8 200 species in 70 years (Cook and Dias, 2006). During the 20th century the
introductions by the CPI Scheme facilitated a continent-wide research program that, in an attempt
to improve the landscape, also greatly transformed it (Cook and Dias, 2006). While some of the
introductions were beneficial to Australian agriculture, many such as Nassella spp., Acacia spp.
and Tamarix spp. became weeds that have had a detrimental effect on the environment (Cook and
Dias, 2006).
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Aquarium plants
The introduction of imported aquarium plants into Australian waters, either by accident or
intentional release of species into the environment by aquarium owners, or by the intentional
release of plants so they can spread and be harvested for the aquarium trade, has serious impacts
for the environment. Cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana) was first recorded in Australia in 1967 after
introduction from South America as an aquarium plant (Mackey, 1996). Plant fragments found their
way from aquaria into open water sources, possibly through the dumping of aquarium water. The
weed has spread widely, forming dense underwater thickets that result in clogging of waterways,
reduced fish stocks, and reduced native plant species (WoNS, 2009). Cabomba is listed as a
Weed of National Significance (WoNS), one of the 20 worst weeds in Australia.
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was introduced to Australia in the 1890s from South
America as a decorative plant for fish ponds and aquaria (Calvert, 1998). Once introduced into
local waterways it spread rapidly. It can block waterways, deeply shading the water, out-competing
native plants and starving the water of oxygen. As a result, native species die from lack of sunlight,
and fish suffocate.
The invasive seaweed caulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia), a native to tropical and sub-tropical regions
(Phillips and Price, 2002), was first identified in New South Wales waters in 2000 (Creese et al.,
2004, p 110). The invasive caulerpa identified around the world and in Australia has been called
the ‘aquarium strain’ as it is thought to have been a selectively bred clone for marine aquaria. This
strain of caulerpa is invasive in temperate waters as it tolerates cold water, unlike tropical species
(Glasby and Gibson, 2007). In areas where it has been introduced it reproduces rapidly and can
cover large areas, out-competing species such as native seagrasses (I & I NSW, 2009).
Additionally, all species of caulerpa produce toxic substances resulting in their avoidance by
grazing species such as sea slugs, which might otherwise control them (I & I NSW, 2009).
Ornamental plants
Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) was introduced from South Africa in the 1800s as an
ornamental plant. This vine was used widely in gardens and for floral arrangements. Bridal creeper
is highly invasive and can be found impacting native vegetation in temperate and Mediterranean
climate areas across Australia (WoNS, 2009). The plant spreads aggressively and can climb up
trees three metres in height, smothering native vegetation. The vine also changes the chemical
composition of the soil, inhibiting germination of native species and allowing other introduced
weeds to invade the area (WoNS, 2009). The seeds are also spread to new locations by birds,
foxes and rabbits, which forage on the abundant red berries.
Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) is thought to have been introduced to Australia from Europe in
the 1800s, possibly as an ornament plant. It escaped from gardens and is now a major woody
weed of temperate areas (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001b, pp 470-471). Scotch broom has
spring loaded seed pods that spread seeds widely. In local regions where it establishes it takes
over large areas. Scotch broom fixes nitrogen, and smothers and out-competes native plants while
providing habitat for invasive vertebrate species such as foxes, rabbits and wild pigs (Parsons and
Cuthbertson, 2001b, p 107).
African olive (Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidate) was introduced into Australia as a hedging plant
from southern Africa in the early-mid 19th century and is now a well established invasive woody
weed in New South Wales, particularly in the western Sydney and Hunter Valley regions (New
South Wales Scientific Committee, 2010). African olive is long lived and forms dense canopies that
shade the ground and prevent native shrubs and grasses from germinating. The subspecies is
adapted to a wide range of soils and produces heavy crops of black fruit every year that are readily
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dispersed by birds. In 2010 ‘The Invasion of Native Plant Communities by African Olive Olea
europaea L. subsp. cuspidata’’ was listed as a KTP under New South Wales legislation (New
South Wales Scientific Committee, 2010).
Prickly pear (Opuntia stricta), widely considered to be the worst invasive weed to be introduced to
Australia, was first thought to have been introduced from the United States of America as an
ornamental plant. Records from the early 1800s show specimens being grown in gardens in
Scone, NSW, and Warwick, Qld, as it was considered to be a good fruiting hedge (Tanner, 2009).
Prickly pear was thought to be a good standby feed for stock during drought and was planted in
paddocks. As the popularity of the prickly pear spread, it was transported around the country. With
the suitable climate and lack of natural controls the prickly pear population exploded. In 1880 it
was recognised as a major weed and legislation was introduced to control it (Freeman, 1992). By
the early 1900s prickly pear had taken over many parts of the landscape and people were even
encouraged to kill native species, such as emus and crows that feed on the fruit, to stop the spread
(Tanner, 2009). It was not until 1926 that the solution to the problem was found with the
introduction of a biological control, the cactoblastis moth (Cactoblastis cactorum), whose
caterpillars devour prickly pear (Freeman, 1992). Cactoblastis was an overwhelming success and
is recorded as one of the greatest biological control success stories in the world.
Mammals and birds released for hunting purposes
European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and six species of deer (Axis
axis, A. porcinus, Cervus elaphus, C. timorensis, C. unicolour and Dama dama) were introduced
into Australia during the 1800s by Acclimatisation Societies for hunting (Frith, 1973, pp 162-173;
Moriarty, 2004). Deer are now widely spread throughout Australia and occur in habitat that ranges
from rainforest to arid woodland (Moriarty, 2004). In 2004 it was estimated there were 200 000 wild
deer in Australia (Moriarty, 2004). Deer are impacting on the natural environment and native
species by trampling and destroying plants, increasing grazing pressure and ring-barking young
trees. Deer also foul waterholes, cause soil erosion and assist the spread of weeds (NSW
DECCW, 2004).
Pheasants, quail, grouse, partridges and guinea fowl were introduced to Australia to address the
shortage of traditional game birds (Frith, 1973, pp 182–184). Some species established wild
populations however, unlike mammals, numbers decreased over time to small populations (Frith
1973, pp 182–184).
Mammals introduced for agricultural purposes
Many mammal species have been introduced into Australia as domestic livestock for agricultural
purposes and have escaped or been released into the environment and established wild
populations. These species include cattle, buffalo, pigs, goats, camels, horses, donkeys and
ostrich.
Pigs (Sus scrofa) were brought to Australia on the first fleet for agricultural purposes for the colony
but escaped into the wild, establishing in all non-arid regions in Australia (Norris et al., 2005). Feral
pigs cause significant damage to the environment and adversely affect rare flora and fauna
including turtle eggs, insects, frogs, geckos, birds and fish fingerlings (Norris et al., 2005). They
spread weeds, destroy vegetation and disturb the ground while feeding, causing soil erosion,
altered drainage and habitat. Pigs wallow in water holes, fouling them and making them unsuitable
for native species. Pigs have no natural predators and breed rapidly, out-competing native species
for habitat and food.
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Biological Control
Thousands of cane toads (Rhinella marinus) (formerly known as Bufo marinus), a native of central
and South America, were released in Queensland in the 1930s to control French's cane beetle
(Lepidiota frenchi) and the greyback cane beetle (Dermolepida albohirtum). The beetle larvae eat
the roots of sugar cane and kill or stunt plants, however cane toads proved to be unsuccessful in
controlling cane beetles (DEWHA, 2005a). Since its introduction to Australia the cane toad has
spread south and west across the continent and now occurs in Queensland, the Northern Territory,
Western Australia and New South Wales (DEWHA, 2005a).
Cane toads eat a wide variety of prey, breed opportunistically, have a far greater fecundity than
native species and develop rapidly, particularly where there are warmer waters. They are
considered to be an extreme generalist with a tolerance for a broad range of environmental and
climatic conditions and are able to potentially occupy many habitats (DEWHA, 2005a). There is
considerable concern over the impact of the cane toad on native species and, in particular,
invertebrate communities, through predation and competition. Most significantly, they possess
highly toxic chemical predator defences and many scientific and anecdotal reports exist of deaths
of native predators that have attempted to consume cane toads (DEWHA, 2005a).
The plague minnow or gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki) was introduced into the Sydney Royal
Botanic Gardens from the United States of America in 1925, as part of a biological control program
for mosquitoes (Pyke and White, 2000; NSW Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003). The species is
now widely dispersed and occurs in most freshwater habitats in south-eastern Australia, and parts
of Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Gambusia have been extremely
successful invaders; they disperse over a wide area and can occupy diverse habitats and
environmental conditions (NSW Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003). Internationally gambusia has
been ineffective at controlling mosquitoes and its introduction has had a harmful impact on native
fish worldwide. Gambusia impact on native species including frogs, fish and macroinvertebrates.
They prey on some native frog species, particularly the nationally listed endangered green and
gold bell frog (Litoria aurea), and are thought to be a contributing factor in the decline of this
species in New South Wales (Pyke and White, 2000). There is no known effective method of
control for gambusia and once introduced to an area they are almost impossible to eradicate,
particularly in connected waterways (NSW Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003).
Aquaculture/mariculture and fishery releases
Fish managed in aquaculture or mariculture can escape and transfer disease into wild stocks.
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) introduced into Tasmania are reported as being infected with a
number of viruses that can transfer to wild populations including amoebic gill disease (AGD)
caused by the amoeba Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis (Munday et al., 2001). First introduced into
Tasmania with Atlantic salmon in 1986, AGD has the potential to infect wild populations if stock
escape from managed farms (Munday et al., 2001).
Species imported as fishery stock that are then released have a direct impact on the environment
though habitat modification, predation, competition and disease transfer. European carp (Cyprinus
carpio), a native of Eastern Europe and central Asia, was introduced into Australian waterways as
a sport fish in the 1800s but was contained until an introduction in the 1960s and has now invaded
one million square kilometres (Koehn, 2004). European carp have been reported to achieve high
biomasses of 3144 kg per ha and individual densities of up to 1000 per hectare (Koehn, 2004).
European carp destroy or reduce the value of habitat for native fish by increasing water turbidity
and destroying aquatic plant beds (Roberts et al., 1995; Harris and Schiller, 2001, pp 229–258),
resulting in reduced photosynthetic production and inhibiting visual-feeding fish (Koehn, 2004).
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European carp out-compete native fish by being able to reproduce more rapidly, being able to
spawn at lower water temperatures and having a very rapid larval growth rate (Koehn, 2004).
Similarly, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) were released into
Australian waters in the 1800s for sporting purposes. Trout now successfully breed in many
waterways and lakes in southern Australia and restocking regularly occurs. Trout have a negative
impact on a number of native fish, frog and invertebrate species (Cadwalladar, 1996: Arlington and
McKenzie, 1997), particularly the nationally listed critically endangered spotted tree frog (Litoria
spenceri). This frog species breeds in upland streams and has declined particularly in streams
where trout are present. Studies have demonstrated that trout fingerlings feed heavily on tadpoles
of the spotted tree frog (Gillespie, 2001).
Pets escaped or released into the wild
Pets, including cats, dogs and birds, are important and widespread in Australian society, however
not all pets have remained domesticated and many have escaped or been released into the wild.
The first cats are thought to have arrived in Australia after swimming ashore from Dutch
shipwrecks (Abbott, 2003). Feral cats prey on a wide range of native species including small
mammals, birds, reptiles and rodents (Norris et al., 2005). Cats can breed rapidly with first
breeding at 10 months and under good conditions can breed continuously at any time of the year,
having up to three litters a year. Feral cats can be found in all environments. Males usually occupy
a home range of 10 km2 but this may be larger if food supplies are scarce. Feral cats are
carnivores and can survive with limited access to water as they utilise moisture from their prey
(DEWHA, 2004).
Aquarium fish released into the natural environment have been a major source of introduced fish
species in Australia. It is reported that 22 of the 34 alien fish species that have established in
Australia are the result of people intentionally or accidentally releasing aquarium species into
waterways (Lintermans, 2004).
Similarly, imported parrots such as the rose-ringed (ring-necked) parakeet (Psittacula karmeri)
have been known to escape from captivity. If this species was to become established in the wild it
would compete with native species for habitat and could pose a threat to the environment and
agriculture, similar to impacts it has had in its native India. Additionally, imported parrots may have
been the origin of the psittacine beak and feather disease in Australia that is having a large impact
on native psittacine species (DEWHA, 2005b).
Escaped, released or stolen from research and exhibitor/conservation species, zoos and private
collections
Exotic species kept in zoos, private collections and research institutes are a potential risk to native
species from animals escaping, being stolen or intentionally released. There have been a number
of recorded cases where exotic species such as squirrels, red panda and snakes have escaped
from captivity (Invasive Species Council, 2003).
Illegal trade or keeping of animals
A significant threat to Australia’s biodiversity is the illegal importation and trade of exotic species
such as snakes, lizards, amphibians, fish and birds prohibited in Australia. If introduced many
species, particularly reptiles, could establish in Australia with disastrous effects on native species,
such as preying on and out-competing them. Species such as the American corn snake (Elaphe
guttata), which have been recorded as being illegally imported, could threaten native species
(Frith, 1973; QDPI&F, 2007a). Snakes that are illegally imported could also harbour many exotic
diseases that could have a severe impact on native species such as Inclusion Body Disease or
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Ophidian Paramyxo Virus (Jacobson, 1993).
Releases to ‘enrich’ the native flora and fauna
Many species were introduced into Australia as a result of the activities of acclimatisation societies.
These societies were established in an attempt to transplant elements of Britain into the new
colony (Curtin, 1997) and to increase agricultural development (Cook and Dias, 2006). In 1861, the
Acclimatisation Society of Victoria was established (Gillbank, 1986) and was supported by many of
the colonists who felt that the Victorian environment needed to be improved and made more like
England. The society’s purpose was to import animals, plants and game of economic or recreation
value from Britain and Europe and to establish them in Australia. Over a number of years the
society organised the importation of cashmere goats, alpacas, pheasant, deer, hare, sparrows,
larks, thrushes (Frith, 1973, p 137–195; Gillbank, 1986), starlings, Indian myna and blackbirds
(Rolls, 1969, pp 302–316). The society was disbanded in the late 1860s (Gillbank, 1986), but not
before doing irreversible damage to the environment.
Arrival without human-aided assistance
Species can arrive in Australia without human aided assistance, for example vagrant birds, insects,
seed and spores aided by the wind and in the gut and on the feathers of migratory birds. Most
vagrant birds are individuals that are lost and die or depart again posing no threat. Some bird
species have invaded and become established in Australia, including the cattle egret (Ardea ibis)
that fills a niche provided by grazing livestock (Maddock and Geering, 1994). Another incursion of
a potentially novel biota occurred in December 2007 when four Canada geese (Branta canadensis)
arrived on the south coast of NSW, probably from New Zealand where they have invaded and
become a minor problem (Dawes, 2008). Canada geese in Australia would compete with native
species for habitat and have also been shown to spread weeds and have the potential to hybridise
with native species as has occurred in other countries (Dawes, 2008).
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2.
HOW JUDGED BY THE COMMITTEE IN RELATION TO THE EPBC ACT CRITERIA
Section 188(4) of the EPBC Act states:
A threatening process is eligible to be treated as a key threatening process if:
a) it could cause a native species or an ecological community to become eligible for listing in
any category, other than conservation dependent; or
b) it could cause a listed threatened species or a listed threatened ecological community to
become eligible to be listed in another category representing a higher degree of
endangerment; or
c) it adversely affects 2 or more listed threatened species (other than conservation dependent
species) or 2 or more listed threatened ecological communities.
This section provides examples of how the threatening process is impacting on native species and
ecological communities2 to address the required criteria under the EPBC Act that make it eligible
for listing, as outlined above. It also provides information and examples of invasive novel biota
included in this KTP. It is not a comprehensive list of all invasive novel biota in each category.
Rather, the examples are representative of each category. It is difficult to provide a precise and
comprehensive list of all invasive novel biota in Australia that threaten biodiversity. This KTP is an
overarching KTP, which recognises there are many novel biota that currently impact on biodiversity
and that there are additional species that may provide a new threat in the future.
A.
Could the threatening process cause a native species or an ecological community to
become eligible for listing as Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered,
Endangered or Vulnerable?
There are a number of species not listed as threatened under the EPBC Act that are likely to be
negatively impacted by novel biota. However, there are currently insufficient quantitative data
available to enable assessment of the impacts on most of these species against this criterion.
There is however, evidence that the threatening process could cause Aepyprymnus rufescens
(rufous bettong), Ornithoptera richmondia (Richmond birdwing butterfly) and Bidyanus bidyanus
(silver perch) to become eligible for listing as threatened under the EPBC Act.
These species’ eligibility for listing under the EPBC Act is assessed below using relevant criteria
set out in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000. The
species would be considered to be vulnerable if they met any one of the criteria set out in the
regulations.
Aepyprymnus rufescens (rufous bettong)
The following criterion is relevant in the case of Aepyprymnus rufescens (rufous bettong): ‘It has
undergone, is suspected to have undergone or is likely to undergo in the immediate future, a
substantial reduction in numbers’ as a result of competition, predation or herbivory and habitat
degradation by the vertebrate pest European or red fox (Vulpes vulpes).
The rufous bettong is a small marsupial, 70–80 cm long from nose to tail, weighing about
3250 grams, with reddish-brown fur. They normally move quite slowly by placing the forelegs on
the ground and bringing the hindlegs forward together, but can also hop (NSW DECCW, 2005).
This species fits into the critical weight range of 35 g to 5500 g for extinctions and declines of nonflying mammals across Australia (Burbridge and Mckenzie, 1989).
2
Ecological community means the extent in nature in the Australian jurisdiction of an assemblage of native species that
inhabit a particular area in nature.
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The rufous bettong inhabits grassy woodlands and forest in areas having tall native grasses and
no shrub layer in northern NSW and Queensland (Seebeck and Rose, 1989). Rufous bettongs are
generally active from dusk to dawn when they feed on grasses, herbs, seeds, flowers, roots,
tubers, fungi and occasionally insects (NSW DECCW, 2005).
The rufous bettong was once common down the east cost of Australia but has undergone
substantial population declines, particularly in the southern part of its range (Dennis and Johnston,
2008, pp 285–286). It is listed as vulnerable in New South Wales under the Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995 and regionally extinct in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act
1988.
The red fox was introduced into Australia for recreational hunting in 1871 and spread rapidly to
become one of the widest spread invasive animals in the country (McLeod, 2004). Foxes have
significantly contributed to the extinction pressures faced by many Australian species (Mahon,
2009). Foxes pose the most threat to small native mammals and generally prey upon mediumsized to small prey (e.g. possums and small marsupials). In particular, species that fall into the
critical weight range are at risk of local extinction when the fox is present (May and Norton, 1996).
The rufous bettong is highly susceptible to fox predation as it is active at the times that most
coincide with fox hunting and is prone to surplus killing attacks (May and Norton, 1996; Short et al.,
2001). Foxes have been identified as one of the major causes of the regional extinction and
declines in ground dwelling mammals including the rufous bettong in Victoria and inland NSW
(Dennis and Johnston, 2008, pp 285–286; Mahon, 2009 and references therein).
The rufous bettong remains common in areas where fox and rabbit numbers remain low on both
sides of the Great Dividing Range in north-eastern New South Wales and Queensland (Dennis and
Johnston, 2008, pp 285–286). Fox control is vital in reducing numbers of foxes to help limit the
impact on native species, although other predators such as cats have to be considered in any
management plan to prevent further mesopredator release that could further endanger species like
the rufous bettong (Prugh et al., 2009). If population numbers of foxes were to significantly
increase, greater predation of the rufous bettong is likely to occur which would result in the species
declining further.
Summary of assessment: The Committee considers that the species has undergone a substantial
reduction in numbers consistent with a substantial reduction in range. The extent of occurrence of
the rufous bettong has declined following the introduction and spread of the red fox particularly in
southern Australia. If fox numbers continue to increase and extend in range it is expected that
there would be a substantial reduction in the numbers of rufous bettong. The Committee judges
that this threatening process could cause the rufous bettong to become eligible for listing under the
EPBC Act.
Ornithoptera richmondia (Richmond birdwing butterfly)
The following criterion is relevant in the case of Ornithoptera richmondia (Richmond birdwing
butterfly): ‘It has undergone, is suspected to have undergone or is likely to undergo in the
immediate future, a substantial reduction in numbers’ as a result of competition, habitat loss and
degradation caused by the terrestrial weed Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia elegans).
The Richmond birdwing butterfly is one of Australia's largest butterflies with a wingspan of up to 15
cm and is listed as vulnerable under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992. The species
was once reportedly very common in Brisbane and its natural range extended from Maryborough
and Gympie in Queensland to Grafton in New South Wales (Gardening Australia, 2003; Vidler,
2004; Sands, 2008). However, habitat clearing and the loss of host plants has resulted in the
species now being limited to isolated areas (QLD DERM, 2007).
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Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia elegans) is a fast growing vine originating from Brazil, which can
reach up to three metres in length and has distinctive flowers that are shaped like a traditional
Dutchman's pipe. The Dutchman’s pipe is a prime invader of rainforest habitat and a significant
environmental weed that has naturalised in parts of Queensland and northern New South Wales. It
is easily cultivated and with its attractive showy flowers has been a widely promoted ornamental
plant. Dutchman’s pipe poses a particular threat to the Richmond birdwing butterfly as it is similar
in appearance to the native food species. The Richmond birdwing butterfly has two specific host
Pararistolochia vines (P. praevenosa and P. laheyana) and only occurs in subtropical rainforest
where these vines occur (Sands and Scott, 1998).
The introduction of the Dutchman’s pipe into gardens and its subsequent spread into the
environment is resulting in a decrease in the Richmond birdwing butterfly (Sands and Scott, 1998).
The vine emits a substance that tricks female butterflies into laying their eggs on the vine, but
when the larvae hatch they are poisoned as they begin to feed (Sands and Scott, 1998). The
increased spread of the Dutchman’s pipe will continue to have a greater impact on the Richmond
birdwing butterfly over time as the species is increasingly finding the weed to deposit eggs on
rather than the native species, resulting in a higher loss of larvae. Additionally, the female
butterflies have been shown to deposit significantly more eggs on Dutchman’s pipe than on native
food plants growing nearby (Sands et al., 1997). If the spread of the Dutchman’s pipe continues it
is likely that the number of Richmond birdwing butterflies will continue to decrease.
Summary of assessment: The Committee considers that the species has undergone a substantial
reduction in numbers consistent with a substantial reduction in range. The species’ distribution is
dictated by the distribution of its native food plant and, in future, the latter will be largely dictated by
the expansion of various invasive weeds, including the Dutchman’s pipe. The survival of the
butterflies that remain is also jeopardised by virtue of the fact that the leaves of the Dutchman’s
pipe are poisonous to feeding Richmond birdwing butterfly larvae. Further, the decline in
population size and geographic distribution may continue if the threat of invasive weed continues.
The Committee considers that the Richmond birdwing butterfly is likely to undergo a substantial
reduction in numbers in the immediate future. The Committee judges that this threatening process
could cause the Richmond birdwing butterfly to become eligible for listing under the EPBC Act.
Bidyanus bidyanus (silver perch)
The following criterion is relevant in the case of Bidyanus bidyanus (Silver Perch): ‘It has
undergone, is suspected to have undergone or is likely to undergo in the immediate future, a
substantial reduction in numbers’ as a result of mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by
the pathogenic Asian fish tapeworm (Bothriocephalus acheilognathi).
Silver perch are a medium to large freshwater fish that occur in lowland turbid slow flowing rivers of
the Murray-Darling Basin (Lintermans, 2007). The species was once widespread across much of
the Murray-Darling basin but has declined across its range; a 93 per cent decline was recorded in
the Murray River between 1940 and 1990 (Lintermans, 2007). The species is listed as protected in
South Australia and threatened in New South Wales and Victoria. Due to the declining numbers, all
populations of silver perch are important for the species’ survival.
The Asian fish tapeworm is associated with cyprinid fish in China and was introduced to Australia
with fish, particularly European carp (Cyprinius carpio) (Dove et al., 1997). The prevalence of
Asian fish tapeworm throughout Australia is concomitant with the spread of carp and also
gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki), which is now spread widely in Australia and has also been
recorded as a host of the tapeworm (Dove et al., 1997). The tapeworm causes reduced growth and
death of fish, with young fish being particularly susceptible (Dove et al., 1997; Henderson, 2009).
The Asian fish tapeworm has been recorded as having a low host specificity allowing it to spread
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into native fish species and seriously threaten their health (Dove et al., 1997).
The Asian fish tapeworm is a threat to native fish and particularly endangered native fish species
(DEWHA, 2000a; Dove and Fletcher, 2000) and is recorded as a threat to the endangered
Macquaria australasica (Macquarie perch) a similar species to the silver perch (DEWHA, 2000a;
Lintermans, 2007). Infestation with Asian fish tapeworm could result in mortality of juvenile silver
perch, causing a further decline of the species.
Summary of assessment: The Committee considers that the species has undergone a substantial
reduction in numbers consistent with reduction in range. The distribution has been historically
impacted on due to river regulation affecting migration and reproduction behaviour and impacts of
invasive fish such as carp. The species could be further impacted on by the spread of the Asian
fish tapeworm causing a further decline of species numbers. The Committee judges that this
threatening process could cause the silver perch to become eligible for listing under the EPBC Act
Conclusion for Criterion A: The Committee considers that the threatening process is eligible
under this criterion as the process could cause the rufous bettong, Richmond birdwing butterfly
and silver perch to become eligible for listing as threatened under the EPBC Act.
B.
Could the threatening process cause a listed threatened species or a listed
threatened ecological community to become eligible to be listed in another category
representing a higher degree of endangerment?
Novel biota, along with other processes, could cause Caretta caretta (loggerhead turtle) and the
ecological community ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’, both currently
listed as endangered, to become eligible for listing as critically endangered under the EPBC Act
Caretta caretta (loggerhead turtle)
The loggerhead turtle occurs in the waters of coral and rocky reefs, seagrass beds and muddy
bays throughout eastern, northern and western Australia. Nesting is concentrated in southern
Queensland and from Shark Bay to the North West Cape in Western Australia, while foraging
areas are more widely distributed (DEWHA, 2005c).
Loggerhead turtles are threatened by a range of activities including boat strike, fishing and animal
predation. Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and dogs destroy hundreds of nests in eastern Queensland. The
rise in the number of foxes has been consistent with the decline in recruitment of immature
loggerhead turtles along the eastern Australian coast. It is thought that there will be reduced
recruitment to the nesting adult population between 2000–2020 as a result of fox predation in the
1960s and 1970s (DEWHA, 2005c).
The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) is a small colonial ant that is native to South
America, where its natural distribution appears to be regulated by competition, endemic predators
and pathogens. Fire ants are aggressive generalist foragers that occur in high densities, and
workers can sting relentlessly when their mound is disturbed. They are effective at foraging and
recruitment, which makes them highly competitive and very effective at resource defence. Fire ants
were discovered at two separate sites in Brisbane, Queensland, in February 2001 and while
currently confined to the Brisbane area, the fire ant has the potential to invade much of Australia
(DEWHA, 2003).
In the United States of America where fire ants have also invaded and spread, they affect native
vertebrate wildlife by consuming soft-shelled eggs, hatchlings, newborn and dependent young and
occasionally adults of some species. Fire ants have been reported to attack the eggs or nestlings
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 19 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
of several species including turtles, lizards and water birds, and are associated with a decline in
nesting success of some birds (DEWHA, 2003).
The impacts of fire ants on fresh and saltwater turtle species in the United States of America,
particularly Chelonia mydas (green turtle) and loggerhead turtles have been well documented
(Wilmers et al., 1996; Moulis, 1997; Allen et al., 2001). Fire ants have been observed invading
turtle nests, feeding on egg,s and stinging, killing and subsequently feeding on hatchlings (Wilmers
et al., 1996). In Australia, the loggerhead turtle nesting beaches in Queensland are located less
than 400 km north of the current fire ant infestation in Brisbane (DEWHA, 2003; QDPI&F, 2007b).
Hatchling success for loggerhead turtle under natural conditions is considered to be low, possibly
as low as 10% (Moulis, 1997), so destruction of nests by predators (e.g. foxes and dogs), beach
erosion, predation on hatchlings and human activities (Fowler, 1979) all exacerbate the low
success rate of turtle hatchings. If the fire ant spreads and invades beaches used by loggerhead
turtles as nest sites, this could have a significant impact on turtle numbers resulting in the species
being eligible for listing under the EPBC Act in another category representing a higher degree of
endangerment.
‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’
The endangered ecological community ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’ is
characterised by a very diverse flora, of which many species are endemic, priority species.
Endangered flora includes Gastrolobium modestum, G. papilio, Chamelaucium roycei ms (C. sp. C
Coast Plain (R.D.Royce 4872)), Dryandra nivea subsp. uliginosa, D. squarrosa subsp. argillacea,
Grevillea elongata, G. maccutcheonii and Petrophile latericola ms (P. sp. Whicher Range
(G.J.Keighery 11790) WA Herbarium)). The community supports a rich layer of herbaceous
annuals under a dense shrub layer. The habitat of seasonally inundated massive ironstone is very
rare and mostly cleared, with only 90 hectares remaining (DEWHA, 2000b).
Australia's native vegetation and its dependent biota are threatened by the plant pathogenic fungus
Phytophthora cinnamomi that causes the roots of susceptible plants to rot, in many cases killing
the plant. It is thought that it was introduced at some time after European settlement. It is now well
established in many of Australia’s higher rainfall areas (mean annual rainfall greater than 600 mm)
in a mosaic of infected and uninfected areas. Effects range from devastating to inconsequential,
depending on environmental factors, which vary both within and between regions. It is estimated
there are over 2 000 known plant host species (Shearer et al., 2004)
Depending upon environmental conditions and plant susceptibility, P. cinnamomi can destroy
vegetation communities, and several plant taxa are at risk of extinction (Barrett et al., 2008). At
least 32 species within the Phytophthora genus occur in various parts of Australia, of which 14
have been recorded in the wild. Only three species (P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea and P.
megasperma) are currently known to cause significant damage in the wild and of these, P.
cinnamomi has resulted in the most extensive damage in a variety of habitats (DEWHA, 2009f).
Phytophthora die back also poses a threat to many native bird species in south-western Australia,
including various parrots and honeyeaters, such as the western spinebill (Acanthorhynchus
superciliosus), due to the loss of nectar and seeds (e.g. from various Proteaceae).
Several of the remaining patches of the ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’
ecological community are threatened by Phytophthora cinnamomi, with many of the endemic and
endangered species of plants in the community being dieback-susceptible. With only a limited area
of uncleared habitat remaining, the loss of any remaining part of the community would impact on
the survival of the community as a whole and could result in the community being eligible for listing
under the EPBC Act in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment.
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 20 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
Conclusion for Criterion B: The Committee considers that the threatening process is eligible
under this criterion as the process could cause both the loggerhead turtle and ‘Shrublands on
southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’ to become eligible for listing as critically endangered, a
category which represents a higher degree of endangerment under the EPBC Act.
C.
Does the threatening process adversely affect two or more listed threatened species
(other than conservation dependent species) or two or more listed threatened
ecological communities?
The majority of listed threatened species and ecological communities are threatened by one or
more novel biota. In listing advices novel biota are the greatest threat facing listed species and
ecological communities and is a key focus of most recovery plans. The following assessments
consider novel biota in each of the six main categories identified in this KTP:
 Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests.
 Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests.
 Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds.
 Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds and algae.
 Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests.
 Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens.
For each of the categories, these assessments provide a summary of novel biota present in
Australia in that group that pose a threat to native species and ecological communities and an
example of how a particular novel biota in that category is adversely affecting listed threatened
species and ecological communities.
Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests
It has been estimated that 73 invasive vertebrate pest animal species have established wild
populations in Australia, including mammals, fish, birds, reptiles and amphibians (Bromford, 2003).
Intentionally-introduced species include the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), red fox
(Vulpes vulpes), cane toad, Indian myna (Acridotheres tristis) and starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Other
vertebrate species have been brought as domestic pets or stock and escaped, or been released
into the wild to establish populations, such as the donkey (Equua asinus), one-humped camel
(Camelus dromedarius), feral cat and deer (Axis axis, A. porcinus, Cervus elaphus, C.timorensis,
C. unicolour and Dama dama). Further species such as the house mouse (Mus musculus), the
black or ship rat (Rattus rattus) and brown rat (R. norvegicus), arrived in Australia incidentally on
ships and in imported items (Norris et al., 2005).
Seven of the invasive vertebrates in Australia are among 100 species nominated by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as the world’s most invasive species (Lowe
et al., 2000). These include the domestic cat (Felis catus), goat (Capra hircus), house mouse (Mus
musculus), pig (Sus scrofa), rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and ship rat
(Rattus rattus), the Indian myna (Acridotheres tristis), red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer),
starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and the red-eared slider turtle (Trachemys scripta).
Forty-three non-native freshwater fish species have been recorded in the wild in Australia, of which
34 are reported to have established populations (Koehn and McKenzie, 2004; Lintermans, 2004).
One additional species, rosy barb (Puntius conchonius) is now known to be established in northern
and Western Australia (Corfield et al., 2008). Five of these freshwater species established in
Australia were nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe
et al., 2000), including carp (Cyprinus carpio), Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus),
gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo
trutta).
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 21 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
Seven vertebrate species are listed as KTPs under the EPBC Act (DEWHA, 2009a). These include
rabbits, pigs, unmanaged goats, foxes, rats on Australian offshore Islands, cane toads and cats.
Invasive vertebrate pests impact on native species in many ways. Escaped or released domestic
animals such as donkeys, camels, buffalo, pigs and horses damage the environment by grazing
native plants, fouling water sources, severely damaging the aquatic ecosystems and riparian
zones of waterways, causing soil erosion on river banks by destroying vegetation, out-competing
native species for food and shelter and acting as vectors for disease (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001,
pp 4–5). Similarly, other novel biota such as cats, foxes and introduced fish prey on native species,
are vectors for disease and compete for food and shelter. Other species including rats, mice and
rabbits, invade the burrows of native species, out-compete them by having high reproduction rate,
compete for food and are vectors for disease (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, pp 4–5).
A number of listed threatened fish species are directly threatened by introduced species.
Melanotaenia eachamensis (Lake Eacham rainbowfish) were eliminated from Lake Eacham as a
result of translocations of native species (Barlow et al., 1987). The endangered Galaxias fuscus
(barred galaxias) is threatened by alien salmonids (Raadik et al., 1996). Almost all of the
Tasmanian galaxiids listed under the EPBC Act including the endangered Galaxias auratus
(golden galaxias), Galaxias johnstoni (Clarence galaxias) and the vulnerable Galaxias parvus
(swamp galaxias) are threatened by trout (and some by redfin perch (Perca fluviatilis)) (TSS,
2006). Gambusia and redfin have been implicated in the decline of the endangered Nannoperca
oxleyana (Oxleyan pygmy perch) and Nannoperca obscura (Yarra pygmy perch) (Arthington, 1996;
Hammer et al., 2007, p 206).
For this group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus) is provided as one example that further demonstrates the impact of vertebrate pests.
European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
The European rabbit was introduced into Australia as domesticated individuals with the first fleet,
which were released onto a property in Geelong in 1859 by a member of the Victorian
Acclimatisation Society for Christmas hunting sport (McLeod, 2004). The rate of spread of the
rabbit is recorded as the fastest of any colonising animal anywhere in the world. The speed of
spread was aided by the fact that rabbits used the burrows of native species and were favoured by
changes to the natural environment made by agricultural practices (McLeod, 2004).
Rabbits are now one of the widest spread mammals in Australia and are found everywhere south
of the tropics. The impact of rabbits on the Australian environment has been disastrous and they
have significantly altered the botanical composition of extensive areas of natural habitat (Eldridge,
2000; Croft et al., 2002). Rabbits graze heavily on native plant species, killing some and preventing
germination and seeding establishment of others. Rabbits transform the landscape and cause soil
erosion due to the loss of vegetation (Lange and Graham, 1983; Cooke, 1987; Norris et al., 2005).
This grazing reduces the amount of protective vegetation for native species. Rabbits also take over
burrows and compete for food (Rolls, 1969, p 67). The presence of rabbits also attracts predatory
species, such as cats and foxes that also prey on native animal species (Norris et al., 2005).
This impact can be demonstrated for Macrotis lagotis (the greater bilby), a medium size member of
the marsupial family. At the time of European settlement greater bilbies were widespread
throughout arid and semi-arid areas of Australia. The species is now currently restricted to small
pockets in far western Queensland (Hume et al., 2004). The greater bilby relies on a constant
source of invertebrates such as termites, native seeds and roots (Navnith, 2009). After the invasion
of rabbits its habitat and food sources were severely restricted, as the food was being overgrazed
and the vegetation destroyed. Additionally, the loss of habitat is making the greater bilby more
vulnerable to attacks from feral cats and foxes (Hume et al., 2004). When reintroduced into areas
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 22 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
where rabbits, foxes and cats have been removed, greater bilbies successfully recolonise the area
and breed (Mosby and O’Donnell, 2003).
Rabbits have been listed as a KTP under the EPBC Act (DEWHA, 2009a). Table 1 shows species
listed as nationally threatened under the EPBC Act that have rabbits listed as a threat to their
ongoing survival.
Table 1: EPBC Act listed species and ecological communities that list rabbits as a threat.
Scientific name
Birds
Acanthiza iredalei iredalei
Amytornis barbatus barbatus
Amytornis textilis modestus
Amytornis textilis myall
Anthochaera phrygia
Cacatua pastinator pastinator
Calyptorhynchus lathami
halmaturinus
Diomedea exulans
Geophaps scripta scripta
Halobaena caerulea
Leipoa ocellata
Neophema chrysogaster
Pachyptila turtur subantarctica
Pedionomus torquatus
Pezoporus occidentalis
Poephila cincta cincta
Polytelis alexandrae
Pterodroma mollis
Pterodroma neglecta neglecta
Thalassarche chrysostoma
Mammals
Burramys parvus
Dasycercus byrnei
Dasycercus cristicauda
Dasycercus hillieri
Lagorchestes hirsutus
unnamed subsp.
Macrotis lagotis
Notomys fuscus
Perameles gunnii unnamed
subsp.
Petrogale lateralis lateralis
Petrogale lateralis MacDonnell
Ranges race
Petrogale penicillata
Common name
Current status
slender-billed thornbill (western)
grey grasswren (bulloo)
thick-billed grasswren (eastern)
thick-billed grasswren (Gawler
ranges)
regent honeyeater
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Muir’s corella (southern), western
long-billed corella (southern)
glossy black-cockatoo (south
Australian), glossy black-cockatoo
(kangaroo island)
wandering albatross
squatter pigeon (southern)
blue petrel
malleefowl
orange-bellied parrot
fairy prion (southern), fairy prion
(Macquarie island)
plains-wanderer
night parrot
black-throated finch (southern)
princess parrot, Alexandra’s
parrot
soft-plumaged petrel
kermadec petrel (western)
grey-headed albatross
Vulnerable
mountain pygmy-possum
kowari
mulgara
ampurta
mala, rufous hare-wallaby (central
mainland form)
greater bilby
dusky hopping-mouse, wilkiniti
eastern barred bandicoot
(mainland)
black-flanked rock-wallaby
warru, black-footed rock-wallaby
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
brush-tailed rock-wallaby
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Critically endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 23 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
Petrogale xanthopus
xanthopus
Pseudomys australis
Reptiles
Ophidiocephalus taeniatus
Tympanocryptis pinguicolla
Insects
Synemon plana
Plants
Abutilon julianae
Acacia araneosa
Acacia awestoniana
Acacia carneorum
Acacia cretacea
Acacia enterocarpa
Acacia glandulicarpa
Acacia insolita subsp. recurva
Acacia latzii
Acacia peuce
Acacia pickardii
Acacia rhamphophylla
Acacia rhetinocarpa
Acacia subflexuosa subsp.
Capillata
Achyranthes margaretarum
Asterolasia nivea
Austrostipa nullanulla
Ballantinia antipoda
Banksia cuneata
Banksia oligantha
Barbarea australis
Boronia capitata subsp.
capitata
Borya mirabilis
Brachyscias verecundus
Brachyscome muelleri
Caladenia bryceana subsp.
bryceana
Caladenia amoena
Caladenia argocalla
Caladenia audasii
Caladenia busselliana
Caladenia concolor
Caladenia conferta
Caladenia formosa
Caladenia gladiolata
yellow-footed rock-wallaby (SA
and NSW)
plains rat
Vulnerable
bronzeback snake-lizard
grassland earless dragon
Vulnerable
Endangered
golden sun moth
Critically endangered
Norfolk Island abutilon
spidery wattle, balcanoona wattle
Stirling Range wattle
needle wattle, dead finish, purplewood wattle
chalky wattle
jumping-jack wattle
hairy-pod wattle
Yornaning wattle
Latz’s wattle
waddy, waddi, waddy-wood,
Birdsville wattle
Critically endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Kundip wattle
neat wattle, resin wattle (SA)
Bindoon starbush
club spear-grass
southern shepherd’s purse
matchstick banksia, quairading
banksia
Wagin banksia
native wintercress
Grampians pincushion-lily
ironstone brachyscias
dwarf spider-orchid
charming spider-orchid
white-beauty spider-orchid
McIvor spider-orchid, Audas
spider-orchid
Bussell’s spider-orchid
crimson spider-orchid, maroon
spider-orchid
coast spider-orchid
elegant spider-orchid, blood-red
spider-orchid
bayonet spider-orchid, clubbed
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Critically endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Critically endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Critically endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 24 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
Caladenia lowanensis
Caladenia s macroclavia
Caladenia robinsonii
Caladenia rosella
Caladenia tensa
Caladenia thysanochila
Caladenia versicolor
Caladenia xanthochila
Calectasia arnoldii
Calonema wanosa
Caladenia elegans
Calotis glandulosa
Chamelaucium sp. Gingin (NG
Marchant s.n. 4/11/1988)
Chorizema humile
Conostylis dielsii subsp. teres
Conostylis drummondii
Conostylis micrantha
Conostylis rogeri
Conostylis setigera subsp.
Dasys
Cynanchum elegans
Darwinia carnea
Darwinia sp. Carnamah (J
Coleby-Williams 148)
Dichanthium setosum
Drakonorchis drakeoides
Eremophila viscida
Eucalyptus cadens
Eucalyptus gunnii subsp.
divaricata
Eucalyptus morrisbyi
Frankenia parvula
Gastrolobium lehmannii
Grevillea althoferorum
Grevillea curviloba subsp.
incurva
Grevillea maccutcheonii
Grevillea scapigera
Gyrostemon reticulatus
Hakea aculeata
Hakea maconochieana
Hakea pulvinifera
Hemiandra gardneri
Lepidium aschersonii
Lepidium hyssopifolium
Lepidium monoplocoides
Lepidium peregrinum
spider-orchid
Wimmera spider-orchid
large-club spider-orchid
Frankston spider-orchid
rosella spider-orchid, little pink
spider-orchid
greencomb spider-orchid, rigid
spider-orchid
fringed spider-orchid
candy spider-orchid
yellow-lip spider-orchid
stilted tinsel lily
mauve burr-daisy
Gingin wax
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
prostrate flame pea
Irwin conostylis
Drummond’s conostylis
small-flowered conostylis
kulin conostylis, single-flowered
conostylis
boscabel conostylis
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
white-flowered wax plant
mogumber bell
harlequin bell
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
hinged dragon orchid
varnish bush
warby range swamp gum
miena cider gum
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Morrisbys gum
short-leaved frankenia
Cranbrook pea
split-leaved grevillea
narrow curved-leaf grevillea
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Corrigin grevillea
net-veined gyrostemon
column hakea
red snakebush
spiny pepper-cress
basalt pepper-cress
winged pepper-cress
Critically endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Critically endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 25 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
Minuria tridens
Nematoceras dienemum
Pterostylis despectans
Philotheca basistyla
Pomaderris subplicata
Prasophyllum correctum
Prasophyllum frenchii
Prasophyllum goldsackii
Prasophyllum morganii
Prasophyllum pallidum
Prasophyllum subbisectum
Prostanthera calycina
Prostanthera eurybioides
Pterostylis arenicola
Pterostylis basaltica
Pterostylis bryophila
Pterostylis cheraphila
Pterostylis gibbosa
Pterostylis sp. (Northampton)
(SD Hopper 3349)
Pterostylis sp. Halbury (R
Bates 8425)
Pterostylis sp. Hale (R Bates
21725)
Pterostylis xerophila
Ptilotus beckerianus
Ptilotus fasciculatus
Ranunculus anemoneus
Rulingia sp. Trigwell Bridge (R
Smith s.n. 20/6/1989)
Rutidosis heterogama
Senecio garlandii
Senecio macrocarpus
minnie daisy
windswept helmet-orchid
(Macquarie island)
lowly greenhood
white-flowered philotheca
concave pomaderris
gaping leek-orchid
maroon leek-orchid, slaty leekorchid, stout leek-orchid, French’s
leek-orchid
Goldsack’s leek-orchid
mignonette leek-orchid, cobungra
leek-orchid, dense leek-orchid
pale leek-orchid
pomonal leek-orchid
monarto mintbush
sandhill greenhood orchid
basalt greenhood
Hindmarsh Valley greenhood
floodplain rustyhood
Illawarra greenhood, rufa
greenhood, pouched greenhood
Northampton midget greenhood
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Critically endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
hale dwarf greenhood
Endangered
desert greenhood
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Fitzgerald’s mulla-mulla
anemone buttercup
Trigwell’s rulingia
Swainsona pyrophila
Synaphea quartzitica
Tetratheca deltoidea
Tetratheca gunnii
Thelymitra cyanapicata
Thelymitra epipactoides
Thelymitra mackibbinii
brilliant sun-orchid
Swainsona murrayana
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Halbury greenhood
large-fruit fireweed, large-fruit
groundsel
superb groundsel
three-flowered stachystemon
annual stackhousia, annual
candles
slender darling-pea, slender
swainson, murray swainson-pea
yellow swainson-pea
quartz-loving synaphea
granite tetratheca
shy susan
dark-tipped sun-orchid
metallic sun-orchid
Senecio megaglossus
Stachystemon nematophorus
Stackhousia annua
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Critically endangered
Critically endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 26 of 66
The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
Thomasia glabripetala
sandplain thomasia
Tribonanthes purpurea
granite pink
Verticordia fimbrilepis subsp.
shy featherflower
fimbrilepis
Verticordia spicata subsp.
scaly-leaved featherflower
squamosa
Verticordia staminosa var.
granite featherflower
cylindracea
Verticordia staminosa subsp.
staminosa
Westringia crassifolia
whipstick westringia
Ecological Communities
Buloke Woodlands of the Riverina and Murray-Darling Depression
Bioregions
Grey Box (Eucalyptus microcarpa) Grassy Woodlands and Derived
Native Grasslands of South-eastern Australia
Eastern Stirling Range Montane Heath and Thicket
Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub of the Sydney Region
Gippsland Red Gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis subsp. mediana)
Grassy Woodland and Associated Native Grassland
Natural Grasslands of the Queensland Central Highlands and the
northern Fitzroy Basin
Perched Wetlands of the Wheatbelt region with extensive stands of
living sheoak and paperbark across the lake floor (Toolibin Lake)
Silurian Limestone Pomaderris Shrubland of the South East Corner
and Australian Alps Bioregions
Weeping Myall Woodlands
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Summary of assessment: Invasive vertebrate pests cause decline in the population size and
distribution of many threatened species, making local extinctions likely in the absence of effective
control measures. In particular, rabbits are having an adverse impact on the species through direct
competition and habitat destruction.
The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened
species.
Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests
Of the invasive invertebrates in Australia, seven are nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the
world’s most invasive species. These include Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), big-headed ant
(Pheidole megacephala), common wasp (Vespula vulgaris), yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis
gracilipes), flatworm (Platydemus manokwari), electric ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), and red
imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) (Lowe et al., 2000).
If introduced to Australia the Asian gypsy moth (Lymantra dispar) has the potential to have wideranging impacts on threatened species and ecological communities. The Asian gypsy moth has
polyphagous larvae (feeds on many types of plants) and has been shown to feed on a wide variety
of Australian native trees including many endemic species with restricted distributions such as the
endangered Eucalyptus gunnii subsp. divaricata from Tasmania (Matsuki et al., 2003). If
introduced this moth could have severe consequences on native vegetation, and fauna species’
food supply and habitat.
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The European wasp (Vespula germanica), and the English wasp (Vespula vulgaris) were first
recorded in Tasmania in 1959 (Goodisman et al., 2001) and 1995 (Matthews, 2000) respectively.
European and English wasps are voracious predators with selective appetites, and cause serious
impacts on native species by preying on them and out-competing them for food (Matthews, 2000;
Goodisman et al., 2001). Wasps also compete with insectivorous and nectivorous birds that
depend on insects to feed nestlings. If wasps become established in the vicinity of the Tasmanian
nesting areas of the nationally listed critically endangered Neophema chrysogaster (orange-bellied
parrot) and endangered Lathamus discolor (swift parrot) they could threaten their reproductive
success.
Feral honey bees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) have had a major impact on
native bees and native Australian plants through disrupting their breeding and seeding systems
and on native birds and animals, through competing for nectar and occupying tree hollows (Paton,
1996). Asian honeybees (Apis cerana) detected in Cairns in 2007, if it establishes in Australia is
likely to have a significant impact on native species. Asian honey bees are recorded from other
countries as hollows and nesting cavities in trees and also build up rapidly competing vigorously
for nectar and pollen resources (QDPI&F, 2010).
Feral honey bees are having an impact on all obligate hollow nesting birds in south west of
Western Australia (Johnstone and Kirkby, 2007). Bumblebees have naturalised in Tasmania after
a suspected deliberate introduction from New Zealand for horticultural purposes (Semmens et al.,
1993; Hingston, 2006). In Tasmania bumblebees are active at low temperatures and compete with
native bees and nectivorous birds. If bumblebees were to be introduced to mainland Australia they
would pose a threat particularly in Western Australia to the critically endangered native bee
Neopasiphae simplicior as well as native bird species by competing for pollen, nectar and habitat
(Hingston and McQuillan, 1998).
In Australia, ants are the dominant terrestrial invertebrate, occurring in all habitats and fulfilling a
crucial role in the environment as predators, prey, pollinators, seed dispersers and soil aerators
(Lach and Thomas, 2008). Invasive ant species, such as the red imported fire ant, electric ant,
Argentina ant and big-headed ant, have a major impact on native ant species by displacing them
and out-competing them for resources (Lach and Thomas, 2008; Callan and Majer, 2009).
Replacement of native species by invasive exotic ants impacts on biodiversity by not fulfilling the
roles of the native ants and changing the environment. Invasive ant species also impact on other
wildlife, such as quail and turtles, by attacking them and their nests (Moloney and Vanderwoude,
2002).
Two invasive exotic ant species are listed as KTPs under the EPBC Act including ‘The reduction in
the biodiversity of Australian native fauna and flora due to the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis
invicta (fire ant)’ and ‘Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity following invasion by the Yellow
Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean'.
For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, yellow crazy ant is provided as
one example to further detail the impact of invertebrate pests.
Yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes)
The yellow crazy ant has been introduced across the tropics and subtropics as a by-product of
human commerce. It invades urban, agricultural and native ecosystems where it can have
catastrophic impacts. These impacts include decimation of endemic species, changed habitat
structure and resource availability, loss of biodiversity and altered ecosystem processes (Abbott,
2005). The primary threatening process from the yellow crazy ant results from its propensity to
establish large populations, rapid spread, association with outbreaks of scale insects, and its broad
foraging range and generalist feeding habits.
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The yellow crazy ant is known to kill invertebrates, reptiles, hatchling birds and small mammals. On
Christmas Island the yellow crazy ant is an environmental pest that directly threatens the
conservation value of this isolated oceanic island. A number of species of endemic fauna including
land crabs, mammals, birds, and reptiles are at risk either directly through predation or indirectly
through habitat alteration or resource depletion (DEWHA, 2005d).
The yellow crazy ant is an aggressive opportunist species capable of invading and rapidly
colonizing a wide range of both disturbed and undisturbed habitats. On Christmas Island,
supercolony formation by the yellow crazy ant has resulted in the local extirpation of the endemic
Gecarcoidea natalis (red land crab) (Abbott, 2005). An estimated 15–20 million red crabs have
been killed since crazy ant supercolonies were first noted in 1989 (O’Dowd et al., 1999).
Elimination of this keystone species from large areas of the island has resulted in a rapid shift in
forest structure and composition. Mutualism between the yellow crazy ant and introduced or
cryptogenic scale insects can also result in scale insect outbreaks and dieback of the forest
canopy. Ant invasion causes major alterations in composition and structure of the forest.
On Christmas Island, yellow crazy ants cause a “state change” in the rainforest ecosystem. By
eliminating the red land crab, which is the major seed, seedling and litter consumer in the island
rainforest, the yellow crazy ant affects the rate of seedling recruitment and litter breakdown,
altering the recruitment dynamics of rainforest trees and almost certainly changing patterns of
nutrient availability (O’Dowd et al., 2001, pp 447–450). Outbreaks of sap-sucking scale insects
associated with yellow crazy ants stress trees and lead to decreased seed production and high
mortality in some canopy species. Furthermore, seed dispersal by endemic birds such as
Zosterops natalis (Christmas Island white-eye), Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus (Christmas
Island thrush) and Chalcophaps indica natalis (Christmas Island emerald dove), may be
compromised in yellow crazy ant supercolonies.
The endemic red land crab provides ‘biotic resistance’ to a wide range of potential alien invaders.
Extirpation of the red crab from the ecosystem in areas of yellow crazy ant supercolonies facilitates
‘follow-on’ invasions of the giant African land snail (Achatina fulica) and a variety of environmental
weeds (O’Dowd et al., 1999; Abbott, 2005). Table 2 shows species listed as nationally threatened
under the EPBC Act that have yellow crazy ant listed as a threat to their ongoing survival.
Table 2: EPBC Act listed species that list yellow crazy ants as a threat.
Scientific name
Accipiter hiogaster natalis
Chalcophaps indica natalis
Chelonia mydas
Crocidura attenuata trichura
Eretmochelys imbricata
Fregata andrewsi
Lepidodactylus listeri
Ninox natalis
Papasula abbotti
Pipistrellus murrayi
Ramphotyphlops exocoeti
Turdus poliocephalus
erythropleurus
Common name
Christmas Island goshawk
emerald dove (Christmas Island)
green turtle
Christmas Island shrew
Hawksbill turtle
Christmas Island frigatebird
Christmas Island gecko
Christmas Island hawk-owl
Abbott's booby
Christmas Island pipistrelle
Christmas Island blind snake
island thrush (Christmas Island)
EPBC Act listing
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Summary of assessment: Invasive invertebrate pests are causes of decline in the population size
and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions
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The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013
likely in the absence of effective control measures. In particular, yellow crazy ants are having an
adverse impact on the species and ecological communities through direct competition and habitat
destruction.
The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened
species.
Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds
Invasive terrestrial weeds are having major impacts on Australian native species and ecological
communities. Invasive weeds change the natural environment by out-competing native species for
space, nutrients and sunlight (Adair and Groves, 1998). Weeds can change fire frequency and
behaviour (gamba grass), species composition and richness (camphor laurel (Cinnamomum
camphora)), better colonise disturbed environments, smother native species (bridal creeper) and
provide shelter for invasive vertebrate pests such as rabbits (blackberries (Rubus spp.)).
All of Australia’s vegetative communities have been or are subject to some level of weed invasion.
It has been estimated that on a national scale exotic weed species account for 15% of flora, and of
these one-quarter are either serious environmental weeds or have the potential to be serious
weeds (Weeds, 2010). It is estimated that 80% of invasive plants were deliberately introduced,
65% as ornamental plants and approximately 15% for pasture or forestry (CRC Weed
Management, 2003b). Further to this, a 2006 study of Australian weeds determined that
approximately 2800 weed species are now naturalised in Australia, with 71 being recognised as
being of national significance (Coutts-Smith and Downey, 2006).
The majority of nationally listed threatened flora species and ecological communities have weed
invasion listed as a key threat to their survival. Currently one group of Northern Territory grass
species, ‘Invasion of northern Australia by Gamba Grass and other introduced grasses’ is listed as
a KTP under EPBC Act.
Intentionally introduced plants can also become weeds, for example murram grass (Ammophila
arenaria) and sea spurge (Euphorbia parallias), which were introduced to sand dunes to provide
stabilisation. Due to the success of the introduction of these species there is a complete change to
the morphology and natural selection process in many of the affected upper beach and dunes area
(Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania, 2003). These changes eliminate many nesting areas for
species that utilise the coastal zone, such as Thinornis rubricollis rubricollis (hooded plover) and
Haematopus longirostris (pied oyster catcher).
For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, lantana (Lantana camara) is
provided as one example to further detail the impact of terrestrial weeds.
Lantana (Lantana camara)
Lantana is a profusely branching, scrambling, aromatic shrub 2–4 (up to 15) m tall and wide, with
square-sectioned, often prickly cane-like stems (Swarbrick et al., 1995; Swarbrick et al., 1998, p
199). Lantana is an 'aggregate species', or 'species complex' (Day et al., 2003; Sanders 2006)
containing diverse varieties that have arisen from natural and horticultural hybridisation (Howard,
1969; Swarbrick et al., 1998, p 120; Parsons & Cuthbertson, 2001b).
Lantana was first recorded in Australia in 1841 from the Botanic Gardens in Adelaide, there have
since been many introductions for horticultural purposes and lantana has spread rapidly (Swarbrick
et al., 1998, p 121). Lantana is listed as a Weed of National Significance and has spread along the
east coast of Australia, from southern New South Wales to Cape York, and from sea-level up to
600 m altitude, or less commonly to 1000 m. It has invaded at least four million hectares, mainly in
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New South Wales and Queensland (CRC Weed Management, 2003c), and is expected to
significantly increase its distribution and density within this range unless properly managed
Lantana is found in New South Wales and Queensland and is also naturalised in the Northern
Territory, South Australia and Western Australia, on Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, on three
islands in the Torres Strait and (apparently marginally) in Victoria. Lantana is not yet known to be
naturalised in Tasmania, but ornamental plantings have been found in the State.
Lantana has an adverse effect on biodiversity as it suppresses native vegetation by forming dense
thickets that shade seedlings, out-competes native species for nutrients, and smothers plants
(Biosecurity Queensland, 2010). Lantana is also thought to be allelopathic, i.e. able to inhibit or
suppress by chemical means the germination and/or growth of at least some competing plant
species (Swarbrick et al., 1995; Gentle and Duggin, 1997; Day et al., 2003).
Lantana can flower and set seed all year round and its seeds are widely dispersed by many birds
and mammals. Open forests and woodlands on Australia’s east coast can be readily invaded by
lantana without disturbance, with lantana becoming distributed throughout these community types.
Lantana also invades many other ecological communities especially after disturbance, and can
become the dominant understorey species in disturbed native forests (Day et al., 2003). It can
inhibit succession following a disturbance by out-competing native colonisers and preventing
natural recovery. Declines in plant species richness with increasing levels of lantana infestation
have been documented in dry rainforest (Fensham et al., 1994).
Lantana is one of the worst invasive weeds in Australia and has been estimated to threaten
populations of more than 1 300 native plants and animals. There have been records of some
native species such as bandicoots, whipbirds, quail, wrens, birdwing butterflies, and brush turkeys
using lantana thickets as substitute habitat where it has replaced the natural understorey
vegetation, however this is only as a substitute for native species (Biosecurity Queensland, 2010).
This impact can be demonstrated for the critically endangered ecological community ‘Littoral
Rainforest and Coastal Vine Thickets of Eastern Australia’. Within Australia, littoral rainforest
occurs along the coast from far eastern Victoria up the east coast through New South Wales and
Queensland and across the Northern Territory and Western Australia. This ecological community
is listed as critically endangered in its southern occurrences along the eastern coastline of
Australia (including offshore islands) from Princess Charlotte Bay, Cape York Peninsula to, and
including, eastern Victoria. The ecological community provides a range of benefits to the
landscape, it is an important buffer to coastal erosion and wind damage, provides natural refugia,
suitable nest sites and food resources for resident and seasonally migratory species (DEWHA,
2008b and references therein).
‘Littoral Rainforest and Coastal Vine Thickets of Eastern Australia’ once formed an archipelago of
patches along the eastern coast of Australia however this has now been reduced and fragmented
primarily by coastal development, sandmining and agriculture (DEWHA, 2008b and references
therein). The resulting fragmentation and reduction in patch size render the ecological community
more vulnerable to other threats including weed invasion, edge effects and fire. The ecological
community is subject to invasion by transformer weeds, these being highly invasive taxa with the
potential to seriously alter the structure and function of the ecological community. If left unchecked,
such weeds will eventually take over and destroy the affected patch. Transformer weeds include
lantana, bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilfera subsp. rotundata) and rubber vine (Cryptostegia
grandiflora), which are all recognised as Weeds of National Significance i.e. high impact, highly
invasive species (DEWHA, 2008b and references therein).
Table 3 provides a list of species or ecological communities, listed as threatened under the EPBC
Act, that are considered to be adversely affected by lantana.
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Table 3: EPBC Act listed species and ecological communities that list lantana as a threat.
Species
Plants
Acronychia littoralis
Allocasuarina portuensis
Angophora robur
Arthraxon hispidus
Baloghia marmorata
Boronia umbellate
Bosistoa transversa s. lat.
(Bosistoa selwynii & Bosistoa
transversa)
Bothriochloa bunyensis
Clematis fawcettii
Corynocarpus rupestris subsp.
Rupestris
Cryptocarya foetida
Cynanchum elegans
Cyperus semifertilis
Daphnandra johnsonii
Desmodium acanthocladum
Diospyros mabacea
Diploglottis campbellii
Elaeocarpus sedentarius
Elaeocarpus williamsianus
Endiandra floydii
Endiandra hayesii
Eucalyptus glaucina
Eucalyptus parramattensis
subsp. Decadens
Eucalyptus tetrapleura
Fontainea australis
Fontainea oraria
Gossia fragrantissima
Haloragis exalata subsp. velutina
Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia
Irenepharsus trypherus
Isoglossa eranthemoides
Marsdenia longiloba
Melichrus sp. Newfoundland State
Forest (P.Gilmour 7852).
Melichrus sp.
Gibberagee (A.S.Benwelll &
J.B.Williams 97239)
Notelaea lloydii
Ochrosia moorei
Common Name
EPBC Act
scented acronychia
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
hairy-joint grass
marbled balogia, jointed baloghia
orara boronia
three-leaved bosistoa, heart-leaved
bosistoa, yellow satinheart, heartleaved bonewood
satin-top grass
stream clematis
glenugie karaka
stinking cryptocarya, stinking laurel
white-flowered wax plant
thorny pea
red-fruited ebony, silky persimmon,
ebony
small-leaved tamarind
minyon quandong
hairy quandong
Floyd’s walnut
rusty rose walnut, velvet laurel
slaty red gum
Earp’s gum, Earp’s dirty gum
square-fruited ironbark
southern fontainea
coastal fontainea
scale myrtle, sweet myrtle
monkey nut, bopple nut, red bopple,
red bopple nut, red nut, beef nut, red
apple nut, red boppel nut, ivory silky
oak
delicate cress, Illawarra irene
clear milkvine
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
narrow-leaf melichrus
Endangered
southern ochrosia
Vulnerable
Endangered
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Owenia cepiodora
Parsonsia dorrigoensis
Phaius australis
Phaius tancarvilleae
Plectranthus nitidus
Plectranthus omissus
Pterostylis gibbosa
Quassia sp. Mooney Creek (J.King
s.n. 1949)
Randia moorei
Rapanea sp. Richmond River
(J.H.Maiden & J.L.Boorman NSW
26751) = Myrsine richmondensis
Rheodytes leukops
Sophora fraseri
Syzygium paniculatum
onionwood, bog onion, onion cedar
milky silkpod
lesser swamp-orchid
swamp lily, greater swamp-orchid
nightcap plectranthus
Illawarra greenhood, rufa greenhood,
pouched greenhood
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
spiny gardenia
purple-leaf muttonwood, Lismore
muttonwood
Endangered
Endangered
Fitzroy River turtle
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
magenta lilly pilly, magenta cherry,
pocket-less brush cherry, scrub cherry,
creek lilly pilly, brush cherry
arrow-head vine
Tinospora tinosporoides
Triplarina imbricata
Tylophora linearis
Tylophora woollsii
Zieria prostrata
Animals
Dasyornis brachypterus
eastern bristlebird
Elusor macrurus
Mary River turtle
Ecological Communities
Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub of the Sydney Region
Littoral Rainforest and Coastal Vine Thickets of Eastern Australia
Blue Gum High Forest of the Sydney Basin Bioregion
Semi-evergreen vine thickets of the Brigalow Belt (North and South) and
Nandewar Bioregions
Swamp Tea-tree (Melaleuca irbyana) Forest of South-east Queensland
Turpentine-Ironbark Forest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Critically
Endangered
Critically
Endangered
Endangered
Critically
Endangered
Critically
Endangered
Summary of assessment: Invasive terrestrial weeds are the cause of decline in the population size
and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions
likely in the absence of effective control measures. In particular, lantana is having an adverse
impact on the species and ecological communities through direct competition and habitat
destruction.
The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened
species.
Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds and algae
Invasive aquatic weeds of inshore marine and fresh water ecosystems constitute a significant
component of Australia’s weed flora and make up a third of Australia’s 20 Weeds of National
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Significance (WoNS, 2009). Another invasive aquatic weed species that is not listed as a Weed of
National Significance that has been introduced to Australia, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
was nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al.,
2000). A number of semi-aquatic invasive exotic grass species, including gamba grass are listed
as KTPs under the EPBC Act.
Many of Australia’s aquatic weeds were introduced and spread by the aquarium trade including
water hyacinth, cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana), hydrocotyl (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides), parrot’s
feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum), Caulerpa taxifolia and salvinia (Salvinia molesta). Others
including olive hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis) were introduced as feed for livestock
and have spread through the wetlands and some, such as arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica),
were escaped garden plants. Aquatic weeds fall into four groups: emergent; floating; floating leaf;
and submerged weeds (Blanchard et al., 2009).
The arum lily, a native of South Africa, is an emergent weed that has stem and leaves growing
above the water line and is often found growing along the edges of creeks and ponds. The arum
lily is toxic to wildlife and can form dense clumps along water courses inhibiting native animals
from access as well as changing the bank structure and out-competing native plant species
(Blanchard et al., 2009).
Floating aquatic weeds such as salvinia and water hyacinth form thick mats on the surface of the
water blocking out light and deoxygenating the water, preventing germination and smothering
native flora and fauna. Other weeds, such as cabomba and leafy elodea or dense waterweed
(Egeria densa), are submerged aquatic weeds and many have the potential to spread through
Australia’s aquatic habitats (Schooler et al., 2006; Blanchard et al., 2009). These species also
smother native species, restrict water flow, increase siltation and alter the environment for fauna,
blocking pathways and making feeding difficult.
Aquatic plants intentionally introduced for beneficial environmental purposes can also become
invasive and result in more problems than they remediate. The semi-aquatic upper tidal weed
common cordgrass or rice grass (Spartina anglica) was introduced to Tasmania and Victoria to
reclaim salt marshes and mudflats, but has successfully colonised and now clogs many
Tasmanian estuaries. Cordgrass has changed the morphology of the upper tidal area that is
important for spawning for many aquatic species and birds (Kriwoken and Hedge, 2000).
The diatom didymo (Didymosphenia geminata) is not currently present in Australia, but is a major
pest in New Zealand (Whitton, 2009). This species has the potential to affect fish such as galaxiids
through abrasion of skin and gills.
The endangered ecological community 'Assemblages of plants and invertebrate animals of
tumulus (organic mound) springs of the Swan Coastal Plain' is threatened by two major wetland
weed species Isolepis prolifera and Pennisetum clandestinum (DEWHA, 2007).
The endangered Epthianura crocea tunneyi (yellow chat (Alligator Rivers)) is threatened by
invasion of exotic weeds such as para grass, gamba grass, and olive hymenachne, which modify
the species’ habitat by increasing the density of the grass and shrub layer, smothering native
grasses and increasing fuel loads which promote intense, late dry-season fires. These changes in
the habitat make it unsuitable for the yellow chat (Alligator Rivers) (DEWHA, 2009a).
Summary of assessment: Invasive aquatic weeds are the cause of decline in the population size
and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions
likely in the absence of effective control measures. The Committee judges that this threatening
process is adversely affecting many listed threatened species.
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Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests
Marine pests are any exotic marine species that may pose a threat to Australia's marine
environment or industry if introduced, established or translocated. Large numbers of marine pests
have been translocated into the Australian environment by a variety of means including through
ships' ballast water and by attachment to ships' hulls, anchors and other structures (referred to as
biofouling) (DEWHA, 2009c).
Australia has over 250 introduced marine species. Fortunately most remain relatively harmless but
some crabs, mussels, seastars and seaweeds have become marine pests in various locations.
The Northern Pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis) preys on native species depleting aquaculture
and fishery operations, while the European fan worm (Sabella spallanzanii) forms a 'carpet' on the
seabed, smothering native species for food and space and altering the marine habitat to suit itself
(Marine Pests, 2009).
Three novel biota introduced to Australia, the northern Pacific seastar, wakame seaweed (Undaria
pinnatifida), and European/green shore crab (Carcinus maenas), were nominated by the IUCN as
among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000). In Tasmania the arrival and
establishment of the New Zealand screw shell (Maoricolpus roseus) and the marine clam (Corbula
gibba), which now occur in high population densities on some-soft bottom sediments in southern
Tasmania, threaten to irreversibly change the local species composition. This could further
threaten the breeding and hence survival of the endangered Brachionichthys hirsutus (spotted
handfish) (Hirst et al., 2007).
Other species with the potential to become invasive if introduced to Australia include the Chinese
mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis), Asian shore crab (Hemigrapsus sanguineus) and the jack-knife
clam (Ensis directus (syn Ensis americanus)). These species impact on native species by altering
habitat, causing bank erosion, and preying on and out-competing native species (Voigt, 1999, pp
31-35; Hopkins, 2001; Brousseau and Baglivo, 2005; Rudnick et al., 2005).
For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, two species—northern Pacific
Seastar and New Zealand seastar (Patiriella regularis)—are provided as examples to further detail
the impact of marine pests.
Northern Pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis) and New Zealand Seastar (Patiriella regularis)
The northern Pacific Seastar is believed to have arrived in Tasmania early in the twentieth century
in ship ballast from a ship from Korea or Japan (NIMPIS, 2002). It was first recorded in Port Phillip
Bay in Victoria in the early 1990s (Parry et al., 2000). Northern Pacific Seastar is recognised by the
IUCN and the Global Invasive Species Programme as among 100 of the world’s most invasive
species (Lowe et al., 2000). The New Zealand seastar (Patiriella regularis) was probably
introduced to Tasmania in a live oyster shipment from New Zealand in the early twentieth century
(Dartnall, 1969; Waters and Roy, 2004).
The northern Pacific Seastar is a voracious predator, highly fecund, has a broad diet. The species
has the potential to colonise water from Perth to Sydney to a depth of 100 m. This area includes
World Heritage sites, Ramsar sites and protected marine areas (Dommisse and Hough, 2004).
Seastar larvae are easily sucked up in ballast water and can grow on boat hulls (Buttermore et al.,
1994). They can also travel in oyster seed trays and mussel ropes, which are often moved
between areas to maximise shellfish growth. Densities of the northern Pacific seastar in the
Derwent estuary in Hobart have been as high as seven per square metre—among the highest in
the world. Estimates suggest the population of northern Pacific seastars in Port Phillip Bay has
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reached 12 million in the two years since they were first observed, despite attempts to destroy the
pests (Goggin, 1998).
These invasive seastars are very versatile and can out-compete native seastars and become
dominant in the intertidal regions (NIMPIS, 2002). They out-compete the native species for food
and habitat and also eat native species. The northern Pacific seastar feeds on a wide range of
native marine animals and impacts on native shellfish populations that form a major part of the
marine food chain by significantly reducing their numbers (Buttermore et al., 1994). In Australia,
this invasive seastar has no native predators and flourishes due to rapid reproduction, which
compounds the problem (NIMPIS, 2002).
Two native species of Tasmanian seastar listed as threatened under the EPBC Act are directly
threatened by northern Pacific seastar. Patiriella vivipara (Tasmanian live-bearing seastar) is listed
as vulnerable and Marginaster littoralis (Derwent River seastar) is listed as critically endangered.
The northern Pacific seastar is known to prey upon the Tasmanian live-bearing seastar under
controlled conditions (Prestedge, 1999) and along with the New Zealand seastar is reported to be
the main threat (DEWHA, 2009d).
Similarly, the main threat to the Derwent River seastar is interspecific competition and
displacement from introduced seastars, the New Zealand seastar and the northern Pacific seastar
(DEWHA, 2009e). A potential threat from these introduced species is genetic swamping
(hybridisation).
Materia (1994a) suggested that the Derwent River seastar may have been genetically swamped
(hybridised) by the introduced New Zealand seastar. A microscopic examination that compared
hybridised specimens with the Tasmanian museum specimens of the Derwent River seastar and
the New Zealand seastar concluded that there was very little morphological difference between the
original two species. No specimens that could be conclusively identified as the Derwent River
seastar were found in a 1993 study, which may indicate the species had been subsumed by
hybrids at that time, or that it had been excluded from its former range by morphological varieties
of the New Zealand seastar (Materia, 1994b).
Summary of assessment: Invasive marine pests are the cause of decline in the population size and
distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions likely in
the absence of effective control measures. In particular, northern Pacific seastar and New Zealand
seastar are having an adverse impact on the Tasmanian live-bearing seastar and Derwent River
seastar through direct competition, displacement and predation.
The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened
species.
Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens
Three pathogens that impact on Australian native species are currently listed as KTPs under the
EPBC Act. They are ‘Psittacine Circoviral (Beak and Feather) Disease affecting endangered
psittacine species’; ‘Dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi)’; and
‘Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis.’ Two pathogens—Frog
Chytrid Fungus and Phytophthora Root Rot—were nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the
world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000).
Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (BFD) is a common and potentially deadly disease of parrots
caused by a circovirus named Beak and Feather Disease Virus. The potential effects of the
disease on parrot populations range from inconsequential to devastating, depending on
environmental conditions and the general health of the parrots. The level of threat and distribution
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of the virus can be altered by the movements of common parrot species, for example the recent
arrival of galahs and little corellas on Kangaroo Island, where the endangered glossy blackcockatoo lives and breeds in the same habitat (DEWHA, 2005e).
Australia’s native plants and ecological communities are threatened by the introduced soil-borne
plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi. Phytophthora die-back also poses a threat to many
native bird species in south-western Australia, including various parrots and honeyeaters, such as
the western spinebill (Acanthorhynchus superciliosus), due to the loss of nectar and seeds (e.g.
from various Proteaceae) (DEWHA, 2005e). The endangered ecological community ‘Eastern
Stirling Range Montane Heath and Thicket’ is adversely affected by Phytophthora die-back which
is widespread in most occurrences of the community. The entire extent of the eastern Stirling
Range has been infected by Phytophthora cinnamomi to some degree (Wills, 1993). The
community contains a number of threatened EPBC Act listed species that are affected by
Phytophthora die back including the endangered Andersonia axilliflora (giant Andersonia), Banksia
montana (Stirling Range dryandra), Darwinia wittwerorum (Wittwer's mountain bell) and Lambertia
fairallii (Fairalls honeysuckle).
Another pathogen, myrtle rust (Uredo rangelii) was introduced into Australia in 2010 and poses a
potentially serious threat to native species in the Myrtaceae family, including Callistemon spp.,
Melaleuca spp. and Eucalyptus spp. (Gollnow et al., 2010). Myrtle rust produces spores on
infected plants and may result in the death of highly susceptible plants. Myrtle rust cannot be
eradicated, as it produces large numbers of spores that are easily spread by wind, human activity
and animals. The impact on native species is currently unclear however there is the potential for
the pathogen to have a devastating effect on susceptible native species (DAFF, 2011).
Native fish are threatened by a number of pathogens including goldfish ulcer disease, Asian fish
tapeworm and Epizootic Haematopoietic Necrosis Virus (EHNV). Escaped aquarium fish led to the
spread of the goldfish ulcer disease that was introduced into Australia via infected goldfish and
which eventually spread to native fish such as Bidyanus bidyanus (silver perch) (Corfield et al.,
2008). Introduced fish are also the source of the Asian fish tapeworm (Bothriocephalus
acheilognathi), which has caused substantial mortalities in Hypseleotris klungzingeri (western carp
gudgeon) in the Canberra region (Dove et al., 1997). Introduced redfin perch are the main host for
Australia’s first recorded finfish virus, the EHNV (Langdon, 1989; Whittington and Reddacliff, 1995;
Reddacliff and Whittington, 1996; Whittington et al., 1996). Epizootic Haematopoietic Necrosis
Virus is highly pathogenic for a number of native species, including Macquaria australasica
(Macquarie perch), Galaxias olidus (mountain galaxias) and silver perch (Langdon, 1989).
In 1995, a mass mortality of Sardinops sagax (pilchards) occurred in Australia and spread east and
west from the Great Australian Bight, to cover a distance of 6 000 km from Noosa in Queensland
to Geraldton in Western Australia (Griffin et al., 1997). The exact cause of the mass mortality
remains unknown however the best hypothesis is that an exotic pathogen, possibly herpes-type
virus (Californian herpes), infected the pilchards. The source may have been from the release of
ballast water or a contaminated frozen pilchard fed to caged tuna at Port Lincoln (Griffin et al.,
1997, Ward et al., 2001 and references therein). Californian herpes reduced the Australian pilchard
population to less than 30% of virgin biomass and also impacted on other species such as the
eastern sea garfish which underwent a serious and inadequately explained decline at the same
time as the sardines (Ward et al., 2001).
The critically endangered Galaxias truttaceus hesperius (western trout minnow), a Western
Australian fresh water fish, has been found to be infected with the Pseudophyllidea cestode Ligula
intestinalis, a cestode known to infect numerous freshwater fish species in the northern
hemisphere (Morgan, 2003). This parasite impacts host reproductive output, swimming ability and
leads to increased likelihood of predation (Morgan 2003). It is likely that the cestode was
introduced into Western Australia in the 1950s and 1960 during the unsuccessful brown and
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rainbow trout releases or by avian host migrating from south-east (or south-west) Australia
(Morgan 2003).
For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, chytrid fungus
(Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) is provided as one example to further detail the impact of
pathogens.
Chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis)
Chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease affecting amphibians worldwide (Fisher and Garner,
2007 and references there in) and was first identified in Australia in 1998 (DEWHA, 2002). It is not
currently known whether the fungus is exotic or native to Australia and experts differ in their
opinion on the likelihood of the fungus being a novel pathogen (Rachowicz et al. 2005; Fisher and
Garner, 2007 and references there in).
The disease has been recorded in four regions of Australia; east coast, south-west Western
Australia; Adelaide; and central Kimberley. Chytridiomycosis is caused by the chytrid fungus, a
highly virulent fungal pathogen of amphibians capable of causing sporadic deaths in some
populations and 100% mortality in other populations. Surviving individuals are believed to be
carriers. The inoculating dose is low, 100 zoospores able to cause clinical chytridiomycosis within
four weeks. Some species appear highly susceptible to developing the disease, progressing to
death, while other species appear less susceptible to disease manifestations (DEWHA, 2002).
Many attributes of chytrid fungus and the disease in the wild are unknown, including survival of
chytrid fungus in the absence of amphibian populations, methods of transmission and spread, and
place/s and time of origin. Until recently the reasons for death of hosts was also unknown however
it has been shown that pathophysiological changes including an ionic imbalance that causes
cardiac arrest, result from infection (Voyles el al., 2009). There is no known treatment once chytrid
fungus is contracted. It appears fungus zoospores are contracted through contact with water when
released from infected frogs. Interaction between chytrid fungus and environmental factors, such
as temperature and stress, vary the impact of the disease.
The Action Plan for Australian Frogs was completed in April 1997, before discovery of the disease.
It states that dramatic declines in some Australian frog species have been reported since the
1980s, and, although some declines can be associated with changes to habitat, pollution and
predation, for most species the cause of decline is unknown. Disease was speculated as a
possible cause of decline in 10 species.
Over 30 listed threatened frog species are affected by chytrid fungus. Table 5 provides a list of frog
species, listed as threatened under the EPBC Act, that are considered to be or have been
adversely affected by chytrid fungus.
Table 5: EPBC Act listed species that list chytrid fungus as a threat.
Scientific name
Geocrinia alba
Geocrinia vitellina
Heleioporus australiacus
Hydrocharis dubia
Litoria aurea
Litoria booroolongensis
Litoria castanea
Litoria littlejohni
Common name
white-bellied frog
orange-bellied frog
giant burrowing frog
Frogbit
green and golden bell frog
Booroolong frog
yellow-spotted tree frog
little john’s tree frog
EPBC Act listing
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
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Litoria lorica
Litoria nannotis
Litoria nyakalensis
Litoria olongburensis
Litoria piperata
Litoria raniformis
Litoria rheocola
Litoria spenceri
Litoria verreauxii alpina
Mixophyes balbus
Mixophyes fleayi
Mixophyes iteratus
Nyctimystes dayi
Philoria frosti
Pseudophryne corroboree
Pseudophryne
covacevichae
Pseudophryne pengilleyi
Rheobatrachus silus
Rheobatrachus vitellinus
Spicospina flammocaerulea
Taudactylus acutirostris
Taudactylus diurnus
Taudactylus eungellensis
Taudactylus pleione
Taudactylus rheophilus
armoured mistfrog
waterfall frog
mountain mistfrog
wallum sedge frog
peppered tree frog
growling grass frog, southern bell frog,
green and golden frog, warty swamp frog
common mistfrog
spotted tree frog
alpine tree frog
stuttering frog
Fleay’s frog
southern barred frog
lace-eyed tree frog
Baw Baw frog
southern corroboree frog
magnificent brood frog
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
northern corroboree frog
gastric-brooding frog
Eungella gastric-brooding frog
sunset frog
sharp-snouted day frog
southern day frog
Eungella day frog
Kroombit tinker frog
tinkling frog
Vulnerable
Extinct
Extinct
Endangered
Extinct
Extinct
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Summary of assessment: Pathogens are the cause of decline in the population size and
distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions likely in
the absence of effective control measures. In particular, chytrid fungus is having an adverse impact
on many frog species by causing a serious decline in species abundance.
The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened
species and ecological communities.
Conclusion for Criterion C: The Committee considers that the threatening process is eligible
under this criterion as the process is adversely affecting population numbers and geographic
distribution of many listed threatened species and threatened ecological communities, primarily
through competition, predation, mortality and habitat degradation.
CONCLUSION: The threatening process meets s188(4)(a)(b) and (c) of the EPBC Act and is
therefore eligible to be listed as a key threatening process.
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3.
THREAT ABATEMENT PLAN
3.1
Degree of threat
The introduction and establishment of novel biota in Australia presents a significant risk to
Australia’s environment and has resulted in adverse impacts on a number of native species from a
variety of taxa, including many already listed as threatened under the EPBC Act. Novel biota are
considered by biologists to have the second most destructive impact, after habitat destruction, on
native species and ecological communities (Sanderlund et al., 1999, p 2; Coutts-Smith and
Downey, 2006). Novel biota impact biodiversity through: predation by feral animals; soil erosion
and water pollution; habitat loss; changes to hydrology, and; clogging and deoxygenation of
waterways. Many native species such as the greater bilby and rufous bettong have undergone a
decline in geographic distribution due to novel biota. The impacts of disease, hybridisation,
competition and habitat degradation have also contributed to declines in some cases.
3.2
Potential for threatened species and ecosystems to recover
The threats posed by the introduced novel biota in this threatening process can be controlled by
preventing further introduction and spread into new habitats, eradicating novel biota and
rehabilitating the ecosystems where these species have invaded. Many of the novel biota identified
as part of this threatening process are already very well established in the Australian landscape, to
the extent that they are recognised as Weeds of National Significance. For these species, the goal
of management is containment rather than eradication, which is no longer feasible in many cases.
As a result, the ecosystem changes induced by these already widely distributed invasive garden
plants may be largely irreversible.
Threatened species have the ability to recover from the impacts of novel biota. Local eradications
of buffel grass in the Epping Forest National Park in Queensland lead to the re-establishment of
native grasses such as kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra). The reintroduction of greater bilbies
into areas where rabbits, foxes and cats have been removed resulted in the bilbies successfully
recolonising the area and breeding (Mosby and O’Donnell, 2003).
3.3
Current threat abatement actions
A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive novel biota that
have been introduced into Australia, and to prevent further potentially novel biota entering the
country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a
national Threat Abatement Plan.
National
 The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and the
Quarantine Act 1908 regulate the import of live plants and animals into Australia. Under the
EPBC Act, the importation of live plants and animals, excluding The Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) listed plant and
animal specimens, is unregulated, provided it is in accordance with the Quarantine Act.
Under the Quarantine Act, plant and animal imports are regulated taking into consideration
their pest potential. The Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) administer the
Quarantine Act and Biosecurity Australia undertakes the import risk assessments.

Biosecurity Australia is an Australian Government agency that develops and reviews
quarantine policies to protect the environment from exotic pests and diseases. On request,
Biosecurity Australia provides advice to the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
(AQIS) regarding these policies. These Acts are administered by the Department of
Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities and AQIS respectively.
Biosecurity Australia uses the Weed Risk Assessment System (WRAS) as the agreed pre‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 40 of 66
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entry screening method for new plant imports and this is applied to all proposals to import
new plant species (seeds, nursery stock or tissue culture) which are not on the permitted list.
The WRAS system assesses whether the plant proposed for import possesses certain
attributes that could increase the likelihood of it becoming a weed in Australia. Plants that are
already present in Australia still require assessment before importation if they are not on the
permitted list. Biosecurity Australia also develops and reviews quarantine policies to protect
the environment from exotic pests (including weeds) and diseases.

Intergovernmental Agreement on Biosecurity is being negotiated between the Australian and
state and territory governments. It is a principle-level agreement, including national goals and
objectives, key features and attributes of the national biosecurity system and the plan for
implementation. It will also commit governments to work in partnership to improve key
aspects of the national biosecurity system, which was formerly part of the AusBIOSEC work.

National Emergency Biosecurity Response Agreement (NEBRA) establishes national
emergency response arrangements, including cost-sharing, for exotic pests and disease that
primarily impacts the environment and/or social amenity and that are not covered under
existing cost-sharing arrangements.

The National Biosecurity Committee provides strategic leadership in managing national
approaches to emerging and ongoing biosecurity policy issues across jurisdictions and
sectors. All biosecurity issues, including environmental, animal and plant biosecurity issues
are considered by the Committee.

Australia’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010–2020 aims to ensure that biodiversity is
healthy, resilient to climate change and valued for its essential contribution to human
existence. It recognises invasive species as one of six main threats to biodiversity and
provides a broad framework for the implementation of other national strategies.

The Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy (NAQS) addresses quarantine risks such as the
potential incursion of weeds, pests and diseases across Northern Australia. The strategy
includes domestic monitoring, domestic surveys, quarantine at the border, overseas
activities, and work with Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities.

Beale review. In September 2008 this review of Australia’s quarantine and biosecurity called
for a new Biosecurity Act to replace the Quarantine Act, which would coordinate
Commonwealth and state legislative powers in relation to invasive species and their methods
of entry into Australia (Beale et al., 2008).
State
 New South Wales Invasive Species Plan 2008–2015 is an eight year plan to improve the
management of invasive species in New South Wales. The Plan proposes actions to prevent,
contain, and manage invasive species, including weeds, vertebrate and invertebrate animal
pests, freshwater and marine aquatic pests.

New South Wales Department of Primary Industries Biosecurity Strategy. This strategy aims
to prevent new pests, diseases and weeds from entering Australia and becoming
established, and to manage established pests, diseases and weeds to eradicate them where
feasible or lessen their impact.

Biosecurity Strategy for Victoria. This strategy covers threats to primary industries, the
environment, social amenity and human health, across Victorian public and private land,
freshwater and marine habitats, caused by: plant pests and diseases; animal pests and
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diseases, including diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans (i.e.
zoonoses); and invasive plants and animals.

Queensland Biosecurity Strategy 2009–2014. This strategy aims to prevent exotic pests and
diseases from entering, spreading or becoming established in Queensland, ensure significant
pests and diseases already in Queensland are contained, suppressed or managed, and
contribute to the maintenance of Australia’s favourable national and international reputation
for freedom from many pests and diseases, market access for agricultural commodities,
product safety and integrity, and diverse ecosystem sustainability.

Draft Biosecurity Strategy South Australia 2009–2014. This strategy will cover threats in all
biosecurity sectors, including animal health, aquatic animal health, aquatic pests, plant
health, public health, social amenity pests and diseases, terrestrial vertebrate pests, weeds,
wildlife health and other terrestrial environmental pests and diseases. This strategy will
provide guidance to meet challenges of the future and deliver the level of biosecurity
appropriate to protect South Australia's people, natural environments and primary industries.
A: Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests
A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive vertebrate pests
that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive species entering
the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a
national Threat Abatement Plan.
National initiatives

The Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre creates new technologies and integrated
strategies to reduce the impact of invasive animals on Australia’s economy, environment, and
people. It is concentrated on developing smarter tools to prevent and detect new invasions,
advanced and tactical tools to strengthen integrated management strategies of carp and
other pest fish, and new tools and integrated management strategies for major pests
including foxes, wild dogs, feral pigs, rats and mice, cane toads, feral cats and rabbits.

Australian Pest Animal Strategy 2007. This strategy provides a national framework for
managing the impacts of vertebrate pest animal species in Australia. The goals of the
strategy are: providing leadership and coordination for management of pest animals;
preventing establishment of new pest animals; and managing the impacts of established pest
animals. The strategy includes measures to control the natural spread and translocation of
pest animals, but not the introduction of native species outside their natural geographic
distribution. A group has been established under the Vertebrate Pests Committee (VPC) to
oversee implementation and review progress and effectiveness. The strategy aims to identify
and develop national plans for the management of Existing Pest Animals of National
Significance (EPANS) and make people aware of them.
o National Feral Camel Action Plan 2010 has been developed as a plan for an EPANS
under the Australian Pest Animal Strategy and aims to providing a strategic and risk
based approach upon which local, regional and state based management of feral
camels can be undertaken. The Plan will be implemented by Feral Camel Working
Group of the Vertebrate Pests Committee

A number of strategies have also been developed to specifically consider issues relating to
fish. A Strategic Approach to the Management of Ornamental Fish in Australia 2008 provides
a national framework for regulation and management of the ornamental fish industry in
Australia. A key component of this is developing a communication strategy to assist in
delivering the objectives, and considering a future work program to address noxious species
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currently in the ornamental and aquaria fish trade. The National Policy for the Translocation
of Live Aquatic Organisms 1999 reviews different methods of translocation and their
associated risk. The National Management Strategy for Carp Control 2000–2005 is focused
on the control of carp and, where possible, eradication, in the interest of the total aquatic
environment and its biodiversity.

Guidelines for the Import, Movement and Keeping of Exotic Vertebrates in Australia 2004
focus on the development of appropriate strategies to prevent the establishment of new
species that pose significant risks to the environment, primary production, or public safety.
The adopted approach to managing exotic vertebrates is based on the principles for
vertebrate pest management now accepted across Australian jurisdictions.
National and state threat abatement actions
National
 Threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by unmanaged goats (2008)
 Threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by rabbits (2008)
 Threat abatement plan for predation by European red fox (2008)
 Threat abatement plan for predation by feral cats (2008)
 Threat abatement plan for predation, habitat degradation, competition and disease
transmission by feral pigs (2005)
 Threat abatement plan to reduce the impacts of exotic rodents on biodiversity on Australian
offshore islands of less than 100 000 hectares (2009)
 Threat abatement plan for the biological effects, including lethal toxic ingestion, caused by
cane toads
 A Strategic Approach to the Management of Ornamental Fish in Australia (2007).
NSW
 Predation by the plague minnow - threat abatement plan (2003)
 Predation by the red fox - threat abatement plan (2001)
 Control Plan for the noxious fish carp (Cyprinus carpio) (2010)
Victoria
 Fox Management Strategy (2002)
 Feral Pig and Feral Goat Management Strategy (2002)
 Rabbit Management Strategy (2002)
 Wild Dog Management Strategy (2002)
 Action Statement: Introduction of live fish into waters outside their natural range within a
Victorian river catchment after 1770 (2003)
 Action Statement: Predation of native wildlife by the cat, Felis catus (2004)
 Action Statement: Predation of native wildlife by the introduced red fox Vulpes vulpes (2002)
State and Territory Initiatives




ACT Vertebrate Pest Management Strategy (2002)
WA Vertebrate Animal Pest Policy
SA Arid Lands Natural Resource Management Board Pest Management Strategy 2005-2010.
Several states, including New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia and
South Australia, have developed translocation guidelines under the National Policy for the
Translocation of Live Aquatic Organisms 1999.
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B: Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests
There are a number of national and state-based initiatives in place to address invasive invertebrate
pests that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive species
entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the
need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.
National initiatives

The National Fire Ant Eradication Program commenced in 2002 to eradicate the red imported
fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) from Queensland. The nationally coordinated program is
managed by Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F). Red imported fire ant
is an insect pest that is considered to be a threat to lifestyle, the environment and the
economy.

The National Electric Ant Eradication Program commenced in 2006 to eradicate electric ant
(Wasmannia auropunctata) from Queensland. The nationally coordinated program is
managed by Biosecurity Queensland, an agency of the DPI&F. Electric ant is an exotic ant
species and is regarded as an environmental pest as it can cause harm to people, as well as
their businesses and lifestyle.

Yellow crazy ants in north-east Arnhem Land project aims to eradicate yellow crazy ants from
the Gove Peninsula and outlying regions where it interacts with people, and to contain the
remaining populations in the region to prevent their spread. To date, yellow crazy ants have
been eradicated from at least 20 locations covering over 100 hectares, which is an
internationally significant achievement.

African big-headed ants and tropical fire ants on the Tiwi Islands project appears to have
successfully eradicated African big-headed ant from all four known locations throughout the
Tiwi Islands, and is also aiming to eradicate tropical fire ants from an additional three
locations.
National and state threat abatement actions
National

Threat abatement plan to reduce the impacts of tramp ants on biodiversity in Australia and its
territories (2006)
C: Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds
and
D: Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds
A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive terrestrial and
aquatic weed species that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially
invasive species entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when
considering the need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.
National Initiatives
 Weed Risk Assessment System (WRAS). Plants proposed to be introduced into Australia
are now assessed for their potential to become weeds through the Weed Risk Assessment
System (WRAS). The assessment is based on the plant’s attributes, its potential
invasiveness and probability of negatively impacting on the environment.
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
Australian Weed Strategy 2007 provides guidance to all stakeholders involved in weed
management and identifies priorities for weed management across Australia. The goals of
the strategy are: preventing new weed problems; reducing the impact of existing priority
weed problems; and enhancing Australia's capacity and commitment to solve weed
problems. Under the strategy, priority is given to control and management of 20 plant species
identified as Weeds of National Significance. A national strategy and a Weeds Management
Guide have been produced for each Weed of National Significance. The Australian Weeds
Committee, which reports to the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, supports
the implementation of the Australian Weeds Strategy by facilitating and coordinating
consistent national action on weed tasks.
o The National Weeds Awareness Action Plan focuses on improving awareness as a
prerequisite to achieving acceptable long-term management of weeds. The key
outcome of the plan is a weeds awareness program that increases whole-ofcommunity and government understanding of the invasive plant crisis. ‘Nursery and
Landscape’ is one of the target groups highlighted in the plan and key stakeholders
identified in the plan that would play an important role in abating the KTP include
Australian National Botanic Gardens, Greening Australia, Horticulture Australia and
Nursery and Garden Industry Australia. Investment under the action plan over the
last decade has contributed to heightened awareness and increased capacity to
manage weed issues, primarily through community group participation in the
Weedbuster campaign and the development of awareness products.

National Eradication Programs—Exotic Weeds. National eradication programs for weeds in
Australia are cooperative efforts between the Australian Government and the state and
territory governments. The programs are nationally coordinated by the Office of the Chief
Plant Protection Officer. The state or territory government where the pest occurs is
responsible for the management and operation of the program with technical assistance from
the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. National eradication
programs in Australia that are currently addressing particular weeds are:
o The National Siam Weed Eradication Program commenced in 1995 to eradicate
siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) from Queensland. The nationally coordinated
program is managed and operated by Queensland's Department of Natural
Resources and Mines. Siam weed is a plant exotic to Australia and has the potential
to impact on the environment and other plant primary industries.
o The National Branched Broomrape Eradication Program commenced in 2000 to
eradicate branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa) from South Australia. The
nationally coordinated program is managed and operated by the Primary Industries
and Resources South Australia. Branched broomrape is an exotic parasitic weed of
a range of broadleaf crops, broadleaf weeds and native plants.
o The National Four Tropical Weeds Eradication Program is a program that
commenced in 2004 to eradicate the incursions of Koster’s curse (Clidemia hirta),
limnocharis (Limnocharis flava), mikania vine (Mikania micrantha) and some
Miconia species in Northern New South Wales and Queensland from Australia. The
nationally coordinated program is managed and operated by Queensland's
Department of Natural Resources and Mines. The program involves extensive
community engagement to identify infested areas, targeted weed surveys and weed
control, and research components.

The National Framework for the Management and Monitoring of Australia’s Vegetation sets
out a national approach to the management and monitoring of Australia's native vegetation
and provides a process through which Commonwealth, state and territory commitments can
be implemented to improve the quality and extent of Australia's native vegetation cover.
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National and state threat abatement actions
National
 Threat Abatement Plan for the KTP Invasion of northern Australia by gamba grass and other
introduced grasses (in preparation)
NSW
 Invasion of native plant communities by Chrysanthemoides monilifera (bitou bush and
boneseed) (2006)
State and Territory Initiatives
 Victorian Pest Management: Weed Management Strategy, including Weed Alert Plan (2002)
 NSW Alligator Weed Strategy (2010–2015)
 NSW New Weed Incursion Plan (2009–2015)
 Queensland Weeds Strategy (2002), Queensland Weed Spread Prevention Strategy (2008)
 Northern Territory Weed Management Strategy
 A Weed Plan for Western Australia (2001), Western Australia Environmental Weed Strategy
(1999)
 Weed Strategy for South Australia (1998)
 Tasmanian Weed Management Strategy (2005)
 Australian Capital Territory Weeds Strategy (2009–2019)
 State and Territory legislative noxious/prohibited weeds lists
E: Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests
A number of national initiatives are in place to address invasive marine pests that have been
introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive species entering the country.
These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a national
Threat Abatement Plan.
National Initiatives
 Australian Ballast Water Management Requirements. On 1 July 2001, Australia introduced
mandatory ballast water management requirements (the requirements) to reduce the risk of
introducing harmful aquatic organisms into Australia’s marine environment through ships’
ballast water. Australian Ballast Water Management Requirements are consistent with
International Maritime Organization’s International Convention for the Control and
Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments guidelines for minimising the risk of
translocation of harmful aquatic species in ships' ballast water.
 The National Introduced Marine Pest Information System (NIMPIS) provides easy access
to information on introduced marine pest species in Australia. NIMPIS contains detailed
information on the biology, ecology and distribution of pest species known to have been
introduced to Australian waters as well as potential control options for selected pests. It
also provides information on species considered a high risk for future introductions.
 National System for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pest Incursions.
The National System aims to prevent new marine pests arriving, respond by providing
effective cost efficient measures to manage the threat when a new pest does arrive and
minimise the spread and impact of pests already established in Australia. The measures
and arrangements under the National System are being implemented by the National
Introduced Marine Pests Coordination Group (NIMPCG). NIMPCG comprises
representatives of each of the government, industry and environmental partners of the
National System and is chaired by the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.
 Draft guidelines for the control and management of ships’ befouling to minimise the transfer
of invasive aquatic species: These guidelines are currently under development by the
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International Maritime Organization, Australia in working with the group tasked with writing
the guidelines.
F: Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens
A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive pathogens that
have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive pathogens entering
the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a
national Threat Abatement Plan.
National and state threat abatement actions
National
 Threat abatement plan for beak and feather disease affecting endangered psittacine
species (2005)
 Threat abatement plan for dieback caused by the root-rot fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi
(2001)
 Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in
chytridiomycosis (2006)
 National Myrtle Rust Coordination group is coordinating ongoing actions to respond to
myrtle rust focusing on mitigating its impact on the natural environment, including
threatened and endangered species, and on industries that rely on myrtaceous species.
Victoria
 Victoria’s Public Land Phytophthora cinnamomi Management Strategy (2005)
Tasmania
 Conservation of Tasmanian Plant Species & Communities Threatened by Phytophthora
cinnamomi. Strategic Regional Plan for Tasmania (2003)
Western Australia
 Integration Framework for Phytophthora Dieback Management Plans for the Northern
Agricultural, Perth/Avon, South Coast and South West NRM regions 2010–2017.
CONCLUSION: The existing measures in place at national, state and territory level provide a
framework for a broad range of actions for border protection and invasive species management
and control. They also provide for coordination and leadership in the event of new incursions.
Given these measures, the development of a national Threat Abatement Plan is not considered to
be the most efficient and effective way to address this threatening process.
The Committee has prepared Threat Abatement Guidelines which provides a summary of the KTP
along with advice on what additional threat abatement actions could be undertaken.
In the event that the Minister agrees with the Committee’s advice and in accordance with the
legislative requirement for the review of a no-Threat Abatement Plan decision, the Committee will
examine the effectiveness of this approach in five years.
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4.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. The Committee recommends that the list referred to in section 183 of the EPBC Act be
amended by including in the list of Key Threatening Processes: Novel biota and their impact on
biodiversity.
B. The Committee recommends that a Threat Abatement Plan is not considered a feasible,
efficient or effective way to abate the process at this time.
C. The Committee’s Threat Abatement Guidelines are considered when undertaking actions in
relation to this Key Threatening Process.
Professor Helene Marsh
Chair, Threatened Species Scientific Committee
30 June 2011
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