Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
AP BIOLOGY – PARADE THROUGH THE KINGDOMS-KEY
Complete the questions using the chapters of your textbook Campbell’s Biology (6th Edition).
CHAPTER 27 – Prokaryotes & The Origin of Metabolic Diversity
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
1. How common are prokaryotes on earth?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Their collective biological mass is at least 10 times that of all eukaryotes. They are the
dominant species.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. How do bacterial cell walls differ from plant cell walls?
Differ in molecular composition and construction. Most have cell walls of peptidoglycan.
_____________________________________________________________________________
This molecular fabric encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that
extend from its surface. Archaean cell walls contain a variety of polysaccharides and
_____________________________________________________________________________
proteins, but lack peptidoglycan.
3. How does the cell wall aid in classifying the bacteria?
Using the gram staining methed we can classify bacteria into 2 groups. Gram + are
_____________________________________________________________________________
bacteria with simpler walls and with large amounts of peptidoglycan. Gram – are bacteria
with less peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex, with outer membranes that
_____________________________________________________________________________
contain lipopolysaccharides.
4. List the methods bacteria use to locomote.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Flagella (most common); Chemostaxis (movement in response to stimulus)
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Give an example if a stimulus and describe how bacteria react to that stimulus (taxis).
_____________________________________________________________________________
Movement toward nutrients/oxygen (positive chemotaxis); away from a toxic substance
(negative chemotaxis).
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. How do bacteria typically reproduce?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Binary fission. The prokaryote replicates its genetic material and then simply divides
into 2 equal cells. These in turn do the same thing (4, 8, 16, and so on).
_____________________________________________________________________________
1
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
7. List three methods that can modify bacteria genetically.
a. transformation
a. _______________________________________________________________________
b. conjugation
b. _______________________________________________________________________
c. transduction
c. _______________________________________________________________________
8. Identify and briefly define the four nutritional categories of bacteria.
d. Photoautotrophs – photosynthetic organisms that capture light energy and use it to drive the
d. _______________________________________________________________________
synthesis of organic compounds from CO2.
e. _______________________________________________________________________
f.
e. Chemoautotrophs – need only CO2 as a carbon source. Instead of using light for energy, they
oxidize inorganic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), or ferrous ions
_______________________________________________________________________
(Fe2+).
f. Photoheterotrophs – use light for energy but must obtain their carbon in organic form.
g. _______________________________________________________________________
g. Chemoheterotrophs – consume organic molecules for both energy and carbon.
9. How has molecular systematics lead to classifying prokaryotes into two domains?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Using small subunit ribosomal RNA as a marker for evolutionary relationships, Carol
Woese and his colleagues concluded that many prokaryotes once classified as
_____________________________________________________________________________
bacteria are actually more closely related to eukaryotes and belong in a domain of
their own. The domain Archaea was developed for these special prokaryotes.
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. What is the ecological significance of prokaryotes?
Decomposers – convert inorganic compounds into forms that can be taken up by
_____________________________________________________________________________
other organisms.
Nitrogen fixation, O2 production and symbiotic relationships with eukaryotes
_____________________________________________________________________________
(mutualism  intestines, etc.)
_____________________________________________________________________________
2
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Table
27.2 on page 512 and the information
in the text, outline the key
characteristics that distinguish the
three domains. Include examples of
organisms in each domain.
DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
DOMAIN
Bacteria
CHARACTERISTICS
Nuclear envelope absent
Membrane enclosed organelles absent
Peptidoglycan in cell walls
Unbranched hydrocarbons in membrane lipids
1 kind of RNA polymerase
Formylmethionine for intiator of amino acids
in protein synthesis
Introns rare
Antibiotics inhibit growth
Circular chromosome
EXAMPLE
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Chlamydias
Spirochetes
Cyanobacteria
Gram-positive bacteria
Archaea
Nuclear envelope absent
Membrane enclosed organelles absent
Some branched hydrocarbons in membrane
lipids
Several kinds of RNA polymerase
Methionine initiator amino acid for protein
synthesis
Introns present in some genes
Antibiotics do not inhibit growth
Have histones & circular chromosom
Korarchaeotes
Euryarchaeotes
Crenarchaeotes
Nanoarchaeotes
Eukarya
Nuclear envelope present
Membrane bound organelles
Unbranched hydrocarbons in
membrane lipids
Several kinds of RNA polymerase
Methionine intiator amino acid for
protein synthesis
Antibiotics do not inhibit growth
Histones present
Eukaryotes (plants,
animals, protists,
fungi)
3
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
CHAPTER 28 – The Origins of Eukayotic Diversity
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
11. Why are Protists said to be the most diverse of all eukaryotes?
They inhibit more structural & functional diversity than any other group of organisms.
_____________________________________________________________________________
They are the most nutritionally diverse. Their habitats are diverse.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
12. What process is thought to be involved in the genesis of eukaryotes from prokaryotes?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Endosymbiosis
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
13. Define serial endosymbiosis?
_____________________________________________________________________________
A process in which certain unicellular organisms engulfed other cells, which become
endosymbionts & ultimately organelles in the host cell.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
14. Why do most systematists currently working on eukaryotic relationships consider Kingdom
Protista and the five kingdom system obsolete?
_____________________________________________________________________________
The Kingdom Protista is polyphyletic including members derived from 2 or more
ancestral forms not common to all members & thus do not reflect phylogeny. Among
_____________________________________________________________________________
several alternate classifications, a popular 8-kingdom system recognizes 3 protist
kingdoms (Archaezoa, Protista & Chromista) in place of the single kingdom Protista.
_____________________________________________________________________________
However, the less inclusive version of the Kingdom Protista is still polyphyletic.
Using nucleic acid sequencing, systematics has begun sorting out monophyletic
_____________________________________________________________________________
groups.
4
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 28.8 on page 554 and the information in the text, outline the
key characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the Domain Eukarya identified on
the diagram.
5
4
6
3
2
1
5
Name __________________________________
BRANCH POINT
1. Autotroph /
Heterotroph &
Decomposers
2. Flagella / No
Flagella
3. Crystal rods in
flagella / No
rods
4. Symbiosis with
fungi
5. Live in shallow
water / live on
land
6. Decomposer /
Heterotrophic
consumer
Period _________ Date___________
CHARACTERISTICS
Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating
other organisms or their by-products. Saprobes/bacteria absorb
nutrients from non-living organic material (decomposers). Autotrophs
can make their own food using light or chemical energy.
Flagella are long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion.
Euglenozoa have the presence of a spiral or cystal rod of unknown
function inside their flagella. Other protest members do not have these
rod structures.
Organisms such as lichens developed symbiotic relationships with fungi
in order to survive. Other developed specialized adaptations for
independent survival.
Some organisms require water for growth and reproduction, especially
those lacking vascular tissue. Other developed vascular tissue in order
to survive on land.
Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating
other organisms or their by-products. Saprobes/fungi absorb nutrients
from non-living organic material (decomposers).
6
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
CHAPTER 31 - FUNGI
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
15. How do fungi acquire nutrients?
They are heterotrophs; they digest their food while it’s still in the environment by
_____________________________________________________________________________
secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes, (exoenzymes) into their surroundings. They
absorb their nutrients.
_____________________________________________________________________________
16. Because of this mode of nutrition, fungi have evolved what structure to provide for both
extensive surface area and rapid growth?
Hyphae that form an interwoven mass called mycelium.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
17. How do the cell walls of fungi differ from the cell walls of plants?
Made of chitin, a strong but flexible nitrogen-containing polysaccharide that is also
_____________________________________________________________________________
found in external skeletons of insects/arthropods.
_____________________________________________________________________________
18. How do fungi contribute to an ecosystem?
Decomposers are responsible for keeping ecosystems stocked with the inorganic
_____________________________________________________________________________
nutrients essential for plant growth. Some form symbiotic relationships with
photosynthesizers.
_____________________________________________________________________________
19. Give some examples of how fungi are important to humans.
Mycorrhizae = agriculture  provides essential nutrients to plants.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Digestion = helps breakdown plant material in rumenants (eg. cattle).
_____________________________________________________________________________
Food Source = mushrooms and beverages such as beer and wine (yeast).
_____________________________________________________________________________
Medical value = used for reducing high blood pressure, stop maternal bleeding,
_____________________________________________________________________________
production of antibiotics (penicillium), used in molecular and biotechnology research.
7
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 31.4 on page
619 and the information in the text, outline the
key characteristics of each branch of the
Kingdom Fungi identified on the diagram.
Include several examples of organisms in each
division.
DIVISION
CHARACTERISTICS
Chytrids
Saprobes & Parasites; cell walls
of chitin, share key enzymes and
metabolic pathways with other
fungal groups; form colonies
w/hyphae or exists as spherical
cells. Have flagellated spores
(zoospores)
Chytridium (fruiting
spores)
Zygomycetes
Live as parasites or symbionts
with animals. Mostly terrestrial
& live in soil on decaying
plant/animal material. Form
mycorrhizae
Fast growing molds,
Rhizopus stolonifer (black
bread mold), pilobolus.
Ascomycetes
Sac fungi. Range in size &
variety. Saprobes, plant
parasites, have symbiotic
relationships with algae
(lichens). Produce sexual
spores (asci). Have more
extensive dikaryotic stage.
Morals, carbon fungus,
truffles.
Club fungus.
Decomposers of wood and
other plant material.
Mutualists & plant
parasites.
Mushrooms, shelf fungi,
puffballs, rusts & smuts.
Basidiomycetes
EXAMPLE
8
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
CHAPTER 32 – INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL EVOLUTION
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
20. Outline the major characteristics Campbell uses to define an animal.
Nutritional mode, cell structure & specialization, reproduction & development.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
21. List an hypothesis for the origin of animals.
Most systematics now agree that all animal lineages are monophyletic; that is, we can
_____________________________________________________________________________
trace all lineages back to a single common ancestor. The ancestor was probably a
flagellated protest; which was probably related to choanoflagellates.
_____________________________________________________________________________
22. Describe the two forms of symmetry of the Eumetazoa.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Bilateral which characterizes a body form with a central longitudinal plane that divides
the body into two equal but opposite halves.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Radial characterizes a body shape like a pie, with many equal parts radiating outward
_____________________________________________________________________________
like the spokes of a wheel.
23. What is the significance of cephalization as an evolutionary trend?
A trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment on the anterior region. The
_____________________________________________________________________________
end of a traveling animal that is usually first to encounter food, danger, and other
stimuli. Also development of the central nervous system. Adaptation for movement
_____________________________________________________________________________
on land.
24. How do the germ layers of Radiata and the other Eumetazoa differ?
They are diploblastic (having 2 germ layers). All other eumetazoa; the bilateria, are
_____________________________________________________________________________
triploblastic having 3 germs layers.
_____________________________________________________________________________
25. Define the following terms and describe their significance in classifying animals.
a. Acoelomates
lack a coelom.
a. Acoelomates
____________________________________________________________
b. Pseudocoelomates have a fully functional body cavity formed from the blastocoel,
__________________________________________________________________________
rather than from the mesoderm.
b. Pseudocoelomates _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
9
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
c. Coelomates possess a true coelom, a body cavity completely lined with tissue
c. Coelomates ____________________________________________________________
derived from mesoderm.
__________________________________________________________________________
d. Protostomes development begins with spiral, determinate cleavage. The coelom
forms from splits in the mesoderm. The mouth forms in the blastopore.
d. Protostomes ____________________________________________________________
e. Deuterostomes development is characterized by radial, indeterminate cleavage.
__________________________________________________________________________
The coelom forms from mesodermal outpockets of the archenteron. The mouth
forms from a secondary opening. The anus develops from the blastopore.
e. Deuterostomes __________________________________________________________
f. Spiral, determinant cleavage – the planes of cell division are diagonal to the
__________________________________________________________________________
vertical axis of the embryo. Determines developmental fate of embryonic cells
early on.
f. spiral, determinate cleavage _______________________________________________
g. Radial, indeterminate cleavage – cleavage planes are either parallel or
__________________________________________________________________________
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the egg. Each cell contains the capacity to
develop into a complete embryo.
g. radial, indeterminate cleavage ______________________________________________
h. Blastopore – the indentation that during gastrulation leads to the formation of the
__________________________________________________________________________
archenteron.
h. blastopore ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
26. List a number of the major differences between the Protostomes and Deuterostomes.
Protostomes - development begins with spiral, determinate cleavage. The coelom
_____________________________________________________________________________
forms from splits in the mesoderm. The mouth forms from the blastopore.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Deuterostomes – development is characterized by radial, indeterminate cleavage. The
ceolom forms from mesodermal outpocketings of the archenteron. The anus forms
_____________________________________________________________________________
from the blastopore.
27. Label the stages of early embryonic development of animal.
blastocoel
cleavage
8 cell stage
zygote
blastocoel
cleavage
blastula
Cross section of
blastula
endoderm
ectoderm
blastopore
gastrula
gastrulation
10
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 32.4 on page 636 and the information in the text, outline the
key characteristics of each branch of the Kingdom Animalia identified on the diagram. Use
definitions from Question 25 to supply the details in your chart. Include examples of organisms
in each division.
11
Name __________________________________
DIVISION
Period _________ Date___________
CHARACTERISITICS
EXAMPLE
1. Porifera
Simple; sessile animals that lack true tissues. They live as
suspension feeders; trapping particles that pass through
the internal channels of their bodies.
sponges
2. Cnidaria
Share a distinctive body pattern that includes a
gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that serves as
both mouth and anus.
Corals, jellyfish & hydras
3. Ctenophora
Diploblastic. Possess eight “combs” of cilia that propel
the animals through the water. They also have a unique
method for catching prey.
Comb jellies
4. Platyhelminthes
Bilateral symmetry & central nervous systemthat process
information from eyes and other sensory structures. They
have no body cavity or organs for circulation.
Flatworms (tapeworms,
planarians & flukes)
5. Rotifers
Specialized organ systems, including an alimentary canal
(digestive tract). They feed on microorganisms suspended
in water.
Rotifers
6. Nematoda
Enormously abundant & diverse in the soil and aquatic
habitats; many species parasitize plants & animals. They
have a tough cuticle that coats their body and protects
them from their host.
Roundworms
7. Nemertea
Swim through water and burrow through sand, extending a
unique proboscis to capture prey. They lack a true
coelom, but have an alimentary canal.
Proboscis worms, ribbon
worms
12
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
DIVISION
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE
8. Mollusca
Soft bodied; often posses a hard, calcified shell secreted
by the mantle; muscular foot; digestive system with two
openings and coelomates.
Snails, slugs, clams,
squid, octopus,
chambered nautilus,
cuttlefish
9. Annelida
Body composed of segments separated by internal
partitions; digestive system has two openings; coelomate;
closed circulatory system.
Segmented worms,
earthworms, sandworms,
leeches
10. Arthropoda
Exoskeleton of chitin; jointed appendages; segmented
bodies; many undergo metamorphosis during
development; open circulatory system; largest animal
phylum.
Ticks, spiders, scorpions,
centipedes, millipedes,
insects, crab, shrimp, pill
bug, barnacle, lobster
11. Bryozoan
Coelom from cell masses (protostomes). Body cavity
enclosed by mesoderm (coelomate). Bilateral symmetry
and triploblastic. Eumetazoa.
Hydrozoans
12. Phoronida
Live in tunnels in the sea floor, extending tentacles out of
the tunnel opening to trap food particles.
Marine worms
13. Brachiopoda
Superficially resemble clams and other hinge-shelled
mollusks, but the two halves of the brachiopod shell are
dorsal and ventral rather than lateral. Live attached to the
seafloor by stalk.
Lamp shells
14. Echinodermata
Live in salt water; larvae have bilateral symmetry; adults
typically have radial symmetry; endoskeleton; tube feet;
water vascular system used in respiration, excretion,
feeding and locomotion; deuterostomes
Sand dollars, sea stars,
feather stars, brittle stars,
sea cucumbers and sea
urchins
15. Chordata
Dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal pouches,
and a muscular tail during at least part of development.
Tunicates, lancelets,
hagfish, fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, & mammals
13
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
CHAPTER 33 - INVERTEBRATES
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
28. How does the structure of a sponge relate to its method of nutrition?
They capture food particles suspended in the water that pass through their bodies, which
_____________________________________________________________________________
typically resembles a sac perforated with pores. Water is drawn through the pores into a
central cavity, the spongocoel, and then flows out the sponge through a large opening
_____________________________________________________________________________
called the osculum,
29. What is a unique characteristic common to the Cnidarians?
They exhibit a relatively simple, diploblastic, radial body plan. Their body plan is sac like
_____________________________________________________________________________
with a central digestive compartment, with a gastrovascular cavity and it has a single
_____________________________________________________________________________
opening.
30. What are the two forms of shape within the Cnidarians?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Polyp & Medusa
_____________________________________________________________________________
31. What are some evolutionary advancements we see in the Platyhelminthes?
Structurally more complex. The 3rd embryonic layer, the mesoderm, contributes to the
_____________________________________________________________________________
development of more complex organs & organs systems, including true muscle tissues.
_____________________________________________________________________________
32. In what way are Platyhelminthes significant to humans?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Structure & function of ecosystems; parasites to humans.
_____________________________________________________________________________
33. Define parthenogenesis.
Some species consist only of females that produce more females from unfertilized eggs.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
34. What is unique in the structure and function of the Pseudocoelomates?
_____________________________________________________________________________
They have a gastrovascular cavity with an alimentary canal, a digestive tube with a
separate mouth and anus. Internal organs lie within the pseudocoelom.
_____________________________________________________________________________
14
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
35. List ways in which Nematodes impact humans.
They play an important role in the decomposition and recycling of nutrients. Research
_____________________________________________________________________________
specimens (aging in humans). Also include agricultureal pests that attack roots of plants.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Parasites to humans (hookworms & pinworms)
36. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Protostomes.
Mollusks, Annelids, & Arthropods
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
37. What are the three major body regions of a Mollusk?
Muscular foot, a visceral mass, & a mantle
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
38. Why do zoologists debate the relationship of Mollusks and Annelids?
_____________________________________________________________________________
The life cycle of many marine mollusks includes a ciliated larvae called the trochophore,
also characteristic of marine annelids and other protostomes. But mollusks lack the one
_____________________________________________________________________________
trait that most defines an annelid heritage – true segmentation.
39. What is the evolutionary significance of the coelom as seen in the Annelids?
_____________________________________________________________________________
The muscles work against the noncompressible coelomic fluid, a hydrostatic skeleton.
The muscles can alter the shape of each segment individually because the coelom is
_____________________________________________________________________________
divided into separate compartments.
40. What is the importance of segmentation?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Each segment of a polychaete has a pair of paddle-like or ridge-like structures called
parapodia (setae) that function in locomotion. Each segment has its own set of nephridia,
_____________________________________________________________________________
which are kidney-like structures.
41. Why are the Arthropoda regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla?
_____________________________________________________________________________
On the criteria of species diversity, distribution, and sheer numbers, arthropods must be
regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla.
_____________________________________________________________________________
15
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
42. Identify a characteristic that was most significant to Arthropod success.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Segmentation, hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages.
_____________________________________________________________________________
43. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Deuterostomes.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Echindermata & Chordates
_____________________________________________________________________________
44. What traits are particularly unique to the Echinoderms?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Water vascular system & tube feet.
_____________________________________________________________________________
16
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Table 32.4 on page 636 and Table 33.7 on page 675 and the
information in the text, label the phylogenetic diagram of animals with significant characteristics
that distinguish major branches.
17
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
CHAPTER 34 – VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION & DIVERSITY
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
45. What are the four characteristics of the Chordates?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Notochord, hollow dorsal nerve chord, pharyngeal gill slits and a muscular, post anal tail.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
46. List and describe an example of an invertebrate chordate.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Tunicates favor chordates as larvae. As adults the tail and notochord are reabsorbed.
Lancelets as larvae develop a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits and a
_____________________________________________________________________________
post anal tail. As adults they retain all four characteristics of chordates.
47. Define paedogenesis.
The precocious development of sexual maturity in a larva. Common among groups of
_____________________________________________________________________________
salamanders. An example is the mudpuppy which retains gills and other larval features
when sexually mature.
_____________________________________________________________________________
48. What characterizes the subphylum Vertebrata?
_____________________________________________________________________________
They are craniates (having a more complex nervous sytem) with a backbone (more
complex skeletal system).
_____________________________________________________________________________
49. In the evolution of vertebrates, identify the significance of being tetrapod?
In place of pectoral & pelvic fins, they have limbs that can support their weight on land &
_____________________________________________________________________________
feet with digits that allow them to transfer muscle-genreated forces to the ground when
_____________________________________________________________________________
they walk.
50. Identify the significance of the amniotic egg and the amniote?
Amniotic egg contains specialized membranes that protect the embryo. The shell around
_____________________________________________________________________________
the egg slows dehydration. Amniotes also have skin that’s less permeable and the ability
to use the rib cage to ventilate the lungs.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
18
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Table 34.7 on page 684 and the information in the text, outline the
key characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the subphylum Vertebrata
identified on the diagram. Include examples of organisms in each class.
1
2
8
7
3
4
6
5
19
Name __________________________________
CLASS
Period _________ Date___________
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE
1. Cephalaspidomorphi
Larvae filter feeders; adults parasites whose circular mouth
is lined with rasping toothlike structures; many live in both
salt water and fresh water during the course of their lives.
Lampreys
2. Chondrichthyes
Have jaws, fins and endoskeleton of cartilage; most live in
salt water; typically several gill slits; tough small scales with
spines; ectothermic; two-chambered heart; male possess
structures for internal fertilization.
Sharks, skates, rays,
chimaera, sawfish
3. Osteichthyes
Bony endoskeleton; aquatic; ectothermic; well-developed
respiratory system, usually involving gills; possess swim
bladder; paired fins; divided into two groups – ray-finned
fishes, which include most living species, and lobe-finned
fishes, which include the lungfish and coeloacanth.
Salmon, perch, bass,
sturgeon, tuna,
goldfish, eel, marlin,
catfish
4. Mammalia
Endothermic; subcutaneous fat; hair; most viviparous;
suckle young with milk produced from mammary glands;
four-chambered heart; most have four legs; use lungs for
respiration.
Monotremes,
marsupials, and
eutherians
5. Amniotes
Have amniotic egg (shelled and water retaining egg).
Functions as a “self-contained pond” that enables
vertebrates to complete their life cycles on land. Mammals
also retain key features.
Birds, reptiles, &
mammals
6. Reptilia
Adapted to fully terrestrial life, some live in water; dry, scalecovered skin; ectothermic; most have three-chambered
hearts; internal fertilization; amniotic eggs typically laid on
land; extinct forms include dinosaurs and flying reptiles.
Lizards, snakes,
tuataras, turtles,
tortoises, &
crocodilians
7. Diapsids
Cladistic analysis provides strong evidence that birds are the
closest living relatives of extinct dinosaurs. Class reptilian
does not have feathers that distinguish birds.
Lizards, snakes,
tuataras, turtles,
tortoises, crocodilians
& dinosaurs that took
to the air
8. Aves
Endothermic, feathered over much of body surface; scales o
legs and feet; bones hollow and light-weight in flying
species; four-chambered heart; well-developed lungs and air
sacs for efficient air exchange.
Owl, eagle, duck,
chicken, pigeon,
penguin, sparrow,
stork, ostrich
20