Monera (bacteria)
Name:
3.1 Diversity of
Organisms
3.1.3 Monera
3.1.9.H Nature of
Bacteria & Fungi
3.1.10.H Growth
Curves
Objectives
1. Describe the distribution of bacteria and fungi.
2. Explain the structure of each type, including plasmids.
3. Name 3 main types of bacterial cells.
4. Explain reproduction of bacteria.
5. Explain nutrition of bacteria.
6. State the factors affecting growth of micro-organisms.
7. Define the term: Pathogenic
8. Define the term: antibiotics
9. State the role of antibiotics.
10. Outline the potential abuse of antibiotics
11. Name two Beneficial and two harmful bacteria
12. Define the terms: saprophytic & parasitic.
13. Explain the prokaryotic nature of bacteria
14. Explain the eukaryotic nature of fungi
15. Discuss the growth curves of micro organisms
16. Compare Batch and Continuous Flow Food Processing
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms e.g. bacteria and fungi.
Distribution of bacteria and fungi
Bacteria – terrestrial and aquatic. Fungi mostly terrestrial.
Basic structure of a bacterial cell
Microscopic (1000 bacteria in a full-stop!)
Cell wall - made of sugars and protein, gives shape and protection.
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Nuclear material = 1 circular chromosome of DNA and maybe 1 or more plasmids - small loops of DNA .
Plasmids contain genes that are responsible for bacterial resistance to antibiotics.
No organelles (except ribosomes) i.e. no nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast.
 Flagella: movement
 Capsule: slimy protective coat  chlorophyll
Bacterial types
Classified according to shape.
Round e.g. in pairs eg. pneumonia, in chains e.g.sore throats, in clusters e.g. skin boils & food poisoning,
Rods e.g. tuberculosis, E. coli (found in human intestines and therefore sewage), tetanus(lockjaw), botulism,
Spiral e.g. cholera, syphilis, Weil’s disease
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction - by binary fission. The chromosome is replicated and the cytoplasm divides to
form two daughter cells, each with an identical chromosome. Under suitable conditions a bacterium may
reproduce itself every 20 minutes. This leads to large population numbers of identical daughter cells
(clones).
*The rapid rate of bacterial reproduction has important consequences.
 Wounds become heavily infected very quickly.
 Mutations mean that antibiotic-resistant bacteria can appear in large numbers.
 Bacteria can transfer plasmids to other bacterial species and so transfer antibiotic immunities.
 Bacteria can give very efficient returns of product in industry.
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Endospores
The bacterium replicates its chromosome. One copy is surrounded by a tough cell wall. The outer cell breaks
down. Endospores can remain dormant for decades. When conditions are suitable the endospore germinates
to form a single cell.
Note - When food is placed in a freezer many bacteria respond by producing spores. These can survive the
cold temperature and germinate when food is thawed. Thawed food must be cooked and eaten without
delay. Fast freezing restricts spore formation.
Nutrition
(a) Autotrophic – make their own food
(i) Photosynthetic - use light and hydrogen sulfide to make food e.g. purple sulfur bacteria
(ii) Chemosynthetic - use energy from chemical reactions e.g. nitrifying bacteria.
(b) Heterotrophic – take in food.
(i) Saprophytic - feed on dead organic matter e.g. bacteria of decay
(ii) Parasitic - feed on living host causing it harm e.g. sore throats, tetanus
Factors affecting growth of bacteria
Temperature Usually 20 - 30oC for most bacteria, but range from 0oC to 80oC – hot springs.
Oxygen
Aerobic bacteria require oxygen for respiration e.g. streptococcus bacteria in sore throats.
Anaerobic bacteria do not require oxygen e.g. Clostridium which causes tetanus or botulism
Facultative anaerobes can respire with or without oxygene.g E. coli in intestines.
Obligate anaerobes can only respire in the absence of oxygen e.g. Clostridium tetanii.
pH (most bacterial enzymes prefer a neutral pH of 7, bacterial enzymes are denatured in an unsuitable pH.
*Helicobacter if found in the stomach (pH2) of about half the Irish population. It can cause stomach
ulcers.
External solute concentration affects the bacteria because water is gained or lost by osmosis. If gained the
cell wall prevents it from bursting, if lost the dehydration stops enzymes from working.
*Bacteria in Dead Sea can survive high salt concentration
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Pressure - the growth of most bacteria is inhibited by high pressure because the cell walls are not strong
enough. Some bacteria can withstand high pressure e.g. those found in deep-sea vents.
Growth curve
A. Lag phase:
Numbers are low (constant) because:
 bacteria are adapting to their new environment e.g. they may be producing new enzymes to digest
nutrients on which they are to grow.
.
B Log phase:
Bacterial numbers increase rapidly
 because the bacteria are actively dividing (plenty of food, oxygen, moisture, space, suitable temp.
and few toxins).
C Stationary phase:
The number remains high and constant (reproduction rate = death rate) because of:
 competition for food, space, moisture and oxygen
 accumulation of toxins.
D Decline phase:
Decrease in numbers (death rate  reproduction rate)
 due to competition for resources and
 build-up of toxins.
E Survival/Death phase
Numbers low
Bacteria die and some may survive as endospores, which can remain dormant until conditions are
favourable.
Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by bacteria and fungi that stop the growth of or kill other
bacteria and fungi.
They are not effective against viruses. Most antibiotics work by inhibiting cell wall synthesis during cell
division e.g. penicillin (Alexander Fleming 1928).
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Antibiotics and Resistance
If bacteria are constantly exposed to an antibiotic they can become resistant to it. This antibiotic resistance
can be acquired by mutation, uptake of genes from plasmids, viruses or from other resistant bacteria.
These resistant bacteria increase very rapidly and spread e.g. MRSA (methicillin resistant Staphylococcus
aureus) in hospitals.
Economic importance of bacteria (know two beneficial and two harmful)
Beneficial bacteria:
 Production of yoghurt and cheese by Lactobacillus
 Manufacture of some antibiotics.
 Genetically engineered bacteria e.g. E. coli, are used to produce enzymes, insulin, vitamins,
antibiotics.
 Nutrient recycling in soil – bacteria of decay break down dead plants and animals.
Harmful bacteria - minority.
 Bacteria cause human disease.g. TB, whooping cough, meningitis, typhoid, cholera, salmonella food
poisoning, leprosy, pneumonia, tetanus
 Animal disease e.g. mastitis, anthrax
 Plant diseases e.g. soft rot of vegetables
 Food spoilage e.g. lactobacilli cause milk to turn sour.
 Tooth decay - bacteria in mouth converts sugars to acid, which dissolves the enamel on teeth.
A pathogen is a disease-causing organism.
Bioprocessing involves the use of m/o to produce food and other products.
M/o are grown in a liquid medium in a bioreactor (vessel).
Batch cultivation e.g. antibiotics
A fixed amount of nutrients and microorganisms are added to bioreactor at start. Air is added if needed and
waste gases removed. Growth is allowed up to a certain point (usually lag, log, stationary), bioreactor is
emptied and product extracted. Bioreactor is cleaned and sterilised.
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Continuous cultivation e.g. single-celled protein
Nutrients are continuously added to bioreactor. Once bioreactor is set up used medium and products are
continuously removed. Quicker process because there is no need to empty bioreactor etc. regularly and also
get a continuous yield. By adjusting the nutrients added, the growth rate can be kept at a level (log stage)
which gives the max. yield of product.
Advantages of batch culturing
 Easier process to control.
 Products may be needed only in small amounts.
 Product may only be needed at a particular time.
 Some m/o grow well for a short period of time.
\
Nitrogen cycle
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Nitrogen fixing bacteria – found in soil or root nodules of legumes, converting nitrogen gas to nitrate
Bacteria of decay – found on dead organic matter in soil, from nitrogenous waste
Nitrifying bacteria – found in soil, convert ammonia to nitrite to nitrate
Denitrifying bacteria – found in soil, convert nitrate to nitrogen gas.
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Monera (bacteria)
Leaving Cert Questions
Section A
2004 HL
1.
(a)
Name an autotrophic organism …………………………………………………………………………
SEC Sample Paper OL
2.
Bacterial cells have three main shapes. Two of these are shown below. Name each shape.
Name ………………… ……………………
Name
…………………………………………
Bacteria reproduce asexually by dividing in two. What term is used for this form of asexual reproduction?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
What do bacteria form when environmental conditions become unfavourable?
…………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………
What does the term pathogenic mean in relation to bacteria?
…………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
2005 OL
6(b)
The diagram shows the structure of a typical bacterium.
(i) Name A, B, C, D.
A
…………………………..……. B
………..…………………….
C
……………………..…………. D
………..…………………….
(ii) To which kingdom do bacteria belong? ……………………………………………
Section C
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Monera (bacteria)
2006 HL
15.
(b)
Answer the following in relation to bacteria.
(i)
Distinguish between photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria. Give an example of each type.
(ii) Name two forms of heterotrophic nutrition found in bacteria.
(iii)
What are antibiotics? For what purpose are they used?
(iv)
Explain what is meant by antibiotic resistance and suggest how it may develop. (30)
2007 HL
14.
Answer any two of (a), (b) and (c).
(30, 30)
(b)
(v) What is an antibiotic?
(vi) Antibiotics should not be prescribed for a person suffering from a viral infection.
Suggest a reason for this.
2008 HL
15.
(c)
The diagram shows a bacterial growth curve.
(i) A and B represent the labels on the axes. What does each of them stand for?
(ii) What term is applied to the part of the curve labelled x? What is happening during x?
(iii)
What term is applied to the part of the curve labelled y? What is happening during y?
(iv) Copy the diagram into your answer book and continue the curve to show the next phase. Explain
why you have continued the curve in this way.
(v) Distinguish between batch and continuous flow food processing using micro-organisms in the food
industry.
2010 HL
12.
(i) To which kingdom do bacteria belong?
2010 HL
15.
(c)
Suggest a biological explanation for each of the following observations:
(ii)
2013 HL
12.
(b)
(i)
(ii)
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Doctors are reluctant to prescribe antibiotics to patients suffering from common cold-like
symptoms.
Name the kingdom to which bacteria belong.
Draw a large diagram of a bacterial cell to show:
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Monera (bacteria)
(iii)
(iv)
(c)
1. The relative positions of the cell wall, cell membrane and capsule.
2. A plasmid.
Label each of the above structures.
1.
Under what circumstances does a bacterial cell form an endospore?
2. Describe briefly how an endospore forms.
Name two types of heterotrophic nutrition used by bacteria.
(i)
Distinguish clearly between antibodies and antibiotics by writing a note about each.
(iii)
Using your knowledge of antibiotics and bacteria, suggest why a person is more likely to pick
up an infection in hospital than at home.
2007 OL
13.
(a)
The diagram shows a typical bacterial cell.
(i) Some bacteria have a layer outside the cell wall (labelled A in diagram).
Name this layer and state its function
(ii) Name a structure, other than A, which is not found in all bacteria.
(b)
(9)
The table below shows ways in which bacteria obtain their food. Study the table and then answer the
questions that follow.
Autotrophic
Photosynthetic
Chemosynthetic
Heterotrophic
Parasitic
Saprophytic
(i) Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
(ii) What is saprophytic nutrition?
(iii)
Why are saprophytic bacteria important in nature?
(iv)
Briefly explain chemosynthesis.
(v) What term is used for the organism from which a parasite obtains its food?
(vi)
Give examples of two harmful bacteria.
2009 OL
12.
(b)
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(24)
The diagram shows the structure of a typical bacterial cell.
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Monera (bacteria)
(i) Name the bacterial cell parts A, B and C.
(ii) What is the function of C?
(iii)
Name any two of the main bacterial types (shapes).
(iv)
By which method do bacterial cells reproduce?
(v) Some bacteria are anaerobic. What does this mean?
(vi)
What are pathogenic bacteria?
(vii)
Give two example of the economic importance of bacteria.
2010 OL
13.
(a)
(ii)
(9)
2012 OL
13.
(a)
Distinguish between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition.
All organisms may be classified (grouped) into five kingdoms.
(i) Suggest one advantage of classifying organisms.
(ii)
Name the kingdom to which bacteria belong.
(iii)
Give one example of the economic importance of bacteria.
(9)
(b)
(i)
Draw a large labelled diagram of a typical bacterial cell.
Bacteria may be classified by their shape.
Name any two bacterial shapes.
Name the method by which bacteria reproduce.
What are pathogenic bacteria?
State two factors affecting the growth of bacteria.
(27)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Answers
2004 HL Sample Q1
1.
5(4)
(a)
protection/ boundary/ bears antigens/ controls exit and entry of substances
2004 OL Sample Q2
2.
Rods (Bacillus)
5(4)
Spheres (Cocci)
Binary fission
Spores (Endospores)
Disease causing
2005 OL Q6
6.
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10 answers
2(6)+8(1)
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Monera (bacteria)
(a) (i)
(ii)
(b) (i)
(ii)
A = contractile/ vacuole
B = cytoplasm / endoplasm
C = pseudopod / false foot
D = nucleus / organelle
Protista / Protoctista
A = flagellum
B = DNA /chromosome/ nucleoid) not nucleus
C = cell wall / Membrane
D = capsule (slime layer)
Monera (Prokaryotae)
2006 HL Q15(b)
using light to make food or obtain energy
Make food or obtain energy using a chemical reaction
[accept ‘from chemicals’]
(b) (i)
Example 1: role or implied role e.g. volcanic pools
Example 2: role or implied role e.g. in soil
(ii) parasitic / saprophytic
substances produced by bacteria or fungi [accept micro(iii) organisms]
treat infections or correct example
resistance: bacteria or fungi not killed by or inhibited by or
immune to (antibiotic)
(iv)
how develops: natural selection has occurred or surviving
strains multiply or misuse comment or plasmid transfer
2007 HL Q14(b)
substance produced by micro-organisms / that kills (some)
14 b (v)
microorganisms or bacteria or fungi
(antibiotics) have no effect (on viruses) or promote resistant
(vi)
bacteria
3
3
3
3
2(3)
3
3
3
3
2(3)
3
2008 HL Q15(c)
A = population (size) of or number (of bacteria)
B = time
X = lag (phase)
(ii)
adapting to environment or low reproductive rate
log or exponential (phase)
(iii)
reproducing rapidly
curve showing flattening or falling
(iv) reproduction slows or some limiting factor mentioned or toxin builds
up or space limitations
(batch) fixed amount of nutrients added at beginning or (bioreactor)
(v)
emptied at end of production and (continuous) nutrients continuously
(c) (i)
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3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
6
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Monera (bacteria)
fed into bioreactor or product removed continuously
2010 HL Q12
12 (b)
(i)
Monera or Prokaryotae
2010 HL Q15(c)
c
(ii)
15
2013 HL Q12
12 (b)
(i)
(ii)
3
Common cold is a viral disease / antibiotics do not affect viruses /
(overuse of antibiotics) may lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria
(in patients)
Any two
*Monera
1+2
3
Diagram: wall + membrane + capsule + plasmid shown
5, 3, 0
Labels:
(iii)
(iv)
(c)
(i)
(iii)
1.
Harsh conditions or example
2.
DNA replicates / thick wall (or described) / encloses /
shrinkage (or water loss) / of cytoplasm
2(3)
4(1)
3
2(3)
*Saprophytic
3
*Parasitic
3
Antibodies – proteins / produced by body / in response to antigen (or to
infection)
Antibiotics – produced by micro-organisms / kill (or destroy or stop
growth of) other micro-organisms / do not affect viruses
Antibiotic resistance strains / more pathogens / more people (or poor
hygiene) / patients weaker
4(3)
2(3)
2007 OL Q13
13.
(a) (i)
(ii)
(b) (i)
(ii)
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capsule or slime layer or mucilage
protection
3
3
flagellum or plasmid
3
autotrophic nutrition – makes own food
heterotrophic – uses food already made (made by other
organisms)
3
3
feed on dead matter
3
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Monera (bacteria)
(iii) decompose dead organisms or recycle nutrients
3
(iv) obtain energy (make food) from chemical reactions
3
(v)
host
(vi)
TB/ syphilis/ cholera/ tetanus/ sore throat/ names of
bacteria/ etc.
3
2(3)
2009 OL Q12
12
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
A = Cell Wall / Cell Membrane / Capsule
B = DNA / Chromosome / Genetic material
C = Flagella (allow tail)
Movement
Rod / Coccus / Spiral
Any two
(Binary) Fission / allow asexually
Do not use Oxygen
Disease causing
e.g. Causes crop diseases / causes human diseases /
biotechnology
3(1)
3
2(3)
3
3
3
2(3)
Any two
2010 OL Q13
13
a
(ii)
Autotrophic nutrition: Food synthesised from simple molecules or
produces own food
(Either point answered)
Heterotrohic nutrition: Already synthesised food consumed from
other organisms or food from other sources
2012 OL Q13
13
7 + 2(1)
(a)
(b)
(i)
EG. Identification
(1 pt)
(ii)
Monera
(1 pt)
(iii)
EG. Food Production
(1 pt)
(i)
D. 5,2,0 L.2(1)
Diagram to include:
Cell Memb/Cytoplasm + one other.
Labels: Any two valid labels
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Diagram:
All three = 5
One absent = 2
Two absent = 0
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Monera (bacteria)
ii-v
Pr
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2(6) + 4(2)
(ii)
Bacillus or rod shaped / Coccus or spherical (Round) /
Spirillum or spiral shaped
(2 pts)
(iii)
Binary Fission or asexual [Not Mitosis]
(1 pt)
(iv)
Disease-causing
(1 pt)
(v)
Temp / O2 (allow air)/ water/ food /pH / Waste
(2 pts)
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